5/15/2021
Chapter 2
Basic Reviews of the Earth:
• The earth: it’s origine, age, components,
structure
• Introductions to history of the Earth,
Geological time scale, origine and evolution
of life
• Physical features of the earth surface:
continental and oceanic features, mountains,
plateau and shields
• Internal structure of the earth
• Plate tectonics and mountain building
process and formation of Himalayas
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 1
1
5/15/2021
The earth: it’s origine, age,
components, structure
Earth is the only planet we know of that can support life. This is an amazing
fact, considering that it is made out of the same matter as other planets in
our solar system, was formed at the same time and through the same
processes as every other planet, and gets its energy from the sun.
Origine of the earth:
Various theories have been proposed regarding the origine of the earth.
Nabular Hypothesis
• German philosopher, Kant and French mathematician, Laplace
• Earth, planets and sun originated from Nebula.
• Nebula was large cloud of gas and dust. It rotates slowly.
• Gradually it cooled and contracted and its speed increased.
• A gaseous ring was separated from nebula
• Later the ring cooled and took form of a planet
• On repetition of the process all other planets came into being
• The central region, nebula became sun.
Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist
2
5/15/2021
Planetesimal Hypothesis
Chamberlin and Moulton proposed the theory in
1904
The sun existed before the formation of planets
A star came close to the sun.
Because of the gravitation pull of the star, small
gaseous bodies were separated from the sun
These bodies on cooing became small planet's
During rotation the small planets collided and form
planets
3
5/15/2021
Gaseous Tidal Theory
Jeans and Jeffrey proposed the theory in 1925
Large star came near the sun. Due to gravitational
pull a gaseous tide was raised on the surface of the
sun.
As the star came nearer, the tide increased in size.
Gaseous tide detached when star move away.
The shape of the tide was like spindle.
It broke into pieces-forming nine planets of the solar
system
4
5/15/2021
Age of earth
The age of the earth as determined by the current method of radiometric
dating is about 4600million year. Before the discovery of radiometric
dating, several attempts were made to determine the age of the earth. The
important ones are as follows:
Evolutionary change of animals: from the study of fossils, biological have
estimated the age of earth to be about 1,000 million years.
Rate of sedimentation: the age of the earth was found to be 510 million
years.
Salinity of sea water: this method gave an age of about 120 million years.
Rate of cooling of earth: this method gave the age of earth to be about 20-
40million years
Radiometric dating: the age of earth was found to be 4600 million years by
this method
5
5/15/2021
Components of the earth
The Earth has five components:
The atmosphere
• The earth atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the earth
• It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases
The biosphere
• It is the layer of the planet earth where life exists.
The geosphere
• It include all minerals, rocks, molten rocks, sediments and soil and landform that
shape the earth’s surface.
The hydrosphere
• It includes the occurs, rivers, lakes, stream, groundwater and water vapor of the
earth
The crynosphere
• It includes the frozen part of the earth system like snow, glacers, sea ice etc.
6
5/15/2021
Introductions to history of the Earth, Geological
time scale, origine and evolution of life
The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological
dating that relates geological strata (stratigraphy) to time. It is
used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to
describe the timing and relationships of events that have
occurred during Earth's history. The table of geologic time
spans, presented here, agree with the nomenclature, dates and
standard color codes set forth by the International Commission
on Stratigraphy (ICS).
The primary defined divisions of time are eons, in sequence
the Hadean, the Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic.
The first three of these can be referred to collectively as
the Precambrian supereon. Eons are divided into eras, which
are in turn divided into periods, epochs and ages
7
5/15/2021
8
5/15/2021
Years
Event
ago
Anatomically modern humans evolve. Seventy thousand years later, their
130,000
descendents create cave paintings — early expressions of consciousness.
In Africa, an early hominid, affectionately named "Lucy" by scientists,
4 million
lives. The ice ages begin, and many large mammals go extinct.
A massive asteroid hits the Yucatan Peninsula, and ammonites and non-
65 million
avian dinosaurs go extinct. Birds and mammals are among the survivors.
As the continents drift toward their present positions, the earliest flowers
130 million evolve, and dinosaurs dominate the landscape. In the sea, bony fish
diversify.
225 million Dinosaurs and mammals evolve. Pangea has begun to break apart.
Over 90% of marine life and 70% of terrestrial life go extinct during the
248 million
Earth's largest mass extinction. Ammonites are among the survivors.
The supercontinent called Pangea forms. Conifer-like forests, reptiles, and
250 million
synapsids (the ancestors of mammals) are common.
Four-limbed vertebrates move onto the land as seed plants and large
360 million
forests appear. The Earth's oceans support vast reef systems.
Land plants evolve, drastically changing Earth's landscape and creating
420 million
new habitats.
Arthropods move onto the land. Their descendants evolve into scorpions,
450 million
spiders, mites, and millipedes.
Fish-like vertebrates evolve. Invertebrates, such as trilobites, crinoids,
500 million
brachiopids, and cephalopods, are common in the oceans.
Multi-cellular marine organisms are common. The diverse assortment of
555 million
life includes bizarre-looking animals like Wiwaxia.
Unicellular life evolves. Photosynthetic bacteria begin to release oxygen
3.5 billion
into the atmosphere.
3.8 billion Replicating molecules (the precursors of DNA) form.
4.6 billion The Earth forms and is bombarded by meteorites and comets.
9
5/15/2021
Internal Structure of Earth
10
5/15/2021
Crust
Ocean Land
• Thinnest layer of the Earth that ranges from only 5-6 km in oceans, 30-35 km in
continents and 60-70 km in mountains
• Made up of large amounts of silicon and aluminum
• Two types of crust: oceanic crust and continental crust
• Composed of plates on which the continents and oceans rest
• Crust divided into upper sail and lower sima.
• Sial is also known as upper continental crust and its thickness is 11 km, composed of
all types of rocks. The Cordinal Discontinuity which separates the sial from sima.
• Sima is also called lower continental crust and its thickness is about 22 km, it extends
the Cardinal Discontinuity upto the Mohorovic Discontinuity.
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 5
11
5/15/2021
Upper Mantle
Mantle Convection
Currents
Middle
Mantle
Lower Mantle
• Solid but capable of flow (like hot asphalt or
fudge)
• Thickest layer of the Earth (making up 70% of
the Earth’s mass)
• The hot material (magma) in the mantle rises
to the top of the mantle, cools, then sinks,
reheats, and rises again. These convection
currents cause changes in the Earth’s surface
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 6
12
5/15/2021
Outer
Core
Inner
Core
Core
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 7
13
5/15/2021
Outer
Core
• Molten (liquid) metal that is about 4,700°C
(8,500°F)
• Located about 2900- 5150 km beneath the
surface of earth. Composed of the melted
metals nickel and iron
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 8
14
5/15/2021
Inner
Core
• Solid sphere composed mostly of iron
• It is believed to be as hot as 6,650°C (12,000°F)
• Heat in the core is probably generated by the radioactive
decay of uranium and other elements
• It is solid because of the pressure from the outer core,
mantle, and crust compressing it tremendously
• It located 5150-6371 km beneath surface of earth
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 9
15
5/15/2021
B. Internal structures based on differing physical properties.
Based on the change in physical properties, the earth’s internal structure can also
be differentiated into three; Lithosphere, Asthenosphere and Mesosphere.
Lithosphere
It is about 100 km thick (up to 200 km thick beneath continents) and consists of
very brittle, easily fractures at low temperature. It can be noted that lithosphere is
composed of both crust and part of the upper mantle. The plate tectonics are
made of lithosphere, and appears to float on the underlying asthenosphere.
Asthenosphere
It is about 250 km thick and consist of solid rock, but they are soft and flow easily
(ductile). The top of the asthenosphere is called the Low Velocity Zone (LVZ)
because the velocity of both P- and S- waves are lower than in the lithosphere
above. But, note that neither P- wave nor- S- wave velocities go to zero, so the LVZ
is not completely liquid.
Mesosphere
It is about 2500 km thick and consist of solid rock, but still capable of flowing.
Core
Already described.
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 10
16
5/15/2021
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 11
17
5/15/2021
Plate tectonics
A plate is a large, rigid slab of rock which moves slowly over the asthenosphere
and they are of continental dimension. Plate tectonics is a unifying model that
attempts to explain the origin of patterns of deformation in the crust,
earthquake distribution, continental drift, and mid-oceanic ridges, as well as
providing a mechanism for the earth to cool.
The major plates of world are
i. The pacific plate
ii. The American plate (North and South)
iii. The African plate
iv. The Eurasian plate
v. The Indo-Australian plate
vi. The Antarctic plate.
vii. Philippine Plate
viii. Caribbean Plate
Ix. Nazca Plate
x. Cocos Plate
xi. Arabian Plate
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 12
18
5/15/2021
Fig. Motion of plate
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 13
19
5/15/2021
DRIFT OF CONTINENTS
200 millions years ago, continents were joined
forming one continent, known as: Pangaea.
This continent fragmented in continental plates
that, very slow, were moved from the movements
of the mantle
20
5/15/2021
Deepak Gautam, Engineering
11-20-2018 15
Geologist
21
5/15/2021
Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist
11-20-2018 20
22
5/15/2021
Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist
11-20-2018 22
23
5/15/2021
Continental Drift
(Alfred Wegner, 1910)
• Continental drift hypothesis suggested that the continents have not always been in
their present locations but instead have "drifted" and changed positions.
• Wegener's idea was that the continents had once been joined together in a single
"supercontinent," which he called Pangaea (pronounced "pan-JEE-ah"), from Greek
words meaning "all lands."
• He suggested that Pangaea had split into fragments like pieces of ice floating on a pond
and that the continental fragments had slowly drifted to their present locations.
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 24
24
5/15/2021
Sea floor Spreading (Harry Hess, 1962
Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist
25
5/15/2021
Plate Boundaries
The plate boundaries are the sites of intense geological activities
which are mainly due to the movement of plates. As the
lithosphere plates move by diverging (spreading ) or converging
(colliding each other) along their boundaries, tremendous energies
are unleased resulting in tremors that transform earth’s surface.
There are three types of plate boundaries
i. Constructive (Diverging) boundaries
ii. Destructive (Converging) boundaries
iii. Conservative boundaries.
Evidences of Plate Plate tectonics:
Same types of fossils were found on the both coast, south Africa and Brazil.
Rocks of both coasts were very similar, both in age and in structures.
Coal has been found in Antarctica and Britain in present day.
Matching plate boundaries with each other, Africa and South America.
26
5/15/2021
i. Constructive plate boundaries
These are also called diverging plate boundaries. This is the zone along which two plates are
in motion away from each other forming a fissure allowing hot molten rock materials to well
up from the mantle to form new plate materials after longer time. Since new crust is created
by the upwelling of materials from the mantle, this types of plate boundary is known as a
constructive or diverging plate boundaries. Divergence may take place in the middle of ocean
or continent. Oceanic divergence is marked by mid-oceanic ridge (there are comparatively
narrow zone generally at the medial position of the ocean basin which are elongated fairly
continuous and remain submerge beneath the ocean water, called mid-oceanic ridge).
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 28
27
5/15/2021
ii. Destructive plate boundaries
These are also called converging plate boundaries. These are the zones along which two
plates are in motion towards each other. In such boundaries, crust is destroyed and recycled
back into the interior of the earth as one plate dives under another. These are known as
seduction zone and mountains and volcanoes are often associated with convergent plate
boundaries. There are three types of convergent processes.
a. ocean-ocean convergence
b. Ocean-continental convergence
c. Continental- continental convergence
11-20-2018 Fig. Continental-continental convergence 29
Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist
28
5/15/2021
a. ocean-ocean convergence
There is sebduction of one plate downward beneath the other and formation of ocean
trenches start. At depth of 150-200 km melting of the descending plate take place due to
frictional heat between the plate. Finally formed the island arc over million years erupted
lava and volcanic pile up on the ocean floor.
b. Ocean-continental convergence
When an oceanic plate pushes into and subducts under a continental plate, the
overriding continental plate is lifted up and a mountain range is created. Even though the
oceanic plate as a whole sinks smoothly and continuously into the subduction trench, the
deepest part of the subduction plate breaks into smaller pieces. The smaller pieces
become locked in plate for long period of times moving suddenly and generating large
earthquake.
c. Continental-continental convergence
It is also called continental collision where two continents convergence. When two
continents collide, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are relatively light
and, resist downward motion. Instead, the crust buckle and be pushed upward or
sideways. For example the collision of Indian plate into Asian 50 million years ago caused
the Eurasian plate to crumble up and override the Indian plate. After the collision, the
slow continuous convergence of two plate over million of years pushed up the Himalayas
and the Tibetan Plateau to their present elevation. Most of this growth occurred during
the past 10 million years.
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 30
29
5/15/2021
iii. Conservative boundaries
These are the boundaries where two plates slide one another. These boundaries are
also called transform boundaries or shear Margins. Here, there is neither gain nor
lose of surface areas. These are represented by a single fault or a group of parallel
faults. The faults are transcurrent or transform type. They commonly offset active
spreading ridges, producing zig-zag plate margins, and are defined by sallow
earthquakes. For example, the San Andreas fault in California.
Fig. Conservative boundary
11-20-2018 Deepak Gautam, Engineering Geologist 31
30
5/15/2021
Assignment -2
How is Himalayan formed? Describe internal structure of the earth with suitable
diagram.
Define plate tectonics. Mention the three evidence of plate tectonics. And also
mention different types of plate boundaries with neat diagram.
31
