IIT JEE

BEST STUDY
NOTES
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TAKING FULL NOTES
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NOW!
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JUST PRINTOUT THESE

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AND USE THEM IN

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INDIA’S FIRST NOTES WITH MOST
IMPORTANT SUBTOPICS MARKED
ACCORDING TO JEE MAINS
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SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR

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UNDERSTANDING WHICH ARE

HIGHLY EXPECTED IN JEE MAINS
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EXAM
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 1
UNITS, DIMENSIONS & VECTORS
Introduction
Physics is a study of laws of nature and we require physical quantities to study these laws of nature. A
physical quantity is a quantity that can be used in mathematical equations of science and technology. The
value of a physical quantity is the quantitative expression of a particular physical quantity as the product of a
number and a unit, the number being its numerical value. Thus, the numerical value of a particular physical
quantity depends on the unit in which it is expressed. It is very difficult to remember separate units of large
number of physical quantities hence quantities are divided into two parts fundamental or base quantities and
derived quantities.
1.1 Units and Dimensions
In order to measure a physical quantity, it has to be expressed in terms of a certain reference standard
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of measurement of that physical quantity which is called a unit. The magnitude of physical quantity is
expressed in terms of the number of times the physical quantity contains that unit.
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The basic physical quantities, which do not depend upon other quantities, are known as the fundamental
quantities. Mass, length and time are considered as fundamental quantities. The units which can be
derived from the fundamental units are known as derived units. In mechanics, all quantities can be
expressed in terms of mass, length and time. The main systems of units are given as follows :
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1. C.G.S. or Centimetre, Gram, Second System.

2. F .P.S. or Foot, Pound, Second System.
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3. M.K.S. or Metre, Kilogram, Second System.

4. S.I. System : There are seven basic or fundamental quantities in the international system of units
called S.I. System which can express all physical quantities including heat, optics, electricity and
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magnetism. These basic seven quantities with their units and symbols are given as follows :
S.No. Physical Quantity S.I. Unit Symbol
1. Mass Kilogram Kg
2. Length Metre m
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
6. Electric Current Ampere A
7. Amount of Substance Mole mol.
Also, two supplementary units are used as radian (rad) for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid
angle.

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 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

The above mentioned International System of Units (S.I.) are now extensively used for the
scientific measurements.
The following practical units are conveniently used and are expressed in terms of S .I. system of
units also.
1. Micron is a small unit for measurement of length. 1 micron = 1 m = 10–6m
2. Angstrom is a unit of length in which the size of atom is measured and is used in Atomic Physics.
1 Angstrom = 1 Å = 10–10 metres
3. Light Year is a unit of distance travelled by light in free space and is used in Astrophysics.
1 Light Year = 3  108 m/s  365  24  60  60 s = 9.5  1015 metres
4. Fermi is a unit of distance in which the size of a nucleus is measured. 1 Fermi = 10–15m
5. Atomic Mass Unit : It is a unit of mass equal to 1/12 th of mass of Carbon - 12 nucleus and is
used in measuring the masses of nuclei.
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1 atomic mass unit ~ 1.67  10–27 kg.

The dimensions of a derived unit is defined as the power to which the fundamental units of mass,
length and time should be raised to represent that physical quantity. The expression which represents
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the dimension of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula which is given as [M a Lb T c]
where a, b and c are respective dimensions of mass, length and time.
For example, the dimensional formula for volume = [L3], velocity = [LT–1], Power = [ML2T–2] etc.
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S. I. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS OF COMMONLY USED QUANTITIES :

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S.No. Quantity S.I. Units Dimensional Formula

1. Area m2 [L2]

2. Density kg m–3 [ML–3]

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3. Velocity ms–1 [LT–1]

4. Acceleration ms–2 [LT–2]

5. Angular Velocity rad s–1 [T–1]

6. Frequency s–1 or hertz (Hz) [T–1]

7. Momentum kg ms–1 [MLT–1]

8. Force kg ms–2 or newton (N) [MLT–2]

9. Work, Energy kg m2 s–2 or joule (J) [ML2 T–2]

10. Power kg m2 s–3 or Js–1 or watt [ML2 T–3]

11. Pressure, Stress Nm–2 or pascal (Pa) [ML–1 T–2]

12. Coefficient of Elasticity Nm–2 [ML–1T–2]

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

13. Moment of Inertia kg m2 [ML2]

14. Torque` Nm [ML2T–2]

15. Angular Momentum kg m2 s–1 [ML2 T–1]

16. Impulse Ns [MLT–1]

17. Universal Gravitational Constant Nm2 kg–2 [M–1 L3 T–2]

18. Latent Heat J kg–1 [L2 T–2]

19. Specific Heat J kg–1 K–1 [L2 T–2 K–1]

20. Thermal Conductivity J m–1 s–1 K–1 [MLT–3 K–1]

21. Electric Charge coulomb (C) [AT]

22. Electric Potential J C–1 or volt (V) [ML2T–3A–1 ]

23. Electric Resistance VA–1 or ohm () [ML2T–3A–2 ]

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24. Electric Resistivity m [ML3 T–3 A–2]

25. Capacitance CV–1 or farad (F) [M–1 L–2 T4A2]

26. Inductance Vs A–1 or henry (H) [ML2 T–2 A–2]

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27. Electric Field NC–1 or Vm–1 [ML2 T–3 A–1]

28. Magnetic Induction NA–1 m–1 or tesla (T) [MT–2 A–1]

29. Magnetic Flux Tm2 or weber (Wb) [ML2 T–2 A–1]

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30. Permittivity C2 N–1 m–2 [M–1 L–3 T4 A2]

31. Permeability Tm A–1 or Wb A–1 m–1 [MLT–2 A–2]

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32. Planck’s Constant Js [ML2T–1]

33. Boltzmann Constant JK–1 [ML2 T–2 –1]

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1.2 Uses of Dimensional Equation

1. Conversion of one system of units into another units.

If n1 is numerical value of a physical quantity with dimensions a, b and c for units of mass, length
and time as M1, L1 and T1, the numerical value of the same quantity, n2 can be calculated for
different units of mass, length and time as M2, L2 and T2 respectively.
a b c
 M 1   L1   T1 
n2 = n1  M   L   T 
 2  2  2

2. To test the correctness of a physical equation or formula :

The principle of homogeneity requires that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of physical
equation or formula should be equal if the physical equation or any derived formula is a correct
one.

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 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

3. To derive a relation between different physical quantities in any physical phenomenon.

If a physical quantity depends upon a number of parameters whose dimensions are not known, the
principal of homogeneity of dimensions can be used. As the dimensions of a correct dimensional
equation are equal on both sides, it can be used to find the unknown dimensions of these parameters
on which the physical quantity depends. It can be used to derive the relations between any physical
quantity and its dependent parameters.

Limitations of Dimensional Equation

1. From dimensional equation, the nature of physical quantities cannot be decided i.e., whether a
given quantity is scalar or vector.
2. The value of constant of proportitionality cannot be determined.
3. Relation among physical quantities having exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions
cannot be established.
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4. Relation which depends on more than three physical quantities in mechanics and on more than
four physical quantities in current electricity cannot be established, however their validity can be
checked.
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5. Relations which are in more than one parts cannot be determined.

Sample Problem 1.1:

Consider the formula, T = 2
g
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Where T is the time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum in a simple harmonic motion,  and g
are the length of the pendulum and gravitational constants respectively. Check this formula, whether
it is correct or not, using the concept of dimension.
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Sol. As we know [g] = [LT–2]

[L]
 [T] = = [T]
[LT - 2 ]
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Thus the above equation is dimensionally correct (homogeneous) and later you will come to know
that it is physically also correct.
Sample Problem 1.2:
1 2
Consider the formula s = ut – at . Check this formula, whether is correct or not, using the concept
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of dimension.
Sol. Dimensionally [L] = [LT–1] [T] – [LT–2] [T2]  [L] = [L] – [L]
In this case also the formula is dimensionally correct but, you know that it is physically incorrect as
the correct formula is given by : S = ut + ½ at2 for a body moving with constant acceleration.
Sample Problem 1.3:
When a small sphere moves at low speed through a fluid, the viscous force F, opposing the motion is
experimentally found to depends upon the radius r, the velocity v of the sphere and the viscosity  of
the fluid. Derive the formula of viscous force based on these parameters.
Sol. We can thus say that the viscous force (F) is the function of radius (r), velocity (v) and viscosity ().
or F = f (, r, v) or F = kx ry vz ...... (1) Where k is a constant.
Now, dimensions of the constituents are
Force [MLT–2] ; viscosity = [ML–1 T–1]

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

Radius = [L] ; velocity = [LT–1]

 Since dimensions on both sides have to be the same.
 [MLT–2] = [ML–1T–1]x [L]y [LT–1]z = [MxL–x+y+z T–x–z]
Equating the exponents of similar quantities of both side we get,
x = 1 ; - x + y + z = 1 and - x - z = - 2
Solving for x, y & z we get x = y = z = 1
Equation (1) becomes F = krv
Experimentally, it was found that k = 6 or F = 6rv.
which is the famous Stokes' law.

OBJECTIVE : 1 – I

1. The unit of electric charge may be expressed as

(a) ampere second (b) ampere-volt (c) ampere/second (d) ampere-ohm
Sol. [a]
Electric charge = i × t
2. Practical unit of heat is :
(a) Joule (b) Horse power (c) Watt (d) none of these
Sol. [a]
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Heat is a form of energy.

X
3. The dimensions of physical quantity X in the equation Force = is given by
Density
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(a) M1L4T–2 (b) M2L–2T–1 (c) M2L–2 T–2 (d) M1L–2T–1

Sol. [c]
Since X = Force × Density
M
Thus, X has dimensions MLT–2 = M2L–2T–2
L3
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4. E, m, J and G denote energy, mass, angular momentum and gravitational constant respectively, then the
EJ 2
dimension of is equivalent to the dimension of
m5 G 2
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(a) Angle (b) Length (c) Mass (d) Time

Sol. [a]
[ ML2 T –2 ][ML2 T –1 ]2 M 3 L6 T –4
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= = [M0L0T0]
[ M5 ][M –1L3T –2 ]2 M3 L6 T –4

 a 
5. The equation of state of some gases can be expressed as  P   (V – b) = RT. Here P is the
V2 
pressure, V is the a, b , R are constants. The dimensions of 'a' are
(a) ML5T–2 (b) ML–1T–2 (c) M0L3T0 (d) M0L6T0
Sol. [a]
By principle of dimensional homogeneity, same physical quantities can be added or subtracted
a
=P
V2
 a = PV2 = [ML–1T–2] [L6] = [ML5T—2]

6. The frequency of vibration f of a mass m suspended from a spring of spring constant k is given by a
relation of this type f = C mxky; where C is a dimensionless quantity. The value of x and y are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) x = ,y= (b) x = – ,y=– (c) x = ,y=– (d) x = – , y =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

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 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

Sol. [d]
F
F = kx  k = = [MT–2]
x
[T–1] = [M]x [MT–2]y
1 1
comparing x + y = 0, 2y = 1; x = – ,y=
2 2
7. The period of a body under SHM is represented by T = PaDbSc; where P is pressure, D is density and
S is surface tension. The value of a, b and c are
3 1 1 3 1 1
(a) – , ,1 (b) – 1, – 2, 3 (c) , – ,– (d) 1, 2 ,
2 2 2 2 2 3
Sol. [a]
T = [ML–1T–2]a [L–3M]b [MT–2]c
 b + a + c = 0, – a – 3b = 0, – 2a – 2c = 1
3 1
a = – ,b= ,c=1
2 2
8. The distance covered by a particle in time t is given by x = a + bt + ct 2 + dt 3 ; find the dimensions of
of d.
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(a) L (b) LT–1 (c) LT–2 (d) LT–3

Sol. [d]
The equation contains five terms. All of them should have the same dimensions. Since [x]=length,
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each of the remaining four must have the dimension of length.

Thus, a   length   L
 bt   L, or,  b   LT 1
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ct 2   L , or,  c  LT 2
 
and dt 3   L, or, d   LT 3
 
9. The position of a particle at time t is given by the relation :
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F
G I
H JK( 1 – e–t), where v0 is constant and  > 0. The dimension of 0 and are respectively..
0
x (t) =

(a) M0L1T–1 and T–1 (b) M0L1T0 and T–1 (c) M0L1T–1 and LT–2 (d) M0L1T–1 and T
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Sol. [a]
The mathematical function e–t is dimensionless.
Thus [t] = dimensionless
 [] = [T–1]
Since [x] = [v0/]  [v0] = [x][] = M0L1T–1
10. If C and R represent capacitance and resistance respectively, then the dimensions of RC are
(a) M0L0T2 (b) M0L0T (c) ML–2 (d) None of the above
Sol. [b]
RC = T
1.3 Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Measurement
Accuracy and Precision are two terms that have very different meanings in experimental physics. We
need to be able to distinguish between an accurate measurement and a precise measurement. An
accurate measurement is one in which the results of the experiment are in agreement with the ‘accepted’
value. Note this only applies to experiments where this is the goal measuring the speed of light, for
example. A precise measurement is one that we can make to a large number of decimal places. The
following diagrams illustrate the meaning of these terms:

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

accurate accurate
and but not
precise precise

precise but inaccurate

not but precise
accurate with a bad
point

When successive measurements of the same quantity are repeated there is a distribution of values
obtained. In experimental physics it is vital to be able to measure and quantify this uncertainty. (The
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words "error" and "uncertainty" are often used interchangeably by physicists - this is not ideal - but get
used to it!)
Types of Error
We need to identify the following types of errors:
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Systematic errors - these influence the accuracy of a result

Random errors - these influence precision
Systematic errors : Systematic errors are a constant bias that are introduced into all your results.
Unlike Random Errors, which can be reduced by repeated measurements, systematic errors are much
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more difficult to combat and cannot be detected by statistical means. They cause the measured quantity
to be shifted away from the 'true' value.
When you design an experiment, you should design it in a way so as to minimise systematic errors. For
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example, when measuring electric fields you might surround the experiment with a conductor to keep
out unwanted fields. You should also calibrate your instruments, that is use them to measure a known
quantity. This will help tell you the magnitude of any remaining systematic errors.
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Some sources of systematic errors are :

(a) Instrumental errors : Due to imperfect design or calibration of the measuring instrument.
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
(c) Personal errors : They arise due to an individual's bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus
or individual's carelessness in taking observations without taking proper precautions, etc. e.g.
error due to parallax.
Accurate measurement Inaccurate measurement

Parallax ruler shows how to read a ruler accurately Parallax inaccurate reading on a ruler showing the inaccurate
way to read a ruler

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 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

(d) Random errors : Random errors in measurement will occur no matter how precise the apparatus
is or how careful the person gathering the data is. Random errors are purely due to chance and
can often be predicted based on statistics.
(e) Least Count Error : The Least Count error is the error associated with the resolution of the
instrument, the smallest division on the scale of a measuring instrument is called its Least count.
Rule of Thumb : The most accurate that you can measure a quantity is to the last decimal point
of a digital meter and half a division on an analogue device such as a ruler
Estimating the Uncertainties on your Measurements
During the course of any experiment you will, in general, be measuring quantities in one of two ways
– a direct or indirect manner. Measuring the length of a piece of string, or measuring the voltage using
a voltmeter or oscilloscope are examples of a direct measurement. You should estimate the error
associated with these readings and always record them, along with your readings. This estimation is
related to the accuracy of the measurement. Digital measurements are often easier to read, and in
some cases can improve the accuracy of the reading. Indirect measurements might involve timing the
period of a pendulum. There are several ways in which to increase the precision of such a measurement.
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The error associated with timing the oscillations is related to the accuracy of the time measuring
device, and the accuracy with which you can define one oscillation. The former is fixed, but the error
on the second part is random and can be reduced by timing more oscillations. There are several well
known statistical methods with which to analyse the data.
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Measurement of Errors
(a) Arithmetic mean or simply mean (amean), of several measured values such as a1, a2, a3 ...... an
is defined as : amean = (a1 + a2 + a3 .... an)/n. The mean of these values is taken as the best
possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of measurements.
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Mean Value : If x1, x2, x3, ..... xn are n measured values of a physical quantity; then the mean
N
 xi
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i 1
value is given by : x  .
N
The experimental error [uncertainty] can be expressed in several standard ways.
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Error limits Q ± Q is the measured quantity and Q is the magnitude of its limit of error. This
expresses the experimenter's judgment that the 'true' value of Q lies between Q – Q and
Q + Q. This entire interval within which the measurement lies is called the range of error.
Indeterminate errors are expressed in this form.
(b) Absolute Error : The magnitude of the difference between the best possible of mean value of
the quantity and the individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement.
The absolute error in an individual measured value is :
an  amean  an
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean absolute error.
n
 | ai |
i 1
amean 
n
(amean  amean )  a  ( amean  amean )

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

(c) Percentage Error

y
If y is the error in the measurement y. then fractional error = and percentage error
y
y
= × 100%
y
a  b
Error in a Formula : Suppose given formula is y =
c
Taking log, log y =  loga +  logb –  logc
y a b c
Differentiating, we get, = + –
y a b c
It may happen that a, b are in same direction and c in opposite direction.
 y  a b c
Maximum fractional error,     
 y max a b c
 a b c 
Maximum or permissible percentage error =  .  .  .   100%
 b b c 
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Experimental value-Standard value

Percentage error in an experiment = Standard value × 100%

Note : If least count is not given and a measurement is given, the error in the measurement will
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be ± in last digit.
For example if L = 5.216 metre
 L = ± .001 metre
and if M = 2.50 kg.
M = ± 0.01 kg.
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Combination of Errors (Maximum Permissible Error)

(a) Error of a sum or a difference : When two quantities are added or subtracted, the maximum
absolute error in the final result is the sum of the absolute errors of the individual quantities i.e. if
q = x ± y then the maximum value of the error q is given by
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q = x + y
(b) Error of a product or a quotient : When two or more quantities are multiplied or divided, the
maximum fractional error in the result is the sum of the fractional errors in the multipliers i.e. if q
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= xy/z, then the maximum permissible error in the measurement of q is given by

q x y z
  
q x y z
(c) Error due to the power of a measured quantity : The fractional error in a physical quantity raised
to the power is the power times the fractional error in the individual quantity i.e. if q = xa yb z–c
then the maximum error in the measurement of q is given by
q x y z
a b c
q x y z
(d) The quotient rule is not applicable if the numerator and denominator are dependent on each other.
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e.g. if R  . We cannot apply quotient rule to find the error in R. Instead we write the
X Y
1 1 1 dR dX dY
equation as follows   . Differentiating both the sides, we get  2  2  2
R X Y R X Y
r x y r R x R y
Thus 2  2  2 or    
R X Y R X X Y Y

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 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

Errors in a Repeated Measurement

If we take a measurement experimentally, it necessarily involves errors; due to two factors (1) human
errors, which may be due to reaction time or carelessness and (2) experimental error, which is due to
least count of measuring instruments. For given measuring instruments, the human errors may be
reduced by repeating experiment for a large number of times.
Rules for Rounding off Digits
There are a set of conventional rules for rounding off.
1. Determine according to the rule what the last reported digit should be.
2. Consider the digit to the right of the last reported digit.
3. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is less than 5 round it and all digits to its right off.
4. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is greater than 5 round it and all digits to its right off
and increased the last reported digit by one.
5. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is a 5 followed by either no other digits or all zeros,
round it and all digits to its right off and if the last reported digit is odd round up to the next even
digit. If the last reported digit is even then leave it as is.
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For example if we wish to round off the following number to 3 significant digits : 18.3682.
The last reported digits would be the 3. The digit to its right is a 6 which is greater than 5.
According to the Rule-4 above, the digit 3 is increased by one and the answer is : 18.4
Another example : Round off 4.565 to three significant digits.
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The last reported digit would be the 6. The digit to the right is a 5 followed by nothing. Therefore
according to Rule-5 above since the 6 is even it remains so and the answer would be 4.56.
1.4 Significant Figure
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The number of figures required to specify a certain measurement are called significant figure. The last
figure of a measurement is always doubtful, but it is included in the number of significant figure. For
example, if the length of a pencil measured by vernier callipers is 9.48 cm, the number of significant
figures in the measurement is 3.
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1. The powers of 10 and the zeros on left hand side of a measurement are not counted while
counting the number of significant figures.
2. The limit of accuracy of a measuring instrument is equal to the least count of the instrument.
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3. In the sum and difference of measurements, the result contains the minimum number of decimal
places in the component measurements.
4. In the product and quotient of measurements, the result contains the minimum number of significant
figures in the component measurements.
5. Greater is the number of significant figures in a measurement, smaller is the percentage error.
6. If a measurement does not involve the decimal place, then it is confusing while counting the
number of significant figures. For example, if a measurement is 4450 m; then we can not surely
tell upto what place the measurement is taken; but if it is expressed as 4.450 × 103 m then it is
sure that it has been measured upto 4 significant figure.
7. The number of significant figures in a measurement can neither be increased nor decreased. For
example if a measurement is written as 5.40 kg; it has significant figure 3; it can not be written as
5.4 or 5.400 kg.
Rules of Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
In Mathematical operations involving significant figures, the answer is reported in such a way that it
reflects the reliability of the least precise operation. Let's state that another way : a chain is no stronger

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

than its weakest link. An answer is no more precise that the least precise number used to get the
answer. Let's do it one more time : imagine a team race where you and your team must finish together.
Who dictates the speed of the team ? Of course, the slowest member of the team. Your answer cannot
be more precise than the least precise measurement.
Addition and Subtraction : For addition and subtraction, look at the decimal portion (i.e., to the right
of the decimal point) of the numbers only follow the following procedure :
(a) Count the number of significant figures in the decimal portion of each number in the problem.
(The digits to the left of the decimal place are not used to determine the number of decimal places
in the final answer)
(b) Add or subtract in the normal fashion.
(c) Round off the answer to the least number of places in the decimal portion of any number in the
problem.
For example : 160.45 + 6.732 = 167.18 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to two positions to the right of the decimal, since 160.45 is
the least precise.
Another example : 45.621 + 4.3 – 6.41 = 43.5 (after rounding off)
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The answer could be expressed only to one position to the right of the decimal, since the number
4.3 is the least precise number (i.e. having only one position to the right of its decimal). Notice we
aren't really determining the total number of significant digits in the answer with this rule.
Multiplication and Division : In Multiplication or division the number of significant figures in the
ES

final answer is the same as the minimum number of the significant figures in the physical quantities
being operated.
For example : 0.000170 × 100.40 = 0.017068
The product could be expressed with no more that three significant digits since 0.000170 has only three
an

significant digits, and 100.40 has five. So according to the rule the product answer could only be
expressed with three significant digits thus the answer should be 0.0171 (after rounding off).
Another example : 2.000 × 104/6.0 × 10–3 = 0.33 × 107.
The answer could be expressed with no more that two significant digits since the least digited in
ka

number involved in the operation has two significant digits.

Sometimes this would required expressing the answer in exponential notation.
For example : 3.0 × 800.0 = 2.4 × 103
lp

The number 3.0 has two significant digits and then number 800.0 has four. The rule states that the
answer can have no more than two digits expressed. However the answer as we can all see would be
24200. How do we express the answer 2400 while obeying the rules ? The only way is to express the
answer in exponential notation so 2400 could be expressed as : 2.4 × 103.

Sample Problem 1.4:

In an experiment, the refractive index of water was observed as 1.29, 1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.32, 1.36,
1.30 and 1.33. Calculate the mean value, mean absolute error and percentage error in value of
refractive index.
Sol.: Mean value of refractive index,
1.29  1.33  1.34  1.35  1.32  1.36  1.30  1.33
  1.33
8
Absolute error in measurement,
1  1.33  1.29  0.04 ,  2  1.33  1.33  0.00 , 3  1.33  1.34  0.01 ,
 4  1.33  1.35  0.02 ,

-1. 1 1 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

5  1.33  1.32  0.01 , 6  1.33  1.36  0.03 , 7  1.33  1.30  0.03 ,
8  1.33  1.33  0.00
So, mean absolute error,
| 0.04 |  | 0.01|  | 0.02 |  | 0.01|  | 0.03 |  | 0.03 |  | 0 |
()  = 0.0175  0.02
8
 0.02
and relative error =    0.015  0.02
 1.33
0.02
Percentage error =   100%  1.5%
1.33
Sample Problem 1.5:
The error in the measurement of radius of the sphere is 0.3%. What is the permissible error in its
surface area?
Sol.: Surface area of sphere A = 4r2
There is no error involved in constant 4.
JE

r
Fractional error = 2
r
A  r 
ES

% error = × 100 = 2 ×   100  = 2 × 0.3 = 0.6%

A  r 
Sample Problem 1.6:
The length and breadth of a rectangle are (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm. Calculate area of the
an

rectangle with error limits.

Sol.: Here,  = (5.7 ± 0.1) cm, b = (3.4 ± 0.2) cm
Area A =  × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 cm² = 19.0 cm² (rounding off to two significant fig.)
ka

A   b   0.1 0.2   0.34  1.14 

=±   = ±    =±  
A   b   5.7 3.4   5.7  3.4 
A 1.48 1.48 1.48
=± A = ± A =±  19.38  1.48
lp

A 19.38 19.38 19.38

A = ± 1.5 (rounding off to two significant figures) Area = (19.0 ± 1.5) sq.cm.
Sample Problem 1.7:
A student finds the constant acceleration of a slowly moving object with a stopwatch. The equation
used is S = (1/2) AT2. The time is measured with a stopwatch, the distance, S with a meter stick.
What is the acceleration and its estimated error ?
S = 2 ± 0.005 meter., T = 4.2 ± 0.2 second.
Sol.: We use capital letters for quantities, lower case for errors. Solve the equation for the result, a. A =
a t s
2S/T2. Its indeterminate error equation is  2  . Thus A = 0.23 ± 0.02 m/s2.
A T S
Sample Problem 1.8:
A body travels uniformly a distance of (13.8 ± 0.2) m in a time (4.0 ± 0.3) s. Calculate its velocity
with error limits. What is percentage error in velocity?
Sol. Here, s = (13.8 ± 0.2) m t = (4.0 ± 0.3) s
s 13.8
velocity, v   = 3.45 ms–1 = 3.5 ms–1 (rounding off to two significant figures)
t 4.0

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

v  s t 
     
 0.2 0.3 

 0.8  4.14 

v  s t   13.8 4.0  13.8  4.0
v 4.94
   0.0895
v 13.8  4.0
v = ± 0.0895 × v = ± 0.0895 × 3.45 = ± 0.3087 = ± 0.31 (rounding off to two significant fig.)
Hence, v = (3.5 ± 0.31) ms–1
v
% age error in velocity =  100 = ± 0.0895 × 100 = ± 8.95 % = ± 9%
v
Sample Problem 1.9:
A stone weighs (10.0 ± 0.1) kg in air. The weight of the stone in water is (5.0 ± 0.1) kg. Find the
maximum percentage error in the measurement of specific gravity.
Sol. Weight of stone in air = (10.0 ± 0.1) kg
Loss of weight in water = (10.0 ± 0.1) – (5.0 ± 0.1) = (5 ± 0.2) kg
When two quantities are subtracted (or added), the absolute errors are added up.
Weight in air (10.0  0.1) kg
Now, Specific gravity = Loss of weight in water  (5  0.2) kg
JE

0.1 0.2
 Maximum percentage error in specific gravity =  100   100  1%  4%  5% .
10.0 5.0
ES
OBJECTIVE : 1 – II

1. Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203 m. What is the total volume of the cube to appropriate
significant figures
(a) 373.7 m³ (b) 311.3 m³ (c) 211.3 m³ (d) 3737 m³
an

Sol. [a]
Volume = 3 = 7.203 × 7.203 × 7.203 m³ = 373.7 m³
1.53  0.9995
2. Find the value of with due regard for significant figures
ka

1.592
(a) 0.961 (b) 0.123 (c) 0.921 (d) 0.913
Sol. [a]
1.53  0.9995 1.529235
lp

  0.9605747  0.961
1.592 1.592
(Rounding off to three significant digits)
3. The values of kinetic energy K and potential energy U are measured as follows :
K = 100.0 ± 2.0 J, U = 200.0 ± 1.0 J. Then the percentage error in the measurement of mechanical
energy is
(a) 2.5% (b) 1% (c) 0.5% (d) 1.5%
Sol. [b]
M E  K  U  300  3J  E  E
E
  100  1%
E
4. The initial and final temperatures of a liquid in a container are observed to be 76.3 ± 0.4°C and 67.7 ±
0.3°C. Find the fall in the temperature of the liquid.
(a) 8.6 ± 0.1°C (b) 8.6 ± 0.7°C (c) 1.6 ± 0.1°C (d) 8.6 ± 1.1°C
Sol. [b]
Fall in temperature = (76.3 ± 0.4°C) – (67.7 ± 0.3°C) = 8.6 ± (0.4 + 0.3) = 8.6 ± 0.7°C

-1. 1 3 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

5. The heat generated in a circuit is given by H = I2Rt joule where I is current, R is resistance and t is
time. If the percentage errors in measuring I, R and t are 2%, 1% and 1% respectively. The maximum
error in measuring heat will be-
(a) 2% (b) 3% (c) 4% (d) 6%
Sol. [b]
H 2I R t H H
     100  2 (2%)  1%  1%   100  6%
H I R t H H

6. The frequency (f) of a wire oscillating with a length , in p loops, under a tension T is given by
p T
f where µ = linear density of the wire. If the error made in determining length, tension and
2 
linear density be 1%, –2% and 4%, then find the percentage error in the calculated frequency.
(a) – 4% (b) – 2% (c) –1% (d) –5%
Sol. [a]
p T p 1 1
Given f  Taking log of both sides log f  log    log   log T  log 
2  2 2 2
JE

Differentiating partially on both sides,

df d 1 dT 1 d
0  
f  2 T 2 
ES

df  d   1 dT   1 d  1 1
or  100     100     100     100  = (1)  ( 2)  (4)
f    2 T  2   2 2
= –1 – 1 – 2 = – 4%
7. The density of a sphere is measured by measuring its mass and diameter. If, it is known that the
an
maximum percentage errors in the measurement are 2% and 3%, then find the maximum percentage
error in the measurement of density?
(a) 15% (b) 18% (c) 9% (d) 11%
Sol. [d]
ka

Let m and d be the mass and diameter of the sphere, then the density  of the sphere is given by
mass m 6m
  3
 3
volume 4  d  d
 
3 2
lp

Taking log and differentiating partially we get

d dm 3d (d)
 
 m d
 m 3d
Thus maximum percentage error  100%   100%   100%  2%  3  3%  11% .
 m d
8. The length of a cylinder is measured with a metre rod having least count 0.1 cm. Its diameter is
measured with vernier callipers having least count 0.01 cm. Given that length is 5.0 cm and radius is
2.00 cm. The percentage error in the calculated value of the volume will be :
(a) 11% (b) 2% (c) 3% (d) 4%
Sol. [c]
V  r 2
V r  0.01 0.1
%2 % % = 2  100%   100%  1%  2%  3%
V r  2 5

-1. 1 4 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

V
9. The resistance of a metal is given by R = , where V is potential difference and I is the current. In a
I
circuit the potential difference across resistance is V = (8 ± 0.5) V and current in resistance, I = (2 ±
0.2) A. What is the value of resistance with its maximum percentage error ?
(a) 4 ± 16.25% (b) (4 ± 0.7)  (c) 4 ± 0.7% (d) 4 ± 7%
Sol. [a]
8
Actual R   4
2
0.5 0.2
Maximum % error in R = % error in V + % error in I =  100%   100%  16.25%
8 2
R = 4 ± 16.25%
10. A spherical body of mass m and radius r is allowed to fall in a medium of viscosity . The time in which
the velocity of the body increases from zero to 0.63 times, the terminal velocity (v) is called time
constant (). Dimensionally  can be represented by :

mr 2  6 mr  m
(a) (b)   (c) (d) None of these
6  g2  6rv
Sol. [d]
JE

mg  6rv (dimensionally)
Check options dimensionally
Let us check 2nd option
ES

6 mr mmg
 T
g2 vg 2
Similarly check all option none of these will satisfy dimensionally.
1.5 Vectors
an

Scalars: Quantities having only magnitude, no direction and obeying algebric law of addition are said
to be scalars. Mathematically algebric addition is represented as a + b= c.
ka

Examples of scalar quantities can be taken as mass, length, time, distance, speed, work, energy, power,
gravitational potential, electrical potential, electric flux, magnetic flux, current etc.
Vectors: Quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying triangle law of vector addition are said to
lp

be vectors. Mathematically triangle law is represent as a + b = c.

Examples of vector quantities can be taken as displacement, velocity, momentum, force, torque,
acceleration, electric field strength, magnetic field strength, electric dipole moment, magnetic dipole
moment, etc.

Representation of vector:
A
B
O  Initial point or tail of a vector.
A  Final point or head of a vector.
–a
|a|

|
|–a
a

a A vector whose magnitude is

proportional to the length of the straight
O C
line OA and direction is from O to A.

–a A vector whose magnitude is equal to that of vector a but direction is opposite

-1. 1 5 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

1. Addition of vectors
Q
Consider vectors A and B with magnitudes A and B R  AB
respectively. If a line drawn from point O to P represents B
A. The second vector B is drawn from head of A P
O A
i.e. from point P along PQ, which is parallel to B.
The resultant R is represented by OQ by applying triangular law of addition of vectors. The law
states that if two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle,
the third side of the triangle taken from the origin of first vector represents their resultant in
magnitude and direction.
R=A +B
The resultant R of vectors A and B can also be found from the law of parallelogram of vectors.
Which states that if two vectors A and B are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
pointing outwards, the diagonal drawn through the intersection of two vectors represents the
vector sum of two vectors. If OP and OQ represent vectors A and B respectively at angle , their
resultant R along OM is given by
JE

(OM)2 = (ON)2 + (MN)2 = (OP + PN)2 + (MN)2 Q M

R2 = (A + B cos)2 + (B sin)2
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cos B  R B
 
R = [A2 + B2 + 2AB cos ]1/2
ES

O N
If  is the angle subtended by the resultant R with OP, A P

MN B sin 
tan  = =
OP  PN A  B cos 
an

 B sin  
 = tan–1  A  B cos  
 
  
If A and B are in same direction,  = 0° and | R | = A + B
ka

If A and B are in opposite direction, at  = 180º, |R| = A – B

 
–1 B
If A and B are perpendicular to each other, |R| = A 2  B 2 ,  = tan  A 
lp

The addition of vectors obeys the following laws :

(a) Commutative law : A + B = B + A
(b) Associative law : (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(c) Distributive law : (b + c)A = bA + cA where b and c are scalar quantities.
2. Subtraction of vectors
The subtraction of a vector B from the vector A is equivalent to addition of vector A with –B
giving resultant R as:
R = A – B = A + (–B)
where –B implies a vector of magnitude of B but of opposite direction.

O A P

B B
B
 R  A B
A A
Q

-1. 1 6 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

3. Resolution of vectors
A vector A with its tail at origin of two dimensional coordinate system (x, y) y

can be resolved into two components Ax and Ay by drawing perpendicular P

Ay A
from the head of vector A on X and Y axis respectively. A is resolved in two

x
rectangular components Ax and Ay. O Ax
 A = Ax + Ay

Let i be a unit vector i.e. of magnitude unity and directed along x-axis and j is a unit vector of
magnitude unity and along y-direction. If Ax and Ay are magnitudes of vectors Ax and Ay, then

Ax = Ax i and Ay = Ay j

Thus a vector A can be written in the form of notation of unit vectors along x and y-axis as :

A = Ax i + Ay j
JE

If  is the angle subtended by vector A with x-axis, Ax = Acos and Ay = Asin represent the
rectangular components of A along two perpendicular direction,
2 2 2 2
|A| = A x2  A 2
y = A cos   A sin 
ES

y A y A 
tan  = A or  = tan–1  A 
x  x
an

4. Multiplication of vectors
(i) Multiplication of a scalar with Vector :

If a vector A is multiplied by a scalar quantity c, the resultant is a vector whose magnitude

ka

is c times the magnitude of A and its direction is the same as that of A.

(ii) Scalar or Dot Product :

lp

If the product of two vectors A and B is a scalar quantity, it is called as scalar or dot product
i.e A.B.

The scalar or dot product of two vectors is equal to the product of magnitude of two vectors
and the cosine of the angle between these vectors.
A.B = A(B cos ) = B(Acos )
The dot product of two vectors is the product of magnitude of one
vector and the magnitude of the component of the second vector
along the direction of the first vector.
The work, W, done by a force F to produce a displacement S at an angle  to the direction
of force is given by
W = F.S = FS cos

-1. 1 7 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

The dot product of perpendicular vectors is zero. The dot product of two equal vectors is
equal to the square of the vectors.
Scalar product of vectors obey the following laws :
(a) Commutative Law : A.B = B.A
(b) Distributive Law : A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C
A.(B – C) = A.B – A.C
(iii) Vectors or Cross Product
The vector or cross product of two vectors A and B is itself a vector and is denoted by
A  B.
The vector or cross product of two vectors, R, has a magnitude equal to the product of
magnitudes of two vectors and the sine of smaller angle  between the two vectors.
R = A  B = AB sin n̂
A×B
Where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A & B.
JE

B Plane of
Here  is smaller angle between A and B which is used and n̂ A×B
not (360 – ) which is a larger angle between these vectors.

The directions of the resultant vector product A  B is given A
ES

by the following rule :

Right Handed Thumb Rule : If we bend the fingers of the right hand and curl it in such
a way that these point in the direction of rotation from vector A to vector B through the
an

smaller angle between them, the thumb of the right hand points in the direction of resultant
vector product A  B. AB

The figure shows the fingers of right hand curled from vector
ka

A to B in anticlockwise direction.
The vector product or cross product of vectors obeys the
A B
following laws :
lp


(i) Distributive Law : A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
A  (B – C) = A  B – A  C
(ii) Null Vectors : Vector Product of two parallel vectors is a null vector.
A  B = AB sin 0° = 0
Also vector product of a vector by itself is a null vector
A  A = A.A sin 0° = 0
(iii) Vector product of two vectors gives the area of a parallelogram formed by these two
vectors.
(iv) Vector product is non-commutative
AB BA
A  B = –B  A

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Units, Dimensions & Vectors

For example, in rotatory motion, the torque  acting on a body due to a force F applied
at a perpendicular distance r from axis of rotation is given by the cross product of
these vectors  = r  F
Angular momentum L is related to linear momentum p and radius r as L = r  p. The
angular velocity  in circular motion is related to linear velocity v and radius r of
circular path as v = r  

5. Three Dimensional Vector

If A is a vector in space which has components Ax, Ay and Az along three dimensions of the
cartesian system of coordinates (x, y, z), A can be written in the form of unit vector notation as :

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k

where i, j & k represent unit vectors in the positive directions of x, y and z axis respectively. Thus
JE

two vectors A and B can be written in the notation of unit vector i, j and k as follows :

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k

B = Bx i + By j + Bz k
ES

 A + B = (Ax + Bx)i + (Ay + By)j + (Az + Bz)k

Scalar product of vectors A and B = A.B

an

= (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) . (Bx i + By j + Bz k)

= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz [ i.j = j.k = k.i = 0]

ka

Vector product of vectors A and B = A  B

= (Ax i + Ay j + Az k)  (Bx i + By j + Bz k)
lp

As i  i = j  j = k  k = 0

and i  j = –j  i = k

j  k = –k  j = i

k  i = –i  k = j
i
i j k
Ax Ay Az
AB= k
Bx By Bz j

 A  B = i (AyBz – AzBy) –j (AxBz – AzBx) + k(AxBy – AyBx)

-1. 1 9 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

Sample Problem 1.10:

If A = 4i – 3j and B = 6i + 8j, find the scalar magnitude and direction of A, B, A + B, A – B and
B – A with respect to positive direction of x-axis.
Sol.: A = Ax i + Ay j = 4i – 3j
B = Bx i + By j = 6i + 8j
2 2
|A| = (4)  (3) = 25 = 5
2 2
|B| = (6)  (8) = 100 = 10

A + B = (Ax + Bx)i + (Ay + By)j = 4i – 3j + 6i + 8j = 10i + 5j

2 2
|A + B| = (10)  (5) = 125 = 11.2

A – B = 4i – 3j – 6i – 8j = –2i – 11j
2 2
|A – B| = (2)  (11) = 11.2
B – A = 6i + 8j – 4i + 3j = 2i + 11j
JE

2 2
|B – A| = (2)  (11) = 11.2
Let 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 be angles which A, B, A + B, A – B and B – A make with the positive
direction of x-axis.
ES

Ay 3 Y
tan1 = A =  = –0.75,
x 4
1 = –tan–1 (0.75) = –37º B–A
80º A+B
By 26º
8
an
X X
tan2 = B = = 1.33, 2 = tan–1 (1.33) = 53.1º 260º O
x 6
A–B
( Ay  B y ) 5
tan3 = ( A  B ) = = 0.5, 3 = tan–1(1.33) = 26.5º
x x 10
ka
Y
( Ay  B y )  11
tan4 = ( A  B ) = = 5.5, 4 = tan–1(5.5) ~ 80º
x x 2

As (Ay – By) and (Ax – Bx) are both negative, A – B is in third quadrant, the angle which vector
lp

A – B makes with the positive direction of x-axis, measured in anticlockwise direction, is equal to
180 + 4 = 180 + 80 = 260º.
B y  Ay 11
tan 5 = B  A = = 5.5, 5 = tan–1 (5.5) = 80º.
x x 2
Sample Problem 1.11:
If vectors A = 3i + j – 2k, B = –i + 3j + 4k and C = 4i –2j –6k can be represented by the sides of
a triangle, find the two vectors which will give the third vector as a resultant.
Sol.: If any one of these two vectors are added, their resultant should be equal to the third vector as their
resultant.
A + B = (3i + j – 2k) + (–i + 3j + 4k) = 2i + 4j + 2k  C
A + C = (3i + j – 2k) + (4i –2j –6k) = (7i – j – 8k)  B
B + C = (–i + 3j + 4k) + (4i –2j –6k) = (3i + j –2k) = A
 vectors B and C combine to give resultant A

-1. 2 0 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

Sample Problem 1.12:

Find the scalar product and angle between vectors A = 3i – 5j and B = 6i + 2j
Sol.: A.B = (3i – 5j) . (6i + 2j) = (3  6) + (–5  2) = 18 – 10 = 8
A.B = |A| |B| cos
AB
or cos = | A | | B |

|A| = Ax2  A2y = 9  25 = 34

|B| = B x2  B 2y = 36  4 = 40
8 8
 cos  = ( 34 )( 40 ) = = 0.217
36.8

 = cos–1(0.217) = 77.5º
Sample Problem 1.13:
A partical moves from the position 2i + 3j – 5k to position 12i + 15j + 8k in metre units and a uniform
JE

force 5i + 2j + 3k , Newton acts on it. Calculate the work done by this force.
Sol.: If F is force applied to displace a particle through distance S, work W is given by
W=F.S
ES
S = r2 – r1 = (12i + 15j + 8k) – (2i + 3j – 5k) = 10i + 12j + 13k
W = (5i + 2j + 3k) . (10i + 12j + 13k) = 50 + 24 + 39 = 113 J
Sample Problem 1.14:
If a force F = 4i – 10j Newton is applied to the rim of a disc at a distance or r = –5i – 4j from its axis
an

of rotation, find the torque applied.

Sol.: Torque, T = r  F
= (–5i – 4j)  (4i – 10j)
ka

= (–20) (i  i) + (50) (i  j) + (–16) (j  i) + (40) (j  j)

= 0 + 50 k + (–16) (–k) + 0
= 50k + 16k = 66k
lp

Sample Problem 1.15:

A plane is flying with speed 700 km/h in north-eastern direction and wind is blowing at 100 km/h
north to south. Find the resultant displacement of plane in 2hours.
Sol.: Let v1 be velocity of plane in north eastern direction & v2 be velocity of wind from north to south and
i and j be unit vectors in east and north direction.
700 700 N
v1 = 700 (cos 45)i + 700 (sin 45)j = 2
i + 2 j
v1 v2
v2 = –100j
700 700
If v is resultant velocity, v = v1 + v2 = i + 2 j – 100j v
2
E
= 496i + 496j – 100j = 496i + 396j km/h O
S
 Displacement, S = v  t = (496  2)i + (396  2)j = 992i + 792j,
S = {(992)2 + (792)2}1/2 = 1268.1 km

-1. 2 1 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

OBJECTIVE : 1 – III
1. Identify the vector quantity
(a) work (b) time
(c) heat (d) angular momentum
Sol. [d]
Both magnitude and direction
2. The x and y components of a force are 2N and –3N. The force is
(a) 2i – 3j (b) 2i + 3j (c) –2i – 3j (d) 3i + 2j
Sol. [a]
i = x component
j = y component
3. The magnitude of i + j + k is
(a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 3
JE

Sol. [d]

12  12  12  3
4. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting at right angles to each other. Then their resultant is
ES

2 2 2 2 F1  F2
(a) F1 + F2 (b) F1  F2 (c) F1  F2 (d)
2
Sol. [b]
F12  F22  2 F1F2 cos90º
an

5. With respect to a rectangular cartesian coordinate system, three vectors are expressed as :
  
a  4iˆ  ˆj , b  3iˆ  2 ˆj and c   kˆ where iˆ, ˆj, kˆ are unit vectors, along the X, Y and Z-axis respec-
ka

tively. The unit vector r̂ along the direction of sum of these vector is –
1 ˆ 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ 1 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
(a) rˆ  (iˆ  ˆj  k ) (b) rˆ  (i  j  k ) (c) rˆ  (iˆ  ˆj  kˆ ) (d) rˆ  (i  j  k )
3 2 3 2
   
lp

Sol. (a) r  a  b  c  4iˆ  ˆj  3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ


r iˆ  ˆj  kˆ iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
rˆ   
|r| 12  12  (1) 2 3
     
6. Two vectors A and B are such that | A  B | = | A  B | . The angle between the two vectors will be–
(a) 60° (b) 90° (c) 180° (d) 0°
Sol. [b]
   
| A  B || A  B |  A2  B 2  2 AB cos   A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
Squaring both the sides, we get cos  = 0 (since the scaler or dot product is zero)
 
Therefore angle between A to B is 90°
7. The angle between i + j + k and 2i + 2j + 2k is
(a) 0° (b) 30° (c) 60° (d) 90°
Sol. [a]
A . B = AB cos   (i + j + k) . (2i + 2j + 2k) = 3. 12 cos 

-1. 2 2 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

   
8. A vector A points vertically upward and B points towards north. The vector product A  B is –
(a) zero (b) along west (c) along east (d) vertically downward
Sol. [b]
Apply right hand thumb rule.
   
9. The value of (A  B)  (A  B ) is
   
(a) 0 (b) A2  B2 (c) BA (d) 2 (B  A )
Sol. [d]
   
A  A  0 and B  B  0
10. If the resultant of n forces of different magnitudes acting at a point is zero, then the minimum value of
n is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Sol. [c]
Closed figure
JE

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

1. Solving Quadratic Equation

ES

If a quadratic equation is of the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0 where, c is constant
b  b2  4ac
then, the roots of x =
an

2a
 coeff. of x  (coeff. of x) 2  4  coeff. of x 2  constant
 x 
2  coeff. of x 2
2. Binomial Expansion
ka

n n( n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 +x x  x  ......
1 1.2 1.2.3
lp

If x is very very small as compared to 1, (x << 1), then squares and higher powers of x can be
neglected as compared to 1, then
(1  x) n (1  nx)
Similarly, if x << 1 such that a squares and higher powers of x can be neglected, then
(1 – x)n = 1 – nx
(1 + x)–n = 1 – nx
(1 – x)–n = 1 + nx
3. Exponential Expansion

x x2 x3
ex = 1     .........
1! 2! 3!
1 1
 e = e1 = 1 + 1 +  ........ 2.718
2! 3!
1
 0.3679 0.37
e

-1. 2 3 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

4. Approximations
(i) When  is small (upto 3º or sometimes even upto 5º)
then sin  = tan  =  (in radian)
(ii) If  << 1 and  << 1, then
1 
 1   1 
1   
1  1 
 1    1   
   
1  1 
 1    1  
   
5. Trigonometrical Ratios
(i) These are the ratios of the sides of a right angled triangle.
(ii) The basic relations are only two : us
e
oten
height base h yp height
(a) sin  = hypotenuse (b) cos  = hypotenuse

JE
base
(iii) The other ratios are derived from these two ratios
sin  height 1
(a) tan  = cos   base (b) cot  =
tan 
ES

1 1
(c) sec  = cos  (d) cosec  =
sin 
(iv) (a) Even the two fundamental trigonometrical ratios are related with the relation :
sin2 + cos2 = 1
an

(whatever be the value of )

(b) The above relations can also be written as
tan2 + 1 = sec2 divides the above relation, on both sides, by cos2
cot2 + 1 = cosec2 dividing the above relation, on both sides, by sin2
ka

(v) (a) Trigonometrical ratios of angles 0º, 30º, 45º, 60º and 90º are to be remembered
( generally in examinations, these angles are given for numericals)
 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º
lp

sin  0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1

cos  1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0
tan  0 1/ 3 1 3 

(b) Also remember trigonometrical ratios for 37º

sin 37º = 0.6  
cos 37º = 0.8
tan 37º = 0.75 º


(c) (i) In first quadrant ( 0 – 90º), all trigonometrical ratios are positive.
(ii) In second quadrant only sin  is positive but cos  and tan  are negative.
(iii) In third quadrant, only tan  is positive but sin  and cos  are negative.
(iv) In fourth quadrant, only cos  is positive but sin  and tan  are negative.

-1. 2 4 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

(d) To find trigonometrical ratios of angles greater than 90º :

(i) If we add multiple of 90º to the given angle or subtract multiple of 90º from the given
angle, then the given angle can be brought to first quadrant.
 e.g, 225º can be written as 180 + 45º  225º – 180 = 45º
300º can be written as 270º + 30º  300º – 270º = 30º.
(ii) Then from the rules given below, we can find the trigonometrical ratios of angles
greater than 90º (after reducing these angles to less than 90º.)
(e) (i) If odd multiple of 90º [90 or 270º] is added to the given angle or subtracted from the
given angle, then sin of the given angle is converted into cos of the resultant angle and
viceversa.
(ii) The sign of the trigonometrical ratio of the resultant angle depends on the quadrant in
which the original angle lies.
e.g., sin 150º = sin [90º + 60º] = + cos 60º (after subtracting 90º)
( original angle lies in second quadrant in which sin  is positive).
cos 120º = cos [90º + 30º] = – sin 30 (after subtracting 90º)
( original angle lies in second quadrant in which cos  is negative).
(f) (i) If even multiple of 90º (i.e., 180º) is added to the given angle or subtracted from the
given angle, then sin of the given angle remains as sin of the resultant angle and cos of the
JE

given angle remains as cos of the resultant angle.

(ii) The sign of the trigonometrical ratio of the resultant angle depends on the quadrant in which
the original angle lies.
ES

e.g., sin 210º = sin [180º + 30º] = – sin 30 (after subtracting 180º)
( original angle lies in third quadrant where sin  is negative)
(g) Some of the other trigonometrical relations to be remembered are :
(i) sin [A + B] = sin A cos B + cos A sin B   sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
an

(ii) sin [A – B] = sin A cos B – cos A sin B

(iii) cos [A + B] = cos A cos B – sin A sin B  cos 2A = cos2A – sin2A
= 2 cos2A – 1
= 1 – 2 sin2A.
ka

(iv) cos [A – B] = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

A+B A–B
(v) sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
lp

A+B A–B
(vi) sin A – sin B = 2 cos sin
2 2
A+B A–B
(vii) cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2
A+B BA A+B AB
(viii) cos A – cos B = 2 sin sin =  2 sin sin
2 2 2 2
6. Differentiation
1. Let y be a function of x (i.e., it depends upon x) e.g. y = x, y = 4x2, y = x + x3, etc.
Now, if x changes, y should also change. Let x be the change in x and let y be the corresponding
change in y, then the ratio,
y dy d
limit   ( y)
x dx dx
x  0
is called differential of y with respect to x (variation in y due to variation in x, when variation
in x is very very small, approaching to zero).

-1. 2 5 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

2. Differentiation has large application in physics. Though, the proofs of relations are taught in mathematics,
for the sake of understanding, let us consider the proof of only one relation.
d d
If y = xn, then, ( y )  ( x n )  n x n 1
dx dx
Proof : Let y = xn ..... (i)
Let x be a very small increment in x and let y be the corresponding increment in y. Then the
above equation becomes
y + y = (x + x)n
n n( n  1) n–2 n(n  1)(n  2) n–3
= xn + .xn–1.x + x (x)2 + x . (x)3 + ..........
1 1.2 1.2.3
.....(ii)
(ii) – (i) gives
n( n  1) n–2 n(n  1)(n  2) n–3
y = n xn–1.x + .x (x)2 + .x .(x)3 + .............
1.2 1.2.3
Dividing both sides by x, we get
y n( n  1) n( n  1)( n  2) n–3
= n xn–1 + . xn–2 . x + x (x)2 + ..............
x 1.2 1.2.3
JE

y dy
When x  0 (x tends to zero or approaches to zero), then limit 
x dx
dy
 n.x n 1
ES

So, the above relation becomes :

dx
Similarly, all the other relations can also be proved. But we remember some of the relations of
differentiation for their use in Physics at our level. These relations, as given below, should be properly
remembered and practised.
an

d n
(i) ( x )  n . x n 1 [Multiply by the power and decrease the power of x by 1]
dx
d d n
(ii) [Axn] = A ( x ) = A n.x n–1.
dx dx
ka

where A is a constant. In this operation, A just comes out without affecting the differentiation.
d
(iii) (A) = 0, where A is a constant.
dx
lp

(Differentiation of a constant is zero,  no variation or change can be produced in a constant,

due to variation in x e.g., , 20, etc. will not change due to variation of x)
d du dv
(iv) (u + v) =  where u and v are both functions of x
dx dx dx
(Differentiation of each part, separately)
d dv du
(v) (uv) = u.  v
dx dx dx
(First term × differentiation of second term + second term × differentiation of first term)
du dv
d u  v.  u.
(vi) = dx dx
dx  v  v2
 denominator × differentiation of numerator – numerator × differentiation of denominator 
(denominator) 2
Note : this relation can also derived using relation (v) above.

-1. 2 6 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

d d
(vii) (sin x) = cos x (viii) (cos x) = – sin x
dx dx
d 1 d x
(ix) (log x) = (x) (e ) = ex
dx x dx
dy dy dt
(xi)  . where, y is t-depedent and t is x-dependent.
dx dt dx
7. Differentiation & Slope of Curve
Let relation between x and y be shown graphically by tangent
a curve, shown as under. Let tangent at any point P, on y2
P
the curve, be drawn, making an angle  with positive side 

of x-axis. Then, tan  is also called slope of the tangent y1
and is denoted by m.

x1 x2
In all the similar triangles shown, tan  will be same.
y2  y1 y
JE

 slope = m = tan  = x  x  x
2 1

As smaller and smaller triangle is considered, approaching P then y and x go on decreasing such
that x  0 (x approaches to zero as triangle approaches to P).
ES

y dy
Then, limit  = differentiation of y w.r.t. x
x dx
x  0
dy
an

 at any point on the curve gives slope at that point.

dx
If the graph is between (i) displacement (s) along y-axis, and (ii) time (t) along x-axis, then
s2  s1 s s ds
ka

tan  = t  t  t  limit t  dt
2 1

t  0
ds
lp

But is called velocity

dt
 In case of displacement-time graph , the slope at any point gives velocity at that point.
Similarly, in case of graph between (i) velocity (v) along y-axis, and time (t) along x-axis, the slope, at
any point, gives acceleration at that point.
8. Integration
1. (i) It is reverse of differentiation.
(ii) Whenever, we have to add very small varying quantities, such that variation is smooth, then method
of integration is used.
2. Some of the basic relations of integration :

n x n 1
(i)  x dx  n 1
[ n  1]
Increase power of x by 1 and divide by increased power.
n n A.x n 1
(ii)  Ax dx  A x dx  n 1
(where A is a constant)

-1. 2 7 -
 Units, Dimensions & Vectors

(iii)  (u  v) dx   u dx   v dx (where u and v are functions of x) Integration by parts.

(iv)  sin x dx  cos x

(v)  cos x dx  sin x
1
(vi) x dx  log x

x x
(vii)  e dx  e
Note : 1. To the result of integration, we always add a constant, called constant of integration. The value of
the constant of integration is found by using the conditions of inegration.
2. In define integration [i.e., integration between certain limits or values], integration of constant is
not added.
9. Graphs
(a) Straight Line :
JE

If two variables (x and y) are linearly related, i.e., in their relation, power of each is 1, then their graph
(or graphical relation between them) is a straight line.
i.e., y x  y = mx + c represents a straight line
ES

where, m = slope of the curve = tan 

where,  = the angle which the line makes with positive side of x-axis.
c = intercept of line on y-axis
an

= distance between origin of the co-ordinate system and the point where line cuts y-axis.
(b) Parabola :
If the equation of two variables (x and y) are so related in an equation that the power of one variable
ka

is 1 and the power of the other variable is 2, then the graph (or graphical relation between the two) is a
parabola, about the linear variable (i.e., on both sides of the variable with power 1).
(c) Hyperbola :
lp

(i) If the product of two variables is a constant, then the graph between them is a hyperbola.
(ii) If the powers of both the variables, in their product, is same then the graph between them is
symmetrical hyperbola.
(iii) If the powers of the variables, in their product, are not equal then the graph between them is non-
symmetrical hyperbola.
(d) Circle :
If in an equation of two variables (x and y), power of both the variables is 2 and their co-efficients are
also equal, then the graph between x and y is a circle.
If the equation can be put in the form

x2 y 2
 1  x2 + y2 = a2
a 2 a2
then the graph between x and y is a circle.

-1. 2 8 -
Units, Dimensions & Vectors

(e) Ellipse :
If in an equation of two variables (x and y) powers of both the variables is 2 but their coefficients are
different, then the graph between x and y is ellipse.
If the equation can be put in the form
x2 y 2
 1 [co-efficients of x2 and y2 are different)
a 2 b2
then the graph between x and y is an ellipse.
10. Important Point about all graphs

Area under the curve (or graph), generally on x-axis, gives the magnitude of a physical quantity, the
units of which are the product of units of the variables along the two axes.
For example :
(i) Area under the curve on volume axis (when pressure,
P, of a gas is along y-axis and volume, V, of the gas is
along x-axis), gives the work done by the gas during P
JE

expansion or work done on the gas during compression.

V
(ii) Area under the curve on time-axis, (when force, F,
acting on the body is along y-axis and time, t, for
ES

which force acts on the body is along x-axis), gives F

impulse or change in momentum produced in the body. t
(iii) Area under the curve on time-axis, (when velocity, v,
of the body is along y- axis and time, t, for which
an

the body moves is along x-axis) gives the displacement v

of the body. t
11. Also Remember
ka

(i) 2 = 1.414 3 = 1.732

5 = 2.236 10 = 3.162
 = 3.142 2 = 9.87
(ii) Some times, for approximate results
lp

 = 10 2 = 10
g = acceleration due to gravity = 10 m s–2 = 2 m s–2
12. Logarithms
If ex = y, x = log e y = ln y
e ~ 2.7183
If y = 10x, x = log10 y
log10 y = 0.4343 ln y
log(ab) = log a + logb
a
log  b  = log a – log b
 
log an = nloga
1
log  a  = –loga
 

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