Chemistry
1. Definitions
Element: A substance made up of only one type of atom, each with the
same number of protons. Cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
Compound: A material formed by chemically bonding two or more
chemical elements.
Mixture: Contains two or more substances that are not chemically
combined.
2. Physical vs Chemical Changes
Nature of Change
o Chemical Change: Alters the chemical composition of a substance,
resulting in new substances.
o Physical Change: Alters the form or appearance of a substance
without changing its chemical composition.
Molecular Level
o Chemical Change: Involves breaking and forming chemical bonds,
leading to a change in the substance's molecular structure.
o Physical Change: Involves changes in physical state or
appearance without altering the molecular structure.
Examples
o Chemical Change: Combustion (e.g., burning wood), oxidation
(e.g., rusting iron).
o Physical Change: Melting ice, dissolving salt in water.
Indicators
o Chemical Change: New substances with different properties,
colour changes, gas formation, or temperature changes.
o Physical Change: Changes in state (solid to liquid), shape, or size
without new substances being formed.
Reversibility
o Chemical Change: Often difficult to reverse (e.g., once wood is
burned, it cannot be turned back into wood).
o Physical Change: Usually reversible (e.g., ice can be refrozen, and
salt dissolved in water can be recovered through evaporation).
3. Atomic Number, Atomic Mass, and Periodic Table Trends
Atomic Number
o Definition: Number of protons in an atom's nucleus (also equals
the number of electrons in a neutral atom).
o Trend: Increases across a period (left to right) and down a group
(top to bottom).
Atomic Mass
o Definition: Weighted average mass of an element’s atoms,
considering isotopes.
o Trend: Generally increases across a period and down a group.
Periodic Table Trends
1. Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period (left to right); increases
down a group (top to bottom).
2. Ionisation Energy: Increases across a period; decreases down a
group.
3. Electronegativity: Increases across a period; decreases down a
group.
4. Electron Affinity: Becomes more negative (more favourable)
across a period; less negative (less favourable) down a group.
5. Metallic Character: Decreases across a period; increases down a
group.
4. Electron Shell Diagrams
Determine the Number of Electrons
o First Shell: Can hold up to 2 electrons.
o Second Shell: Can hold up to 8 electrons.
5. Properties of Metals vs. Non-Metals
Metals
o Physical: Shiny, good conductors, malleable, ductile, high density,
high melting/boiling points.
o Chemical: React with acids, form positive ions.
Non-Metals
o Physical: Dull, poor conductors, brittle, not ductile, low density, low
melting/boiling points.
o Chemical: React with metals, form negative ions.
6. Parts of a Word Equation
Reactants: Substances consumed during the reaction (left side of the
equation).
Products: Substances formed as a result of the reaction (right side of the
equation).
o Solid (s): Represented by "(s)".
o Liquid (l): Represented by "(l)".
o Gas (g): Represented by "(g)".
o Aqueous (aq): Substances dissolved in water (represented by
"(aq)").
7. Law of Conservation of Mass
Definition: Mass cannot be created or destroyed in a closed system; it
remains constant.
8. Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat from surroundings, causing a
temperature drop.
Exothermic Reactions: Release heat, causing a temperature rise.
9. Ionic Compounds
Definition: Formed when atoms transfer electrons, creating cations and
anions which attract each other. Typically have high melting/boiling points
and conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted.
10. pH Scale
Definition: Measures acidity or basicity of a solution (0 to 14). pH < 7
indicates acidity, pH = 7 is neutral, pH > 7 indicates alkalinity (basicity).
11. Radioactive Decay
Alpha Decay: Emits an alpha particle (2 protons, 2 neutrons), reducing
atomic number by 2 and mass number by 4.
Beta Decay: Converts a neutron to a proton or vice versa, emitting a beta
particle and changing the atomic number by ±1.
Gamma Decay: Emits gamma radiation, no change in atomic or mass
number.
Positron Emission: Emits a positron, converting a proton into a neutron.
12. Half-life
Definition: Time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to
decay.
Physics
1. Refraction
Definition: Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another with
a different density, due to a change in speed.
2. Transverse vs Longitudinal Waves
Transverse Waves: Oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of
wave travel (e.g., light waves, waves on a string).
Longitudinal Waves: Oscillations are parallel to the direction of wave
travel (e.g., sound waves, compressional waves in springs).
3. Law of Reflection
Definition: Angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, both
measured from the normal to the surface.
4. Angle of Incidence & Angle of Refraction
Angle of Incidence: Angle between the incident ray and the normal at
the point of incidence.
Angle of Refraction: Angle between the refracted ray and the normal
when passing into a different medium.
5. Properties of Sound & Light Waves
Sound Waves
o Propagation: Requires a medium (solid, liquid, gas).
o Speed: Faster in solids than in gases.
o Frequency: Determines pitch (higher frequency = higher pitch).
o Wavelength: Distance between successive compressions or
rarefactions.
o Amplitude: Relates to loudness (larger amplitude = louder sound).
o Reflection: Can create echoes.
Light Waves
o Propagation: Can travel through a vacuum.
o Speed: Approximately 300,000 km/s in a vacuum.
o Frequency: Determines colour (higher frequency = shorter
wavelength).
o Wavelength: Distance between successive peaks or troughs.
o Amplitude: Affects brightness (larger amplitude = brighter light).
o Refraction and Reflection: Light can bend or bounce off surfaces.
6. Amplitude & Frequency
Amplitude
o Definition: Maximum displacement of a wave from equilibrium.
o Sound Waves: Related to loudness.
o Light Waves: Related to brightness.
Frequency
o Definition: Number of wave cycles passing a point per unit time.
o Sound Waves: Determines pitch.
o Light Waves: Determines colour.
