What is a fossil?

- Fossils are the remains or imprints left behind from plants and animals.

How do fossils form?

- In order for a fossil to form, an animal or plant must be trapped into a material. In many
instances, fossils are found in sediment.

What parts of an organism remains will form a fossil?

- The soft parts of an animal or plant decay more quickly than its hard parts, therefore teeth
and bones are more likely to be preserved than skin, tissues, and organs.

Types of fossils:

Mold fossils
- A mold is a type of fossil formed when a shell or other hard part of an organism dissolves
leaving an empty space or imprint of that organism.

Cast fossils
- When the space of the mold becomes filled in with minerals it will form a cast.

Petrified fossils
- Is a fossil formed when the minerals slowly replace all or part of an organism.

Relative dating
- It determines which of the two fossils is older.

Radioactive dating
- Scientists determine the actual age of a sample based in the amount of remaining
radioactive isotopes it contains
- Calculations are based on half-life – the time it takes for ½ of the radioactive sample to
decay

Half-life
- the time it takes for half of the atoms in a radioactive element to decay

Radioactive element
- An unstable element that breaks down into a different element. These elements are used
in nuclear fission to produce energy that we use in electricity.

Radioactive decay occurs at a constant exponential or geometric rate. The rate of decay is
proportional to the number of parent atoms present
 Ecological Way of Life

Frederick E. Clements
- -He was an American plant ecologist and pioneer of vegetation succession

Ecological
- -Relating to or concerned with the relation of living organisms to one another and their physical
surroundings.
- Ecology means the study of organisms and how they interact with the environment around
them.

Ecosystem

- It is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and
landscape, work together to form a bubble of life.

Succession

- The action or process of inheriting a title, office, property, etc.

- In Ecology, it is the act or process of replacement of an Ecosystem to an Ecosystem.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

- It is a natural and gradual process of change caused by a disturbance/s (a factor that can
interrupt a settled and peaceful ecosystem) in the composition and structure of an ecosystem
over time.

Climax Community

- It is a part of Ecological Succession, where biotic and abiotic factors are at their peak in terms of
population, health, and development.
- The "endpoint" of an ecosystem
TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Primary Succession

- Is a succession that occurs in a new patch of area, usually land, that is also newly created or
exposed. Ex. A glacier retreats and exposes a group of rocks

Secondary Succession

- Is a succession that occurs in an ecosystem that was in a "climax community" or even an

"intermediate community" impacted or destroyed by some disturbances.

STAGES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Pioneer Species/Stage

- Pioneer species, often characterized by high reproductive rates and adaptability to harsh
environmental conditions, initially colonize the barren habitat.

Intermediate Species/Stage

- They create favorable conditions for the establishment and growth of other species.

Climax Species/Community/Stage

- The climax stage represents the final and stable community in the succession process, where the
environmental conditions are optimal for a particular set of species.

Drivers of Ecological Succession

Biotic Factors

- Presence of competitors, herbivores, or mutualistic interactions, can influence the trajectory

and pace of succession by facilitating or inhibiting the establishment and growth of particular
species.

Abiotic Factors

- Including climate, topography, soil characteristics, and disturbances, have a significant impact on
the successional trajectory.

Ecological Implications

- Ecological succession plays a crucial role in shaping and maintaining biodiversity, nutrient
cycling, and ecosystem stability
Ecological implications refer to the effect that something has on living beings and their non-living
environment. Here are some effects of ecological problems:

Endangerment of species

Loss of livelihood for many people

Water pollution

Air pollution

Soil pollution

Natural Selection
- This theory states that “Those organisms best adapted to their environment have a better
chance of surviving and reproducing”.

FACTOR OF DARWINISM

RAPID MULTIPLICATION (OVER POPULATION)

- Organism reproduce more offspring that can survive.
There is a high death rate

LIMITED ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES (SPACE & FOOD)

- Increase of population in animal & plants requires more space and food but the universe
remains constant.
- Individuals compete for limited resources.
 Food
 Water
 Spaces
 Mate

STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE (COMPETITION)

- Competition among members of a species for food, living space and other necessities
of life

The Struggle for existence is 3 fold for every individual:

 Intraspecific struggle (within species)
 Interspecific struggle (different species)
  Environmental struggle (change in environmental factor such as heat, cold,
drought)

VARIATION AND ADAPTATION

- Understanding how individuals of the same species vary was key to Darwin developing
his theory.
- Because the environment changes, the more variation within a species, the more likely it
will survive

SURVIVAL OF FITTEST (NATURAL SELECTION)

- The individuals with the best traits/adaptations will survive and have the opportunity to
pass on it’s traits to offspring.

INHERITANCE OF THE USEFUL VARIATION

- The individual, selected by nature, pass on their useful variation to the next generation.
FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES
- In each generation, new favorable variations appear and supplement the favorable.

Genetic makeup of population

- refers to sum of all genetic information in a population.

Variation
- Differences in characteristics in population

•Genes specifies traits

• Alleles specifies gene form

Genetics Mutation
- Permanent alterations in dna sequence.

Types of Genetic Drift

 Bottleneck Effect
 Founder Effect
3 Distinct and Complementary Approaches in Population Genetics
 EMPIRICAL STUDIES
- Seek to document patterns of genetic variation in natural populations and to explain these
patterns in terms of the primary forces acting on population genetic variation and the
population biology of the species in question.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
- Seek to test the effects of inbreeding and crossbreeding, natural and artificial selection, and
random genetic drift owing to population bottlenecks or finite population size, or to estimate
the frequency and fitness effects of spontaneous mutations.
 THEORETICAL STUDIES
- continue to develop and elaborate the mathematical backbone of population genetics set down
in the seminal works of Sewall Wright, Sir Ronald Fisher, and J.B.S. Haldane published in the
early 1930s.

ANIMAL GENETICS
- is the study of genes. Genes impact the performances of an animal and are passed on from
parents to offspring.

Animal Breeding
 SELECTION - is the first of the two basic tools by animal breeders to make genetic
change.
 MATING - is the process that determines which males are bred to which females.

GENETIC DIVERSITY
- represents the presence of genetic differences between animals within species, both between
and within populations

Why is Genetic Diversity important?

- genetic diversity allows for flexibility in a population. If circumstances change, different
genotypes may be more suitable and selection pressure will change.
- Inbreeding (increase in homozygosity) causes inbreeding depression. Inbred animals tend to be
less healthy, live shorter, and have reduced reproductive capacity.

HOW DID HUMANS BECOME SUCH POWERFUL SPECIES

 INTELLIGENCE
- Humans possess a high level of intelligence compared to other species. This intellectual capacity
has allowed us to develop advanced problemsolving skills, create new technologies, and adapt to
various environments.
 TOOL USE AND INNOVATION
- One of the key distinguishing features of humans is their ability to create and use tools. This
ability to innovate and adapt has propelled humans forward as a species.
 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND COOPERATION
- Humans are social beings and have established complex social structures and systems of
cooperation.
 COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE
- Humans have developed sophisticated systems of communication, including the use of complex
languages
 ADAPTABILITY AND LEARNING
- Humans possess the ability to learn from their experiences and adapt to different environments
 REASONING AND PLANNING
- This cognitive capacity has enabled us to anticipate problems, make strategic decisions, and
create long-term goals, contributing to our ability to thrive as a species.