Biological Classification: Notes

1. Introduction to Biological Classification

Historical Background: Classification began instinctively for human needs (food, shelter,
clothing) without scientific criteria.
Aristotle (Earliest Scientific Attempt):
●​ Classified plants based on morphology: trees, shrubs, herbs.
●​ Divided animals into two groups: those with red blood (vertebrates) and those without
(invertebrates).

Linnaeus (18th Century):

Developed the Two Kingdom system: Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals).

Limitations: Did not differentiate between:

●​ Eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes.
●​ Unicellular vs. multicellular organisms.
●​ Photosynthetic (e.g., green algae) vs. non-photosynthetic (e.g., fungi) organisms.
●​ Simple and widely used but inadequate for many organisms.

Need for Improved Systems:

●​ Many organisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi) didn’t fit into Plantae or Animalia.
●​ Additional criteria needed: cell structure, cell wall nature, mode of nutrition, reproduction
methods, habitat, evolutionary relationships.

Evolution of Classification :
●​ Systems evolved over time with improved scientific understanding.
●​ Plantae and Animalia remained constant, but their included groups and additional
kingdoms changed.

2. Five Kingdom Classification (R.H. Whittaker, 1969)

Overview:
Proposed five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.

Main criteria:
●​ Cell structure (prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic).
●​ Body organization (cellular, tissue, organ).
●​ Mode of nutrition (autotrophic vs. heterotrophic).
●​ Reproduction (asexual vs. sexual).
●​ Phylogenetic relationships (evolutionary history).

Alternative System :

Three-domain system (later development):

 ●​ Splits Monera into Archaea and Bacteria (two domains).
●​ Eukaryotic kingdoms (Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia) in third domain ( Eukarya ).
●​ Results in a six-kingdom classification (detailed in higher studies).

2.1 Kingdom Monera

Definition: Solely bacteria; prokaryotic microorganisms.

Distribution: Ubiquitous; found in soil, water, extreme environments (hot springs, deserts, deep
oceans), and as parasites.

Abundance : Most abundant microorganisms (e.g., hundreds in a handful of soil).

Morphology : Classified by shape (Figure 2.1):

●​ Coccus: Spherical (plural: cocci).
●​ Bacillus: Rod-shaped (plural: bacilli).
●​ Vibrio: Comma-shaped (plural: vibrio).
●​ Spirillum: Spiral (plural: spirilla).

Metabolic Diversity:
Autotrophic :
●​ Photosynthetic (use light energy, e.g., cyanobacteria).
●​ Chemosynthetic (oxidize inorganic substances like nitrates, nitrites for energy).
Heterotrophic : Rely on other organisms or dead organic matter.

Subgroups:

2.1.1 Archaebacteria:

Habitat: Extreme environments:

- Halophiles (salty areas).
- Thermoacidophiles (hot springs).
- Methanogens (marshy areas, ruminant guts).
- Unique Feature: Different cell wall structure (allows survival in harsh conditions).

Economic Role: Methanogens produce methane (biogas) from animal dung.

2.1.2 Eubacteria:
Characteristics: Rigid cell wall; flagellum if motile.

Types:
1.Autotrophs
Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae):
- Photosynthetic (chlorophyll *a* like plants).
- Unicellular, colonial, or filamentous; freshwater, marine, or terrestrial.
- Gelatinous sheath surrounds colonies (Figure 2.2: Nostoc).
- Form algal blooms in polluted water.
- Nitrogen fixation in heterocysts (e.g., Nostoc, Anabaena).

Chemosynthetic Autotrophs: Recycle nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, sulfur) via

oxidation.

2.Heterotrophs: Most abundant; decomposers.

Economic Uses: Curd production, antibiotics, nitrogen fixation in legumes.

Pathogens: Cause diseases (cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker).

3.Mycoplasma:
- Unique: Lack cell wall; smallest living cells; survive without oxygen.
- Pathogenic: Cause diseases in animals and plants.

Reproduction:
- Primary: Binary fission (Figure 2.3).
- Stress Response: Produce spores under unfavorable conditions.
- Sexual-like: Primitive DNA transfer between bacteria.

2.2 Kingdom Protista

Definition: All single-celled eukaryotes; boundaries not well-defined (e.g., photosynthetic
protists vs. plants).
Characteristics:
- Habitat: Primarily aquatic.
- Structure: Eukaryotic with nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; some have flagella or
cilia.
- Reproduction: Asexual (binary fission) and sexual (cell fusion, zygote formation).

Subgroups:
2.2.1 Chrysophytes :
- Members: Diatoms, golden algae (desmids).
- Habitat: Freshwater and marine; microscopic plankton.
- Nutrition: Photosynthetic.
- Cell Wall: Diatoms have silica-embedded walls (two overlapping shells like a soapbox);
indestructible.
- Economic Role: Diatomaceous earth (cell wall deposits) used in polishing, filtration;
diatoms are ocean producers.
2.2.2 Dinoflagellates:
 - Habitat: Mostly marine; photosynthetic.
- Appearance: Yellow, green, brown, blue, or red (due to pigments).
- Structure: Stiff cellulose plates; two flagella (longitudinal and transverse).
- Ecological Impact: Rapid multiplication causes red tides (e.g., Gonyaulax); toxins kill
marine life (Figure 2.4a).
2.2.3 Euglenoids:
- Habitat: Freshwater (stagnant).
- Structure: Protein-rich pellicle (no cell wall); flexible body; two flagella (short and long).
- Nutrition: Photosynthetic in sunlight; heterotrophic (predatory) in darkness.
- Feature: Pigments identical to higher plants (e.g., Euglena, Figure 2.4b).
2.2.4 Slime Moulds:
- Nutrition: Saprophytic; engulf organic matter on decaying wood/leaves.
- Structure: Form plasmodium (mobile mass) under suitable conditions.
- Reproduction: Fruiting bodies with resistant spores under stress; spores dispersed by air
(Figure 2.4c).
2.2.5 Protozoans:
- Nutrition: Heterotrophic (predators or parasites); primitive animal relatives.
- Major Groups:
- Amoeboid: Move/feed via pseudopodia (e.g., Amoeba); some parasitic (Entamoeba).
- Flagellated: Have flagella; free-living or parasitic (e.g., Trypanosoma - sleeping sickness).
- Ciliated: Aquatic; move via cilia; gullet for feeding (e.g., Paramoecium, Figure 2.4d).
- Sporozoans: Spore-like stage; parasites (e.g., Plasmodium - malaria).

2.3 Kingdom Fungi

Definition: Heterotrophic eukaryotes; unique due to diversity in morphology and habitat.

Distribution: Cosmopolitan (air, water, soil, plants, animals); prefer warm, humid conditions.
Structure:
- Body: Filamentous (hyphae form mycelium); yeasts are unicellular.
- Hyphae Types: Coenocytic (no septae) or septate (cross walls).
- Cell Wall: Chitin and polysaccharides.
Nutrition:
- Saprophytic : Absorb nutrients from dead matter.
- Parasitic : Depend on living hosts.
- Symbiotic : Lichens (with algae), mycorrhiza (with plant roots).
Economic Role: Bread/beer (yeast), antibiotics (Penicillium), plant/animal diseases (Puccinia).
Reproduction :
- Vegetative: Fragmentation, fission, budding.
- Asexual: Spores (conidia, sporangiospores, zoospores).
- Sexual: Three steps:
1. Plasmogamy (protoplasm fusion).
2. Karyogamy (nuclear fusion).
3. Meiosis (haploid spore formation).
 - Dikaryophase: Temporary stage with two nuclei (n+n) in some fungi (e.g., ascomycetes,
basidiomycetes).
Classes :
2.3.1 Phycomycetes :
- Habitat: Aquatic, decaying wood, or parasitic on plants.
- Mycelium: Aseptate, coenocytic.
- Reproduction: Asexual (zoospores/aplanospores), sexual (zygospores -
isogamous/anisogamous).
- Examples: Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould), Albugo (mustard parasite) (Figure 2.5a).
- **2.3.2 Ascomycetes** (Sac-Fungi):
- Structure: Mostly multicellular; some unicellular (yeast).
- Nutrition: Saprophytic, parasitic, or coprophilous (dung-growing).
- Reproduction: Asexual (conidia on conidiophores), sexual (ascospores in asci within
ascocarps).
- Examples: Penicillium, Aspergillus (Figure 2.5b), Neurospora (genetic research),
morels/truffles (edible).
- **2.3.3 Basidiomycetes**:
- Members: Mushrooms, rusts, smuts.
- Habitat: Soil, logs, plant parasites.
- Mycelium: Branched, septate.
- Reproduction: No asexual spores; vegetative (fragmentation); sexual (basidiospores in
basidia within basidiocarps).
- Examples: Agaricus (mushroom, Figure 2.5c), Puccinia (rust), Ustilago (smut).
- **2.3.4 Deuteromycetes** (Imperfect Fungi):
- Feature: Only asexual/vegetative phases known; sexual stages reclassify them into other
classes.
- Reproduction: Asexual (conidia).
- Mycelium: Septate, branched.
- Nutrition: Saprophytic, parasitic, decomposers (mineral cycling).
- Examples: Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma.

---

## 2.4 Kingdom Plantae

- **Definition**: Eukaryotic, chlorophyll-containing organisms (plants).
- **Exceptions**:
- Partially heterotrophic: Insectivorous (e.g., Venus flytrap, bladderwort), parasitic (e.g.,
Cuscuta).
- **Structure**: Eukaryotic cells with chloroplasts; cell wall (cellulose).
- **Members**: Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms.
- **Life Cycle**:
- Alternation of generations: Diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte phases.
- Phase variation: Length and independence differ among plant groups.
---

## 2.5 Kingdom Animalia

- **Definition**: Multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes; no cell walls.
- **Nutrition**: Holozoic (ingestion); food stored as glycogen or fat.
- **Characteristics**:
- Definite growth pattern (fixed adult shape/size).
- Locomotion in most.
- Higher forms: Sensory and neuromotor systems.
- **Reproduction**: Sexual (copulation, embryological development).

---

## 2.6 Viruses, Viroids, Prions, and Lichens

- **Exclusion**: Not part of Whittaker’s five kingdoms (acellular or symbiotic).
- **Viruses**:
- Nature: Non-cellular; inert crystalline outside host; obligate parasites.
- Structure: Nucleoprotein (RNA or DNA, never both); capsid (protein coat) with capsomeres
(helical/polyhedral).
- Types:
- Plant viruses: Single-stranded RNA.
- Animal viruses: Single/double-stranded RNA or double-stranded DNA.
- Bacteriophages: Double-stranded DNA (Figure 2.6b).
- History:
- Ivanowsky (1892): Identified tobacco mosaic virus (TMV, Figure 2.6a).
- Beijerinek (1898): Named “virus” (contagium vivum fluidum).
- Stanley (1935): Crystallized viruses (mostly protein).
- Diseases: Mumps, smallpox, herpes, AIDS (humans); mosaic, leaf curl (plants).
- **Viroids**:
- Discovery: T.O. Diener (1971); caused potato spindle tuber disease.
- Nature: Free RNA (no protein coat); smaller than viruses; low molecular weight.
- **Prions**:
- Nature: Abnormally folded proteins; size similar to viruses.
- Diseases: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
(CJD) in humans.
- **Lichens**:
- Nature: Symbiotic association of algae (phycobiont, autotrophic) and fungi (mycobiont,
heterotrophic).
- Role: Algae provide food; fungi offer shelter and nutrients.
- Feature: Pollution indicators (absent in polluted areas).