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Algae Control
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Algae Control
Terminal Objective
Upon successful completion of the course, the operator will be able to describe methods to control algae in source water.

Enabling Objectives
1. Describe the effects of algae on daily lives. 2. List the four identification categories of algae. 3. Discuss how structure relates to different algae. 4. Describe indicators for water quality. 5. List common algae problems found in raw water. 6. Identify algae problems that may exist in treated water. 7. Identify methods for chemical control of algae.

I.

Course Description

Algae are simple organisms, but they maintain the ecological balance in lakes, reservoirs, and streams. During photosynthesis, they produce oxygen, which aids water treatment. However, on still summer days, filamentous green algae produce scum that can cover a lake. During the night, photosynthesis ceases and portions of the lower layer of algae sink to the bottom. This cycle continues for days, producing large amounts of dead cells on the bottom. Algal cell decay is the source of the taste and odor problems. This course will investigate different types of algae and their affect on water treatment processes and water quality. In addition, methods to control algae in surface water will be discussed.

Water treatment plant operators acknowledge the problems associated with tastes and odors caused by algae. They can clog sand filters as well. However, algae are important in water supplies because they have the capacity for modifying the pH, alkalinity, color, turbidity, and radioactivity of the water. Some types are the most troublesome of the nuisance organisms, but others can actually be put to good use in improving a water supply. Beneficial and Detrimental One of the principal reasons for the importance of algae is their ability to give rise to very large quantities of organic matter in the water. For example, it has been estimated that more than 130 tons of algae per day flow into Fox River in Wisconsin from Lake Winnebago. Yet, such large quantities of algae material have the potential to cause serious difficulties in water treatment plants. Unattached, visible, and sometimes extensive accumulations of algae at or near the surface of the water are called blooms, mats, or blankets. These massive growths are troublesome because they clog screens, produce slime, and are a source of taste and odor in water supplies. Algae blooms and surface mats also cause fish deaths and complaints from recreational users. The algae that collect and grow on the surface of a slow sand filter as a slimy film may be responsible for gradually reducing the flow of water through the filter, but they also perform a useful service by adding oxygen to the water, which aids in bacterial decomposition. This slimy mass is called the filter skin.

II. Everyday Effects of Algae

Algae are common and normal inhabitants of surface waters; they are encountered in every water supply that is exposed to sunlight. While a few of the algae are found in soil and on surfaces exposed to air, the great majority are truly aquatic and grow in the waters of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, streams, and oceans. Importance Algae are important because they provide much of the oxygen supply that humans need to survive. Algae also play a role in the food chain. They are used as food by small animals such as tiny shrimp, which are then consumed by larger animals and fish, and so forth up the chain. Even though they are important in many respects, when algae appear in water that is used for potable drinking water, they can cause problems within the water treatment process.
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Photosynthesis Algae differ from other microorganisms in possessing an internal green pigment called chlorophyll, which is sometimes hidden or masked by other pigments. Some algae, containing chlorophyll, are able to swim or crawl with the use of whip-like structures (flagella); however, most are not capable of self-locomotion. In a process known as photosynthesis, chlorophyll enables algae to combine water and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight to form starch or related substances, and to release oxygen into the water. The process of photosynthesis is absent in most bacteria, fungi, yeasts, protozoa, and microscopic animals. In general, it is not characteristic of animals, but it is common in all types of green plants. In the process of photosynthesis, algae: Make important chemical changes in the water possible. Release oxygen, which is used by other organisms and helps prevent foul or septic conditions. Remove carbon dioxide, thus reducing water hardness by as much as one-third. Raise pH during the daytime and lower it at night. Increase the corrosive action of water. Serve as food for other organisms. Can be toxic to animals and humans.

Flagellates The category of pigmented flagellates contains all of the swimming algae, which have flagella (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Flagellate algae

IV. Cell Structure

The cells of algae may be isolated units, with each unicell behaving as an independent organism. In many other algae, the cells are grouped together into various shapes of colonies. The colonies may have a definite, distinct shape or they may be of a more irregular form. Colonies, in the form of threads or filaments, are very common and may be branched or unbranched. In a few cases, the algae may be in the form of a continuous, sometimes branching tube with no cell walls to divide the material. In summary, the gross structural forms encountered among the algae include the unicell, colony, filament, tube, strand, and membrane. Main Parts The three main parts of many algal cells are the protoplast (cytoplasm), the cell wall, and the outer matrix (Figure 4). Within the cell, one or more separate bodies of green, yellow-green, brown, or some other color may be present. These are known as plastids or chloroplasts. In the blue-green algae, the pigments are not localized in plastids, but rather are distributed throughout the whole protoplast. Some cells may contain other bodies, such as nuclei, crystals, starch grains, and oil droplets. The nucleus is present in all algae except the blue-green algae, but it is colorless and difficult to observe.

III. Identification of Algae

In water supplies and cases of water pollution, algae are best identified by categorizing them as blue-green algae, green algae, diatoms, or flagellates. Blue-Green Algae The blue-green algae are blue-green in color as the name implies. They are surrounded by a slimy coating, and their external features and internal structure are relatively simple (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Blue-green algae

Green Algae The green algae are commonly grass-green to yellow-green, and the pigment is located in plastids. Diatoms Diatoms have a rigid wall, with regularly arranged markings (Figure 2). Their plastids are brown to greenish.
Figure 4: Diagram of a simple cell and a true cell

Cells walls are thin, rigid, and completely surround the protoplast. Some of the swimming algae do not have a rigid
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cell wall, thus they are changeable in form. In green algae, the cell wall is semi-rigid and composed of cellulose. In diatoms, the wall is very rigid and composed of silica. When present, the outer matrix is flexible, colorless, and gelatin-like. Specialized Parts Single Cell Single cell algae may have some of the following characteristics: Gelatin-like stalks, used to attach the cell to an object (Figure 5) Knobs or spines Flagella, one or more whip-like hairs, on swimming cells Diatoms have two approximately equal halves, one fitting over the other like a cover.

Table 1: Saprobity Index

Zone
Oligosaprobic (clean) Beta-mesosaprobic (moderate pollution) Alpha-mesosaprobic (heavy pollution) Polysaprobic (septic)

Saprobity Index
1.01.5 1.52.5 2.53.5 3.54.0

Algal Genus Pollution Index Another pollution index has been developed called the Algal Genus Pollution Index. In making an analysis of a sample, all of the 20 algae that are observed are recorded (providing five or more individuals per slide are present). The index factors of the algae present are then totaled. A score of 20 or more is taken as evidence that high organic pollution exists, while a score of 15 to 19 represents probability. Lower figures indicate that the organic pollution of the sample is not high, that the sample is not representative, or that some substance or factor is interfering with algal growth. In some cases, particular groups of algae have been used to indicate the quality or type of water. Lakes have been characterized in terms of their dominant algae groups. Many blue-green algae occur in nutrient-poor waters, while others are tolerant of high organic pollution. A diatometer has been developed and used to sample diatoms in a surface water supply. By using means of this procedure, it is possible to spot the badly polluted areas in a body of water. And, a red-colored blue-green algae, which develops suddenly and discolors the water, is considered the first acute indication that a lake is undergoing a distinctly unfavorable development. Odor and Taste Caused by Algae One of the requirements in the production of potable water for communities is that the product be free of obnoxious tastes and odors. If such problems exist, they are generally due to the algae present in the raw water supply. A few algae are known to produce specific distinctive tastes and odors, while a large number of others are associated with tastes and odors that vary in type according to local conditions. Certain diatoms, blue-green algae, and pigmented flagellates are the principal offenders, but green algae may also be involved. Typical Odors Some algae produce an aromatic odor resembling that given off by a particular flower or vegetable, such as geranium, violet, muskmelon, and cucumber. Sometimes these aromatic odors are attractive. Other times, they are not. These same algae can produce a fishy odor when they are present in large numbers in the water. Other terms describing these odors are clam-shell, cod liver oil, sea weed, and salt marsh. Some pigmented flagellates and diatoms also produce unattractive odors, such as skunk or garlic, when they are present in small numbers in the water. A grassy odor is the most common one produced by green algae and, in general, is only noticeable when the organisms are present in large numbers. Certain types of
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Figure 5: An algae with stalks

Multiple Cell The shape of the end of a filament is an important diagnostic characteristic. The end cells may be like other cells or they may decrease to a point or even a long spine or hair. Some of the filaments of blue-green algae have end cells, which are swollen or covered with a thick, cap-like membrane. One special cell, the heterocyst, is swollen, with a clear, colorless protoplast and a thick wall. Where the heterocyst is connected to adjacent cells, there is a knob-like thickening.

V. Water Quality Indicators

Changes in water quality influence changes in the microorganisms that live in the water. Therefore, microorganisms can be used to judge the levels of water quality. The Saprobity Index and the Algal Genus Pollution Index are two systems used to measure the quality of water. In addition, taste and odor are indicators that water quality may be poor. Saprobity Index The Saprobity Index (Table 1) is a system developed to measure the relative degree of pollution of a given water sample. Organisms found in a sample belong to one of four water quality zones.
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other algae also cause this odor. Another common type of odor is one described as being musty or earthy, and is associated with the presence of certain blue-green algae and a few others such as the diatom, Synedra. Odors that are described as potato-bin, moldy, swampy, and woody are probably variations of this musty or earthy odor. A septic odor has been associated with the presence of large accumulations of blue-green algae and is produced when large masses of algae decompose. Other names applied to this odor are pig-pen, foul, and fermentation. Medicinal odors may be produced by the action of chlorine on the products of certain algae. Measurement of Odors The threshold odor test is commonly employed to measure odors in water. Odors may range from 1 to 90 mg/L maximum contaminant level (MCL) or more. Algae odors are objectionable even when the MCL number is relatively low; however, for satisfactory treatment, the MCL usually has to be reduced to five or less to meet state secondary standards. In some water plants, treatment is instituted as soon as any taste or odor-producing algae (that can cause taste and odor problems) increase to a predetermined number of Algal Areal Standard Units (ASU) per milliliter. The number varies according to the particular kind of algae involved, as in Table 2.
Table 2: Taste or Odor-Producing Algae Levels

algae which are always present will be well represented in the filter and are frequently the primary cause for clogging the filter. In most places, the algae and other materials are sufficiently numerous to require that the water be treated by coagulation and sedimentation prior to the filtration. Efficient coagulation and sedimentation can remove up to 90%95% of the algae from the water, but those algae that remain may still cause gradual clogging. The clogged filter must then be taken out of service and cleaned or backwashed. Thus, the presence of algae can slow the process of water treatment and substantially add to the cost. Both the slow and rapid sand filters may become clogged with algae, but in the former the algae and other microorganisms may play a useful part in the treatment process. They form a loose, slimy layer over the surface of the sand, and act as a filter. The algae in this layer release oxygen, which is used by bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. This permits decomposition of organic material that was present in the raw water. On the other hand, diatoms, which have rigid walls, may do more harm than good because they speed up the clogging process. Slime Slime formation can be caused by various kinds of algae, bacteria, and other organisms. Algae slime commonly comes from the gelatin-like sheath which envelops the cell. The blue-green algae are notorious slime producers. Slime-producing algae are important in: open reservoirs and holding basins of re-circulating systems; water supplies for pulp mills and food industries by causing slime spots in the products; and industrial cooling systems, where slime may form on condenser tubes. Coloration Algae coloration of finished water is most frequent in communities that have uncovered storage reservoirs or where treatment of raw water is not efficient. The water, itself, may be colored or the water may leave a colored ring on utensils or fixtures. Corrosion Corrosion of concrete and metals in pipes and boilers is a continual problem. Algae sometimes contribute to corrosion either directly in localized places where they may be growing, or through their modification of the water by physical or chemical changes. Green and blue-green algae have caused concrete to become pitted and have been reported to cause corrosion in metal tanks, open to sunlight. Indirectly, algae may affect the rate of corrosion by: increasing organic deposits in the pipe; increasing the dissolved oxygen in the water; increasing turbidity; changing the pH; changing the carbon dioxide content; or
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Algae
Asterionella, Synedra Tabellaria Aphanizomenon Anabaena Dinobryon Cryptomonas Chlamydomonas

Units per mL
3,000 2,500 1,000 600 500 200 10

Taste Tastes produced by algae are seldom separated from and are often confused with odor. Sweet and bitter are the adjectives generally recorded, and it is quite possible that a sour taste may be present whenever the odor is acidic or septic. The tongue can also detect a sensation that might be listed as feel or touch. Included here would be a slick or oily feel, as well as a metallic, dry, or astringent sensation. The word flavor could be used as an inclusive term embracing taste, odor, and touch or feel.

VI. Other Algae Problems

Filter Clogging As water passes through a sand filter in a treatment plant, the spaces between the grains of sand become filled with particles, which had been dispersed in the water. If the raw water comes from a surface supply, such as a reservoir, lake, or stream, the
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changing the calcium carbonate content.

may receive potentially harmful radioactive materials.

VII. Algae in Waters Treated

The persistence of algae in treated waters tends to become more pronounced as additional surface water supplies are tapped, but less evident as effective measures for reducing their numbers are practiced. The only algae found in a distribution system would be the following: Those not removed in the treatment process Those few that can grow in the dark Those that develop in treated water, held in open storage Interference, by algae, with the chemical treatment of water can be due to one or both of the following causes: Changes they cause in pH, alkalinity, or total hardness Increase in the organic content of the water It may be necessary to vary the dosage of chlorine in direct proportion to the quantity of algae present in order to obtain a constant amount of residual chlorine in the water. Toxicity of Algae Illness in humans and animals has been attributed to both marine and freshwater algae, including: A toxic agent produced by marine algae can cause serious illness in humans who eat clams that have fed on it. Many fish and other marine animals are often killed during the time of the red tide, caused by the red tide algae. Some algae cause fish, which had fed on them, to be poisonous. Contact types of dermatitis and symptoms of hay fever have been reported to be caused by exposure to bluegreen algae. Unexplained outbreaks of gastroenteritis involving thousands of people have been reported in areas where extensive algal blooms were present in the water supply. There are many reports of acute and fatal poisoning of livestock that had been drinking from ponds containing dense algal blooms. Fish kills in freshwater lakes and ponds have also been blamed on heavy concentrations of algae. Parasitic Algae Algae are known to live on or in the tissues of some fish, in the bodies of many lower animals and plants such as tea and coffee. Some algae are also parasitic on other algae. Radioactivity in Algae Algae consume and store many dissolved minerals, both stable and radioactive. While radioactivity may be relatively harmless to algae, it can be dangerous to the organisms that feed on it. Radioactive materials may thus be incorporated into fish, crop soils, and drinking water supplies. From all three of these sources, humans
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VIII. Algae Control

Several methods of chemical control have been tried and evaluated for algae control in large bodies of water. The two most effective for drinking water supplies are copper sulfate and Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC). It is best to exercise caution to avoid chemical spills, overdosing, and application in a flowing body of water or recreational area. Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate The five criteria that affect the use of copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4 5H2O) are as follows: Alkalinity Suspended matter Temperature Amount of algae present Type of algae Alkalinity, the principal factor, reduces reactivity. Carbonates and bicarbonates react with copper sulfate to form insoluble compounds that precipitate, reducing algae control. If methyl orange alkalinity is less than 50 mg/L, copper sulfate is effective at 0.9 pounds per acre-foot. If the alkalinity is greater than 50 mg/L, the rate should be 5.4 pounds per acre-foot. When the alkalinity exceeds 150 mg/L, copper sulfate alone is ineffective. A pH of 8 to 9 is best for copper sulfate reactivity. If alkalinity is greater than 150 mg/L, one pound of citric acid for two pounds of copper sulfate aids reactivity. Citric acid helps keep pH low, reacts with some of the carbonate and bicarbonate ions, and prevents copper precipitation at high pH. Standard doses of copper sulfate are less effective in water temperature of 50F or less; therefore, higher doses are needed for algae control. However, major blooms do not occur below 50F, and smaller doses are sufficient to prevent blooms. Above 50F, copper sulfate reactivity is greater, and dosage can be reduced. Inorganic and organic suspended matter adsorbs copper sulfate, reducing the effect. The adsorbed copper is quickly rendered inactive, reducing the amount available to kill algae. The amount and species of algae affect copper sulfate dosage. The suggested dose is 0.1 mg/L to 0.5 mg/L, but several types of green planktonic algae, some green flagellates, and filamentous blue/green algae are resistant to copper sulfate. Certain algae species are killed with a low dose of 0.07 mg/L. Precisely calculate the water volume prior to applying algaecide. Note: The main consideration when using copper sulfate is to avoid a fish kill. Application Methods There are three methods that can be used to apply copper sulfate pentahydrate.

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The most efficient and safe method of application is mixing the copper sulfate crystals in a tank, mounted to a boat, and spraying the solution through nozzles. Determine the treatment area by spraying water and measuring the application width across the boat wake. Another application method is to simply put chunk crystal copper sulfate in a nylon mesh bag and zigzag it behind the boat until dissolved. Propeller turbulence, wind action, diffusion, and boat speed disperse the dosage over wide wake patterns. The last method of application is to broadcast dry copper sulfate crystals, sand grain-size, with an agricultural feeder mounted to the boat. Determine feed rate and spread width by using sand as test crystals. Compare the sand amount versus the crystal weight to determine the spread area for each sack in the hopper. After treatment, there should be a color change in the algae from dark green, prior to treatment, to milky gray. Record all observations on the application day and for a few days thereafter. If wind action, currents, and boat wake disturbance are minor, not more than three applications per year should be needed. If periodic algal counts increase, treat again. Determining Amount of Copper Sulfate Determine water volume, cell count, algae type, and alkalinity. If alkalinity is 50 mg/L or less, use 0.9 pounds of copper sulfate per acre-foot. If alkalinity is greater, use 5.4 pounds per acre-foot. Formula: MG to treat 8.34 lb/gal Dosage mg/L = Pounds of Copper Sulfate Powdered Activated Carbon Powdered activated carbon (PAC) controls algae in small reservoirs, but cost and application difficulties prevent its use in large reservoirs. PAC forms a blanket over the water, preventing light penetration vital for algae growth. Upon settling, its adsorbing nature takes algae cells to the bottom, where they die and decay. PAC is more effective for taste and odor control in the treatment plant than on source water. Note: Do not apply PAC on windy days. Body protection and respiratory equipment are necessary. PAC may be applied utilizing one of the following methods: PAC can be mixed with water and sprayed from the wake of a slow-moving boat. For constant interval application, this method is sufficient, but is not recommended for long interval application because of water surface disturbance. PAC can be broadcasted by hand on a calm day. Potassium Permanganate Potassium permanganate (KMnO4), as an algaecide, is limited to small reservoirs or areas near intakes. Note: Protect yourself from this oxidizer with rubber gloves, apron, boots, and a full face shield.

Algae contain chlorophyll, the green substance required for photosynthesis. Chlorophyll must have iron to form. The permanganate precipitates iron, preventing chlorophyll formation, and retarding algae growth. The dosage is 0.6 mg/L of permanganate to oxidize 1 mg/L of ferrous iron. The copper sulfate formula determines the permanganate dosage. Potassium permanganate may be applied utilizing one of the following methods: Spray a solution of known strength of over a boats wake with large droplet (not misting) nozzles. Spread fine crystal permanganate with an agricultural spreader that has corrosion-resistant blades. Use two or three fine mesh nylon bags, one inside the other. This method, if not used for very small applications or from a fast boat, destroys the bags rapidly. Do not use burlap bags. Granular Chlorine Chlorine destroys algal cell walls. Use calcium hypochlorite (65%) in very small reservoirs. Note: Apply on calm days using body and respiratory protection. To avoid a fish kill from high dosage, apply only in a boat wake. To apply calcium hypochlorite, broadcast by hand or agricultural spreader behind a slow-moving boat. Commercial Algaecides Commercial algaecides, herbicides, and pesticides control aquatic plants and animals in ornamental ponds and swimming pools. However, when treating drinking water, use only National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) approved products. In Texas, the use of pesticides and herbicides on governmental property must be supervised by a licensed applicator. This applies to over-the-counter chemicals as well as controlled chemicals. Contact the local Department of Agriculture for more information. Before utilizing any of these methods on the lake, reservoir, river, or other body of water, the water utility must have legal control over the body of water or written permission from the controlling authority, such as a river authority or the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.

IX. Summary
Algae significantly impact all water supplies in positive and negative ways. There are four categories of algae, each with its own structure and impact on the environment. How water should be treated depends on the type of algae and its concentration in the water. The ability to accurately identify algae and diagnose problems helps to minimize the effects of the algae on the water and decrease any chance of future complications.

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Online Completion

Use this page to review the questions and choose your answers. Return to www.waterworldce.com and sign in. If you have not previously purchased the program select it from the Online Courses listing and complete the online purchase. Once purchased the exam will be added to your Archives page where a Take Exam link will be provided. Click on the Take Exam link, complete all the program questions and submit your answers. An immediate grade report will be provided and upon receiving a passing grade (70%) your Verification Form will be provided immediately for viewing and/or printing. Verification Forms can be viewed and/or printed anytime in the future by returning to the site, sign in and return to your Archives Page.

Questions
1. Algae can be found in _______.
A. B. C. D. water soil areas exposed to air all of the above

9. An algae that is surrounded by a slimy coating, with simple internal and external features, is called a _______.
A. B. C. D. blue-green algae green algae diatom flagellate

17. Algae found in a ________ would be those not removed in the treatment process, those few can grow in the dark, or those that develop in treated water, held in open storage.
A. B. C. D. reservoir clarifier distribution system brine wet well

2. One of the principal reasons for the importance of algae is their ability to give rise to very large quantities of ________ in the water.
A. B. C D. chlorine organic matter salt all of the above

10. Algae that can swim are called ________.

A. B. C. D. blue-green algae green algae diatom flagellate

18. A ________ agent, produced by marine algae, can cause serious illness in humans who eat clams that have fed on it.
A. B. C. D. scented toxic septic parasitic

3. The algae that collect and grow on the surface of a slow sand filter perform a useful service by adding ________ to the water, which aids in bacterial decomposition.
A. B. C. D. oxygen organic matter salt all of the above

11. Within the cell, one or more separate bodies of green, yellow-green, brown, or some other color may be present. These structures are called ________.
A. B. C. D. protoplasm chloroplasts nuclei cell walls

19. Algae that live on or in the tissues of some fish, in the bodies of many lower animals and plants such as tea and coffee, are ________.
A. B. C. D. scented toxic septic parasitic

4. Algae differ from other microorganisms in that they contain _______.

A. B. C. D. a nucleus cell wall chlorophyll cytoplasm

12. The nucleus is present in all algae except the ________.

A. B. C. D. blue-green algae green algae diatom flagellate

20. Alkalinity, suspended matter, temperature, amount of algae present, and type of algae should be considered before using ________ for algae control.
A. B. C. D. copper sulfate pentahydrate powdered activated carbon potassium permanganate granular chlorine

5. In a process known as photosynthesis, chlorophyll enables algae to combine water and _______, in the presence of sunlight, to form starch or related substances and to release oxygen into the water.
A. B. C. D. carbon monoxide carbon dioxide carbon sulfide carbon chloride

13. The Saprobity Index and the Algal Genus Pollution Index are two systems used to measure the ________ of water.
A. B. C. D. quantity quality depth clarity

21. This substance precipitates iron, preventing chlorophyll formation and retarding algae growth: ________.
A. B. C. D. copper sulfate pentahydrate powdered activated carbon potassium permanganate granular chlorine

14. Odors caused by algae are often described as ________.

A. B. C. D. fishy grassy musty all of the above

6. Algae release oxygen, which is used by other organisms and helps prevent ________ conditions.
A. B. C. D. aerobic saturated septic algae bloom

15. Efficient coagulation and sedimentation can remove up to ________ of the algae from the water.
A. B. C. D. 50%65% 65%80% 80%90% 90%95%

22. ________ forms a blanket over the water, preventing light penetration that is vital for algae growth.
A. B. C. D. copper sulfate pentahydrate powdered activated carbon potassium permanganate granular chlorine

7. Algae can produce taste and odors, clog sand filters, and cause changes to ________ in the water.
A. B. C. D. alkalinity turbidity radioactivity all of the above

23. ________ destroys algal cell walls.

A. B. C. D. copper sulfate pentahydrate powdered activated carbon potassium permanganate granular chlorine

16. The ________ are notorious slime producers.

A. B. C. D. blue-green algae green algae diatom flagellate

8. An algae with a rigid wall and regularly arranged markings is called a ________.
A. B. C. D. blue-green algae green algae diatom flagellate

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Algae Control
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WaterWorld is partnering with the Texas Engineering Extension Service (TEEX) to provide online training material for operators. The Water and Wastewater Training Program at TEEX is the one of the largest water and wastewater operator training organizations in the United States. TEEX provides training to thousands of operators every year. TEEXs mission is to provide continuing education in engineering and engineering-related applied sciences. TEEX is a member of The Texas A&M University System, one of the largest systems of higher education in the United States. Through a statewide network of 11 university campuses, seven state agencies and a comprehensive health science center, the A&M System educates more than 120,000 students, conducts more than $730 million in research and reaches another 22 million people through service and outreach programs each year. teex.org/www itsi@teexmail.tamu.edu 800-SAFE-811 (800-723-3811)

2011. Texas Engineering Extension Service. All Rights Reserved.