Evolution - Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over

successive generations

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
 French naturalist
 Proposed that organisms evolve in response to their environment

Theory of Need
 Organisms change because they need to
 Different needs give rise to changed behaviors (Due to their different needs)
 The development of long necks in giraffes is an example of Lamarck’s theory of
evolution (They have longer necks so that they could reach foods from higher
places)

Theory of Acquired Characteristics

 An organism can develop acquired traits as adaptations and these traits could be
passed on to its offspring (Through Genes)
 Example: Crab exercises its claw to make it grow longer. Then passes on the
acquired trait to offspring

Theory of Use and Disuse

 An organism will develop a trait that is useful to it and will lose a trait that is
useless (Develops characteristic and loses one as well)

Objection to the theory of acquired characteristics

 A change of species’ features only happen when a change in DNA occurs

Charles Darwin
 English Naturalist
 Wrote the book “The Origin of Species by Natural Selection”
 Observed and collected many plants and animals in his voyage
 Saw organisms in Galapagos Islands

Tortoise in Galapagos Islands

 Darwin found out that the type of necks and shells the tortoises have, correspond
to their different habitats
Saddleback Tortoise Dome Shaped
long neck, curved shell, found on the hood shorter neck, domed shell, lush vegetation,
island, desert like covers the ground, Isabela Island
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

1. Variation of Organisms
- Slight difference in an inhabited trait of individual members of species
- Variations arise naturally in population
- Phenotypes can be passed on to generation
- Variation is result of sexual reproduction

2. Adaptation
- Is an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chance of surviving
and reproducing in its environment.
- Process of being suited to the environment
a. Structural Adaptation - Jackrabbit’s powerful hind legs help it to
run fast to escape predators
b. Behavioral Adaptation - The jackrabbit stays still during the hottest
part of the day, helping it conserve energy

3. Natural Selection
- The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment
tend to survive and produce more offspring
- Only organisms that can adapt to environmental conditions will survive

4. Survival of the Fittest

- Competitions exist among organisms and only those who fit will survive
- Failure to change results in Extinction

5. Speciation
- Process by which new species form
- When favorable traits are acquired, new species come to existence

Evidences of Evolution:

Fossil Evidence
- Fossilization is the process by which a planet or an animal becomes a fossil
- The remains of ancient life found in the oldest rocks are fewer and more primitive
than those found in younger rocks
- The remains of many ancient organisms show structural similarities to certain
organism that exist today
- Fossils found in younger rocks are not found in much older rocks
(Trace back the history of an organism)
Embryological Evidence
- The study of the development of embryos from fertilization to birth
- Embryos of different species have similarities
- Embryos have pouches at one stage
- Pharyngeal pouches develop into glands (for vertebrates)
- For fish, the pouches develop into gills
- One function of gills is to regulate calcium
- Similarities and functions of gills and glands suggest an evolutionary relationship
between these vertebrates
- Have similarities during development

Structural Evidence
- Homologous Structure - Body part of organisms that have similar structures,
but different functions
- Analogous Structures - Body parts of organisms that perform similar function,
but differ in structure
- Vestigial Structures - Body parts that have lost their original functions through
evolution

Biochemical
- The more closely related the species are, the more similar their genes are
- The fact that certain enzymes and chemical processes are found in the cells of
all or nearly all life on Earth.

Gene Pool
- The collection of different genes within an interbreeding population
- Allele Frequency refers to how frequently a particular allele appears in a
population
- Allele frequency is the measure of genetic variation
- Greater allele frequency = greater genetic variation
- Higher genetic variation = higher genetic diversity

Factors that lead to Evolution:

(Results in Speciation - The evolutionary process by which populations evolve to
become distinct species)

1. Gene Flow
- The transfer of alleles from the former population to another population
 - Certain organisms join a new population
- Their alleles become part of the population’s gene pool
- Ex. Brown beetles migrates to the place and merges with a population of green
beetles, therefore, creating a mix between brown and green beetles
- The disadvantages are passing on of genes with mutation, overpopulation,
decrease of population in a certain place because of migration
- The advantages of gene flow are the passing on of good genes like the passing
on of African American genes which is resistant to malaria
2. Genetic Drift
- It is the change in allele frequencies that are due to chance which causes a loss
of genetic diversity in a population
- Some alleles will decrease in frequency and become eliminated
 Bottleneck Effect - Extreme example of genetic drift that happens when the size
of a population is severely reduced
 Founder Effect - Occurs when a small group of individuals breaks off from a
larger population to establish a colony
3. Mutation
- New alleles can form through mutation that will create another genetic variation
needed for evolution
- Mutations can be passed to offspring
- Disadvantages can be the passing on of genes which carry diseases
4. Sexual Selection
- Unique traits of animals improve mating success for evolution
- Intersexual Selection
- Happens when males display unique traits that attract females
- Intrasexual Selection
- Happens when there is a competition among males

Biodiversity - The variety of plant and animal life in the world or a particular habitat

Why is biodiversity important?

 Provides us with food
- Humans are able to obtain a range of materials and food to support their well-
being and health because of the availability of different species
 Essential for human health
- Eighty percent (80%) of vaccines and drugs used in prevention and treatment
respectively are from the world’s biodiversity
 Provides industrial materials
- industrial raw materials are manufactured for humans
  Helps the economy
- At least 40% of the world’s economy and 80% of the needs of the poor are
derived from the biological resources
= personal care
= breeding stocks
= food and beverages
= recreation and tourism
= production of essentials
 Maintains the balance of ecosystem
- The ecological services include
= air purification
= stabilizing climate
= recycling nutrients and storage
= forming and protecting the soil
= speedy recovery from natural disasters
= replenishing and cleaning water systems
= absorbing chemicals and breaking down pollutants
- Water cycle and the nitrogen cycle are all determined by biodiversity
 Important for the adaptation of organisms
- The diversity in genetic makeup helps the plants and animals to adapt and
adjust to respective environmental changes

What causes loss of biodiversity?

1. Invasive Species
- Invasive species invade the ecosystem, destroying native species
- Human activities have been the major cause of encouraging invasive species
2. Climate Change
- Changes in climates and global temperatures directly impact physical
environmental factors essential for sustainable habitat
3. Pollution
- Various forms of pollution release toxic substances and chemicals
- It poses long-term impacts on the species’ health, contributing to their
eventual death
4. Overpopulation
- The rate of population growth is faster than the rate of renewing resources
5. Overexploitation of Resources
- Overfishing, overhunting, excessive logging, and illegal trade of wildlife
- Over 25% of global fisheries are being overfished at unsustainable levels
6. Habitat Destruction
- Major causes of biodiversity loss
 - Caused by deforestation, overpopulation, pollution, and global warming

Carrying Capacity

Limitations of Adaptation
- Adaptation is compromised because organisms must do many things
- A population’s ability can be limited by its reproductive capacity
- Species cannot successfully thrive when resources are limited

Biodiversity
- Refers to the variety of living organisms
- It plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food
production

Population
- In biology, population is the number of all organisms of the same species who
live in a particular geographical area and are capable of interbreeding

What can affect a population’s size?

- An environment can only support as many organisms as there is available food,
water, and free space
- Food, Water, Space determine carrying capacity

 We can read a carrying capacity graph to predict changes in population size