Plus One All Chapters. Short Note

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Who made the first attempt of classification? :- Aristotle.

2. How did Aristotle classified plants? :- Aristotle classified plants into herbs, shrubs &
trees on the basis of morphology.
3. How did Aristotle classified animals? :- Aristotle classified animals as with red blood &
without red blood.
4. Father of taxonomy :- Carolus Linnaeus.
5. Two kingdom classification :- Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus. He divided all living
organisms into two kingdom – Kingdom Plantae & kingdom Animalia
6. Drawbacks of Two kingdom classification :-
 Did not distinguish between Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes
 Did not distinguish between Unicellular & Multicellular organisms.
 There is no differentiation between Autotrophic & heterotrophic organisms
 Large number of organisms did not fall under either category.
 Similar organisms are placed under different groups
 Dissimilar organisms are placed under same group
7. Five kingdom classification :- Proposed by R.H. Whittakker (1969). It include Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia
8. What are the criteria for 5 kingdom classification ? :-
 Cell structure
 Thallus organisation
 Mode of nutrition
 Reproduction
 Phylogenetic relationship
9. General characters of kingdom Monera :-
 Prokaryotic (Well defined nucleus & membrane bound cell organells are absent)
 Non cellulosic cell wall , composed of polysaccharide & aminoacids,
 Unicellular organisms
 Mode of nutrition :- Autotrophic (chemosynthetic / photosynthetic) and
Heterotrophic (saprophytic/parasitic)
 Members :- Bacteria & Mycoplasma
10. Bacteria :-
 Sole member of kingdom monera.
 Most abundant microorganism, occur almost everywhere .
 They live in extreme habitats.
 Their structure is very simple , but complex in behaviour.
 They show most extensive metabolic diversity.
Prepared by Nandini. K.N, NHSS Kolathur, Malappuram. Page 1

 Some are autotrophic (prepare ttheir own food) & others are heterotrophic
(require ready made food)
 reproduction :-
 Mainly by fission.
 Under unfavourable conditions they produce spores.
 Sexual reproduction by a primitive type of DNA transfe
transferr from one
bacterium to other
11. Classification
ssification of bacteria on the basis of their shape ::-
 Coccus – Spherical
 Bacillus – rod shaped
 Vibrium – comma shaped
 Spirillum – spiral shaped

12. Archebacteria:- Survive in extreme condition b because
ecause they have different cellwall
structure.
 Halophiles :- Bacteria live in extreme salty areas.
 Thermoacidophiles ::- live in hot springs.
 Methanogens :- live in marshy areas. They are present in the gut of several
ruminant animals (cow, buffaloes etc) & produce methane (biogas biogas) from dung .
13. Eubacteria (True bacteria) ::- They have rigid cell wall. If motile, flagellum present.
 Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae) ::- eg., Nostoc, Anabaena
 Unicellular
 colonial / filamentous
 Fresh water/ Marine / Terrestrial
 Photosynthetic
tosynthetic (prepare food using light energy)
 Colonies are covered by mucilaginous sheath
 Can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cell called heterocyst
 Algal bloom
bloom:- Overproduction of cyanobacteria. It leads to water
pollution.

 Chemosynthetic bacteria :- Prepare food using chemical energy released through
oxidation. They have major role in recycling of minerals. eg., sulphur bacteria,
phosphorous bacteria
 Heterotrophic bacteria :- Most abundant in nature. Important decomposers.
 Uses :- Making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, recycling of
minerals
 Some are pathogens (organisms which cause diseases).
 Example for bacterial diseases :- Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, pneumonia,
citrus canker (in plant)
14. Mycoplasma :-
 Smallest living organism.
 can survive without oxygen.
 They lack cell wall.
 Pathogenic
15. General characters of kingdom Protista :-
 Eukaryotic (Well defined nucleus & membrane bound cell organells are present)
 Unicellular
 Aquatic
 Form a link with plants, animals & fungi
 Cell wall present in some protistans
 Mode of nutrition :- Photosynthetic and heterotrophic
 Reproduce sexually & asexually by a process involving cell fusion & zygote
formation.
16. Classification of kingdom Protista :-
 Chrysophytes :-
 Includes Diatoms & Golden algae (Desmids)
 Aquatic (freshwater as well as Marine water)
 Photosynthetic
 Planktons (microscopic , free floating organisms)
 Diatoms :-
 Chief producers in ocean.
 Cell walls are embedded with silica, thus walls are indestructible.
 Cell wall form 2 thin overlapping shell, which fit together as a soap
box.
 Diatomaceous earth :- Accumulation of cell wall deposits of
diatoms , over billions of years, on their habitat. Being gritty, soil
is used in polishing, filtration of soil & syrups.

 Dinoflagellate :-
 Aquatic ( Mari
Marine)
 Photosynthetic
 Appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigment
present in their cell wall.
 Cell wall has stiff cellulose plate on the outer surface
 Two flagella – one lies longitudinally & other transversely in the furrow
between wall plates
 Red tide :-- rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellate (eg., Gonyaulax)
make the sea appear red. Toxin released by large number of red
dinoflagellate may even kill fish & other marine animals.

 Euglenoids :-
 Aquatic (freshwater)
 Photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight. If there is a lack of sunlight ,
they behave like heterotrophs (by predating small organisms)
 Instead of cell wall, a protein rich layer called pellicle present, which
makes their body flexible.
 2 flagella – one short & one long.
 Pigments are identified to those present in higher plants.
 Slime moulds :-
 Saprophytic ( live & take food from dead organic matter)
 Body move along decaying twigs & leaves.
 Under suitable condition, they form an aggregation called plasmodium
which may grow & spread over several feet.
 During unfavourable condition, Plasmodium differentiate & form fruiting
bodies which bear spores at their tip.
 Spores :– possess true wall. Spo
Spores are extremely
xtremely resistant & survive for
many years (even under unfavourable situations). Dispersed by air
currents

 Protozoans :- primitive relatives of animals.
 Heterotroph – predator or parasites (live & take food from living
organisms).
 4 major groups :-
 Amoeboid protozoans :-eg., Amoeba , Entamoeba
 Grow in fresh water, sea water, or moist soil. Some are
parasites.
 Move & capture prey by putting out pseudopodia
 Marine forms have silica shells on their surface.
 Flagellated protozoan :- Free living or parasitic protozoans
having flagella. eg., Trypanosoma causing sleeping sickness.
 Ciliated protozoan :- eg., Paramoecium.
 Aquatic
 They have thousands of cilia
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to outside of cell
surface.
 Water with food enter into the gullet due to the Co-
ordinated movement of rows of cilia

 Sporozoans :- They have infectious spore like stage in their life
cycle. eg., Plasmodium (malarial partasite)
17. General characters of kingom Fungi :-
 Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil, plants &animals. Grow in
warm &humid places
 Multicellular, filamentous. Exception – Yeast (unicellular)
 Hyphae (fungal body)- long slender thread like structures.
 Mycelium – Network of hyphae.
 Coenocytic hyphae (Aseptate hyphae) – hyphae are continuous tubes with
multinucleated cytoplasm.
 Septate hyphae – hyphae having septa /cross walls.
 Cell wall – composed of chitin &polysaccharides.
 Saprophytic fungi – heterotrophic , live and absorb nutrients from dead
substrates.
 Parasitic fungi – Live and absorb nutrients from living plants &animals.
 Lichen -Symbiotic association between algae and fungus.

 Mycorrhiza –Symbiotic association between fungus and roots of higher plants
like pinus.
18. Uses of fungi :-
 Edible. eg., Mushroom
 Used to make bread & beer. eg., Yeast ( unicellular fungus)
 Source of Antibiotics. eg., Penicillium
19. Disadvantages of fungi :-
 Create harm by spoiling food , destroying timber etc.
 Pathogens (disease causing organism). eg., Puccinia (cause wheat rust) , Ustilago
(cause smut disease) , Asperegillus (cause Aspergillosis in man) Candida (cause
candidiasis in man) etc.
20. Reproduction of fungi :-
 Vegetative reproduction - By fragmentation ,fission and budding.
 Asexual reproduction – by spores (conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores)
 Sexual reproduction:-
 Plasmogamy – Fusion of protoplasms between two non-motile or motile
gametes.
 Karyogamy – Fusion of nuclei.
 Meiosis - Zygote undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. Spores
germinate .
 Dikaryophase – Phase between plasmogamy and karyogamy. Dikaryotic
stage (n+n ie., 2 nuclei per cell). Such condition is called Dikaryon. This
stage occur in Ascomycetes &Basidiomycete. Later parental nuclei fuse
and cell become diploid.
 Sexual spores – Oospores , Ascospores and Basidiospores.
21. Classification of kingdom Fungi :-
 Phycomycete :- eg., Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould) , Albugo (parasite on
mustard)
 Found in aquatic habitat, decaying wood, moist & damp places, as
obligate parasites in plants.
 Mycelium is aseptate & coenocytic.
 Asexual reproduction :- by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospore (non
motile) . Spores are endogenously produced in sporangium.
 Sexual reproduction :- 2 gametes fused to form zygospore. These
gametes are similar in morphology (Isogamous) or dissimilar
(Anisogamous or Oogamous)

 Mucor.
 Ascomycete (Sac fungi) :-
 They are saprophytes, decomposers, parasites or coprophilous (growing
on dung.
 Mycelium is branched & septate.
 Asexual reproduction :- Conidia (asexual spore) produced exogenously on
special mycelium called Conidiophores. Conidia germinate to produce
mycelium.
 Sexual reproduction :- Ascospores (sexual spores) produced
endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). Asci are arranged in fruiting
bodies called Ascocarp.
 eg., Penicillium, Yeast, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora (used in
biochemical & genetic work), Morels & tuffles (edible)
 Aspergillus
 Basidiomycete (bracket fungi) :-
 Grow in soil, on log and tree stumps and as parasite.
 Mycelium is branched & septate.
 Asexual reproduction – generally not found.
 Vegetative reproduction :- fragmentation
 Sexual reproduction :-4 Basidiospores (sexual spore) are produced
endogenously on basidium. Basidias are arranged in a fruiting body called
Basidiocarp
 eg., Agaricus (Mushroom), Ustilago (smut fungus), Puccinia (rust fungus)
 Agaricus.
 Deuteromycete (Imperfect fungi) :-
 Mycelium is septate & branched.
 Sexual phase is unknown, so they are called imperfect fungi.
 Asexual reproduction :- by conidia
 Vegetative reproduction :- fragmentation
 Majority are decomposers of litter & help in mineral cycling.
 eg., Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma

22. General characters of kingdom Plantae :-
 Eukaryotic, Multicellular, photosynthetic organisms.
 Cell wall is made up of cellulose
 Some are partially heterotrophic – Insectivorous plants (Bladder wort & venus fly
trap) and parasites (cuscuta)
 Alternation of generation :- Diploid sporophytic phase in the life cycle alternate
with haploid gametophytic phase
23. General characters of kingdom Animalia :-
 Eukaryotic, Multicellular, heterotrophic organisms.
 Lack cell wall
 Mode of nutrition – holozoic (by ingestion of food)
 Digest food in an internal cavity & food reserve as glycogen or fat.
 Show elaborate sensory & neuromotor mechanism . Most of them are capable of
locomotion.
 Follow a definite growth pattern, grow into adult, have definite shape & size.
 Sexual reproduction – by copulation of male & female followed by embryological
development.
24. Virus :-
 Non-cellular organisms having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
 Biological puzzle -Viruses are neither living nor non-living. They are dead in open
environment but when they infect a cell, they take over the machinery of host cell to
replicate ,killing the host.
 Virus is a nucleoprotein. Virus contain genetic material (DNA /RNA ) and protein
coat (capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres).
 Genetic material is infectious.
 Viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA. Viruses that infect animals have
either single / double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
 They are Obligate parasite
 Scientists & their contributions :-
 Pasteur – The name virus means venom or poisonous fluid was given
 D.J.Iwanowsky –(1892) – Recognised certain microbes ,smaller than bacteria
( passed through bacteria proof filters) ,which cause tobacco mosaic disease
 M.W.Beijerineck (1898) – demonstrated that extract of infected plant of
tobacco can cause infection in healthy plants. The fluid (extract) is called
Contagium vivum fluidum /infectious living fluid
 W.M.Stanley (1935)- showed that viruses could be crystallized and crystals
consists of proteins.

25. Bacteriophage – Viruses that infect bacteria. They have double stranded DNA as genetic
material.
26. Diseases caused by Virus – common cold, fever, covid19, mumps, small pox, herpes,
influenza , AIDS etc.
27. Plant diseases – Tobacco mosaic disease , Leaf rolling and curling , Yellowing and vein
clearing, Dwarfing and stunted growth etc.
28. Viroids :-
 T.O. Diener discovered in 1971.
 Smaller than virus.
 Cause potato spindle tuber disease.
 Lack protein coat.
 Found to be a free RNA
 RNA was of low molecular weight
29. Prions :-
 Similar in size to virus
 Consist of abnormally folded protein which can cause infectious neurological diseases.
 Disease caused by prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) ,commonly
called mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in
humans.
30. Lichens :-
 Symbiotic association between algae & fungi.
 Algal component is phycobiont & fungal component is Mycobiont
 Algae prepare food for fungus and fungus give shelter & absorb water & minerals for
algae.
 Economic importance :- Lichens are Pollution indicators . They do not grow in polluted
areas.
PLANT KINGDOM
1. Artificial system of classification :- Gave equal weightage to vegetative & sexual
characters.

2. Natural system of classification :- Consider both external & internal characters like ultra
structure, anatomy, embryology, and phytochemistry. eg., Benthem & Hooker
classification
3. Phylogenetic classification :- Based on evolutionary relationships between various
organisms.
4. Numerical taxonomy :- Use computer by assigning code for each character & analyzing
the features. Each character is given equal importance.
5. Cytotaxonamy :- Based on cytological informations like chromosome number, structure
etc.
6. Chemotaxonamy :- Use chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions.
7. General characters of Algae :-
 Aquatic ( fresh water & marine water)
 Autotrophic & photosynthetic (prepare their- own food using light energy)
 Chlorophyll-bearing
 Thalloid ( plant body is Thallus)
 They occur in moist stones, soils &wood
 Association with fungi – Lichen
 Association with animals eg., on sloth bear
 Form & size is highly variable (colonial form – Volvox, filamentous form –
Ulothrix & Spirogyra, branched forms reach a height of 100 metres – Kelps)
 Reproduction :-
 Vegetative reproduction –Fragmentation .
 Asexual reproduction – By Spores (eg., Zoospores – Flagellated /motile
spore)
 Sexual reproduction –By fusion of two gametes.
 Isogamous – Both the gametes are similar in size
(flagellated/motile in Ulothrix & non –flagellated / non-motile in
Spirogyra)
 Anisogamous – Gametes are dissimilar in size eg., species of
Udorina
 Oogamous – Large non-motile female gamete fused with small
motile male gamete eg., Volvox & Fucus.
8. Economic importance of Algae / Uses of Algae:-
 Half of the total CO2 fixation on earth through photosynthesis (Producers which
form the basis of food cycles of aquatic animals)
 Increase the level of dissolved O2 in water
 Edible / Used as food (eg., 70 species of marine algae such as Porphyra,
Laminaria & Sargassum)

 Produce large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding substances) which are
used commercially. eg., algin (brown algae) & carrageen (red algae)
 Agar obtained from Gelidium & Gracillaria – Used to grow microbes & in the
preparation of ice-creams and jellies.
 Chlorella, Unicellular green algae rich in proteins - Used as food supplements by
Space travellers.
9. Divisions of algae & their main characteristics:-
 Chlorophyceae :-
 Common name – Green algae
 Unicellular, colonial or filamentous plant body
 Major pigments – Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b. So grass green in colour.
 chloroplast may be discoid, cup shaped, plate like, reticulate, spiral /
ribbon shaped in different species.
 Pyrenoids – Storage bodies located in the chloroplast. Contain proteins
besides starch.
 Reserve food material –Starch.
 Some algae store food in the form of oil droplets.
 Rigid cell wall – Inner layer of cellulose & outer layer of pectose.
 Zoospores have 2-8 equal ,Apical flagella
 eg., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Chara
 Phaeophyceae :-
 Common name :- Brown algae
 They range from simple, branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to
profusely branched forms as Kelps (reach a height of 100m).
 Major pigments :- Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll c, Fucoxanthine.
 Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending
upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment.
 Reserve food material :- Laminarin or Mannitol
 Cellulosic cell wall covered by gelatinous coating called algin.
 In addition to plastids, protoplast contain centrally located vacuole &
nucleus.
 Plant body contain root like holdfast, stem like stipe & leaf like frond
 Gametes & zoospores are pear shaped & bear 2 unequal , laterally
attached flagella.
 eg., Ectocarpus, Kelps, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus
 Rhodophyceae :-
 Common name – Red algae.

 Most of them are multicellular. Some of them have complex body
organisations
 Major pigments – Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll d, Phycoerythrin
 Reserve food material :- Floredian starch (similar to amylopectin &
glycogen )
 Majority are marine with greater concentrations found in warmer areas.
 They occur in both well lighted regions close to the surface of water &
also at great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
 Non motile spores & non motile gametes are present ( flagella absent)
 Cell wall made up of cellulose, pectin & poly sulphate esters
 Oogamous type of sexual reproduction. Show complex post fertilisation
developments.
 eg., Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracillaria, Gelidium
10. General characters of Bryophytes :-

 Found in damp, humid and shaded localities.
 Thallus - plant body - Prostrate /erect.
 Attached to the substratum by unicellular /multicellular rhizoids.
 Lack true root, stem or leaves
11. Lifecycle of bryophytes :-
 Main plant body /dominant phase in the life cycle –Gametophyte (haploid )
which produce gametes
 Antheridium (multicellular male sex organ) which produce biflagellate
Antherozoid /male gamete .
 Archegonium - (multicellular female sex organ, flask- shaped) which produce
single egg/ female gamete.
 Antherozoid , released into water, come in contact with archegonium & fuses
with egg to form diploid zygote.
 Zygote develops into Sporophyte – Multicellular plant body, but it is not free
living (attached to photosynthetic and multicellular gametophyte).
 Some cells of sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.
 Spores germinate to produce gametophyte

12. Bryophytes are called Amphibians of plant kingdom Why ? :- They live in soil but water
is essential for sexual reproduction .
13. Economic importance of Bryophytes / Uses of Bryophytes :-
 Food for herbaceous mammals, birds & other animals.
 Sphagnum provide peat – Used as fuel.
 As packing material for trans - shipment of living material (because of their
capacity to hold water)
 Pioneer community in xerarch succession along with lichen (first organism which
colonise on rock)
 Prevent soil erosion.
14. Classification of bryophytes :-
 Liverworts :-eg., Marchantia, Riccia
 Thallus is dorsiventral & closely appressed to the substrate.
 Leafy members have tiny leaf like structures in 2 rows on the stem like
structure.
 Asexual reproduction :-
 By fragmentation of thallus
 By the formation of gemmae ( green multicellular asexual buds).
Gemmae develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located
on the thalli.
 Sexual reproduction :-
 Sex organs are produced either on same thalli (homothallic) or
on different thalli (heterothallic)
 Sporophyte is differentiated into foot seta & capsule
 After meiosis, spores are produced within the capsule.
 Spores germinate to form gametophyte
 Mosses :- eg., Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum.
 Gametophyte consists of 2 stages.
 Protonema stage (first stage) – Develops directly from a spore.
Creeping, green, branched & filamentous stage.
 Leafy stage (second stage) :-
 Develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud.

 Consists of upright, slender axis bearing spirally arranged
leaves.
 Attached to the soil through multicellular rhizoids.
 This stage bears sex organs
 Reproduction :-
 Vegetative reproduction :- by fragmentation & budding.
 Sexual reproduction :-
 Sex organs are produced at the apex of leafy stage.
 After fertilisation zygote develops into sporophyte ,
consisting of a foot, seta & capsule.
 Sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in
liverworts.
 Have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
15. General characters of pteridophytes :-
 Found in cool, damp, shady places. Some may flourish well in sandy soil.
 First land plants.
 Possess vascular tissues (xylem & phloem)
 Possess true root, stem & leaves.
16. Life cycle of pteridophytes :-

 Main plant body is diploid sporophyte.
 Leaves are small (microphylls) as in selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
 Sporophylls :- Spore bearing leaves (fertile leaves)
 Cone/ strobili :- Compact structures formed by the aggregation of sporophylls.
Found in Selaginella, Equisetum etc
 Sporangias (structure within which spores are produced) are seen on the
lowerside of sporophylls.
 After meiosis, spores are produced in sporangia.
 Spores germinate & form small, multicellular, free living, photosynthetic ,thalloid
gametophytes called Prothallus (they require cool, damp, shady places to grow)
 Prothallus bear male sex organ (Antheridia) & female sex organ (Archegonia)
 Antherozoids / male gametes are released from antheridium
 water is essential for the transfer of male gamete to the mouth of archegonium
(egg /female gamete is present in the archegonium)

 Fusion of male gamete & female gamete (egg) leades to the formation of diploid
zygote
 Zygote develops into multicellular, sporophyte.
17. Economic importance / uses of pteridophytes :-
 Used for medicinal purposes
 Used as soil-binders
 Grown as ornamentals.
18. Homospory :- Production of morphologically similar spores . Such plants are called
homosporous. eg., Psilotum
19. Heterospory :- Production of 2 types of spores , large spores
(macrospores/megaspores) and smallspores (microspores). Such plants are
heterosporous. Megaspores germinate & give rise to female gametophyte .
Microspores germinate & give rise to male gametophyte eg., Selaginella, Salvinia.
20. Precursor of seed habit :-
 Female gametophytes are retained on parent sporophyte for variable periods.
 Development of zygotes into young embryos takes place within the female
gametophytes.
 This event is an important step in evolution.
21. Which pteridophytes show precursor of seed habit? :- Heterosporous pteridophytes like
Selaginella & Salvinia.
22. Classification of pteridophytes :- 4 classes. Psilopsida (eg., Psilotum), Lycopsida ( eg.,
Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum) and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris,
Adiantum)
23. General characters of Gymnosperms :-
 Plants with naked seeds/ Seeds are not covered (Ovules are not enclosed by any
ovary wall & remain exposed, both before & after fertilisation).
 Include medium sized trees or tall trees and shrubs .One of the tallest tree :-
giant red wood tree (sequoia)
 Roots :- generally tap root.
 Mycorrhiza – Symbiotic association of fungus & roots of pinus
 Coralloid root :- Association between roots of cycas & nitrogen fixing
cyanobacteria.
 Stem:- Unbranched in cycas. Branched in Pinus & Cedrus
 Leaves :- Simple / compound.
 In cycas , pinnate leaves persist for a few years.
 In conifers, needle like leaves reduce the surface area
 Leaves are well adapted to withstand extremes of temperature,
humidity & wind.

 Thick cuticle & sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
 Main plant body is diploid sporophyte.
 Cone :- reproductive structure.
 Gymnosperms are heterosporous (produce microspores & megaspores)
 Male & female cone may be borne on same tree (in pinus) or on different trees
(in cycas)
 Male & female gametophytes do not have an independent free living existence
existe
 cycas pinus ginkgo

24. Life cycle of gymnosperms ::-
 Development of male gametophyte:
gametophyte:-
 Male cone – male reproductive structure, an aggregation of
microsporophylls
microsporophylls.
 Microsporophylls bear microsporangium,, which produce microspores.
 Microspores
pores develops into male gametophyte ((pollengrain
pollengrain)
 Development of female gametophyte ::-
 Female cone :- female reproductive structure, an aggregation of
megasporophylls
megasporophylls.
 Megasporophylls bear megasporangium /ovule .
 Megasporangium contain a tissue called nucellus.. One cell of nucellus
differentiated into megasporemother cell, which undergo meiosis to
form 4 megaspor
megaspores.
 Out of these 4 megaspores , one mega spore develops into multicellular
female gametophyte .
 Female gametophyte bears 2 or more archegonia that contain egg /
female gamete .
 Female gametophyte retained within the megasporangium / ovule. ovule
 Pollination :-
 Pollengrains / male gametophyte released ffrom
rom microsporangium.
microsporangium
 carried in air currents
 come in cont
contact with opening of the ovule & discharge their content
(male gamete) near the mouth of archegonia .
 Fertilisation :- Male gamete & egg fused to form diploid zygote.
 Post fertilization changes ::- Zygote develops into embryo & the ovules into
seeds.

25. General characters of Angiosperms :-
 Seeds are enclosed in fruits.
 Large group of plants occurring in wide range of habitats (range in size from
Smallest –wolffia to tall trees of Eucalyptus)
 Reproductive structure :- Flower.
 Angiosperms provide food, fodder, medicine, fuel & several other useful
products.
26. Classification of angiosperms :- divided into 2 classes.
 Dicotyledons :-
 Seeds having two cotyledon
 Reticulate venation in leaves.
 Presence of Tap root system.
 Pentamerous or tetramerous flower
 Monocotyledons :-
 Seeds having one cotyledon
 Parallel venation in leaves
 Presence of fibrous root system.
 Trimerous flowers.
27. Life cycle of angiosperms:-

 Development of male gametophyte :-
 Stamen - male sex organ , which consists of filament & anther.
 Within anther, pollen mother cell undergo meiosis to form microspores ,
which matures into pollengrain (male gametophyte)
 2 male gametes are developed in pollengrain
 Development of female gametophyte :-
 Pistil – female sex organ, consists of ovary, style & stigma.
 Inside the ovary, ovules are present.
 Each ovule has a single megasporemother cell, which undergo meiosis to
form 4 haploid megaspores.
 3 megaspores degenerate. One megaspore develops into female
gametophyte (Embryo sac).

 Embryo sac has 3 celled Egg apparatus ( 1 egg & 2 synergid), 3 celled
antipodals & 2 polar nuclei (fused to form diploid secondary nucleus)
 Pollination :- Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma . Carried by wind or
various other agencies to stigma.
 Pollen tube germinate (pollen tube formed) on stigma. Pollen tube enter into
embryosac & release male gametes into it.
 Double fertilisation :-
 Syngamy :- Male gamete (n) + female gamete/egg cell (n) →Zygote (2n)
 Triple fusion :- Male gamete (n) + Secondary nucleus(2n) → PEN (3n)
 Post fertilisation changes :-
 Zygote (2n) develops into embryo (2n)
 PEN (3n) develops into endosperm (3n) . Endosperm give food to
developing embryo
 Synergids & antipodals degenerate
 Ovules develops into seed
 Ovary develops into fruit
28. Alternation of generations :- Diploid sporophytic phase in the life cycle alternate with
haploid gametophytic phase.
29. Plant life cycles :-
 Haplontic life cycle :-
 Dominant , photosynthetic phase is free living gametophyte.
 Sporophytic generation is represented only by the one-celled zygote (no
free living sporophyte)
 Zygote undergo meiosis to form haploid spores
 Spores divide mitotically to form gametophyte
 eg., Algae such as Volvox, Spirogyra, Some species of chlamydomonas
etc.

 Diplontic life cycle :-
 Dominant, photosynthetic, free living phase is sporophyte.
 Gametophytic phase is represented by single to few celled haploid
gametophytes.
 eg., Gymnosperms, Angiosperms, Fucus (brown algae)


 Haplo-diplontic
diplontic life cycle ::-
 Presence of multicellular Gametophyte & Sporophyte plant body.
 In bryophyte, dominant phase is gametophyte & it alternate with short
lived multicellular sporophyte.
 In pteridophyte, dominant phase is sporophyte & it alternate with short
lived gametophyte.
 eg., Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Some algae such as Ectocarpus,
Polysiphonia, Kelps.
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
1. Root :-Underground non

non-green part .Arised from radicle
2. Taproot system :- Primary root & its branches(network like arrangement) eg., Dicot plants
3. Fibrous root system :- Short lived primary root replaced by large number of roots. (roots
arised from base of the stem). Eg., Monocot
4. Adventitious root system:
system:- Arised from any part other than radicle. eg., Banyan tree,
betle, pepper etc
5. Functions of root - (1)Absorption of water & minerals . (2) Anchorage
6. Regions of root :-
 Root cap – Thimble
Thimble-like structure which cover the root tip . It Protects the root
tip
 Region
ion of Meristemmatic activity – Small, thin walled cells with dense
protoplasm. They divide repeatedly.
 Region of elongation – Undergo rapid elongation & enlargement. Responsible
for growth in length
length.

 Root hair – Fine, delicate ,thread-like structures present on epidermis. They
absorb water & minerals.
 Region of maturation – Region just above the region of elongation. Root hairs &
lateral branches are arised from this region. Mature tissues perform specific
functions
7. Modifications of Root :- (Roots change their shape & structure to perform special
functions)
 Modification for Storage -eg., Carrot, Beetroot, Radish, Sweet potato , Mango
ginger , Asparagus etc.
 Modification for Climbing - eg., betle, pepper, etc
 Modification for Support – (1) Prop root (Pillar like roots from branches) eg.,
Banyan tree. (2) Stilt root (Roots from lower nodes) eg., Maize & Sugarcane.
 Modification for Respiration - Pneumatophores (Roots grow vertically upwards
to get Oxygen). eg., Rhizophora (growing in marshy areas)
8. Stem :- Aerial , green part which bear branches, leaves, flowers & fruits. Stem bears
Buds, Axillary /Terminal
9. Nodes – Region where leaves are born
10. Internodes – Portion between two nodes.
11. Underground parts are not always root. Justify this statement ? :- Potato, Ginger etc are
Unerground Stems which store food. Nodes & Internodes are present in them.
12. Modification of Stem :- Stem modified to perform special functions
 Under ground Stem modification for Storage & Vegetative reproduction –eg.,
Potato, Ginger, Yam, Onion, Colochasia, Tamarind etc.
 Sub aerial Stem modification for Vegetative reproduction :-
(i) Runner eg., Grass, Strawberry, Oxalis etc (have long Internodes. leaves &
roots arised from nodes).
(ii) Stolon –eg., Mint, Jasmine etc ( Lateral branch from base of main stem
grow aerially for sometime & arch downwards to touch the soil).
(iii) Offset –eg., Pistia, Eichhornia etc (Short internode. Rosette of leaves &
tuft of roots arised from node).

(iv) Sucker – eg., Banana, Pineapple, Chrysanthemum etc (lateral branch
from underground &basal part of stem grow horizontally & then come
out to grow vertically upward)
 Modification for Photosynthesis – eg., Opuntia (flattened stem) , Euphorbia
(fleshy cylindrical stem)
 Modification for Climbing – eg., Tendril (Slender ,spirally coiled structure
develop from axillary buds) in Cucumber, Bittergourd, Pumpkin,Watermelon,
Grapevines etc.
 Modification for Protection – eg., Thorns (Woody, straight&pointed structure
develop from Axillary bud) in Citrus, Bougainvilla etc.
13. Leaf :- Lateral, green flattened structure born on stem. Develops at node & bear Bud
(Axillary bud later develops to branch) in its axil. Originate from shoot apical meristem
& arranged in an Acropetal order
14. Function of leaf :- Photosynthesis.
15. Parts of leaf :-
 Leaf base – Attach leaf to stem. It bear two lateral leaf like structures (Stipule).
Sheathing leaf base - Leaf base expands into a sheath covering the stem partially
/wholly eg., Monocots. Pulvinous leaf base – Swollen leaf base eg., Pea plants.
 Petiole Stalk of leaf which hold lamina to light & allow lamina to flutter in the wind.
 Lamina / Leaf blade – green expanded part with Veins ( It provide rigidity to lamina
& channels of transport of water, minerals and food) & Veinlets. Middle prominent
vein is Midrib.
16. Venation :- Arrangement of veins on lamina

17. Reticulate venation :- Veins & Veinlets are arranged in the form of a network. eg., Dicot
plants
18. Parallel venation :- Veins are arranged parallel to one another. eg., Monocot plants.
19. Types of Leaf :-
 Simple leaf :- Lamina is entire, or when inscise, inscisions do not touch the midrib.
eg., china rose
 Compound leaf :- Inscisions of the lamina reach up to the midrib. Lamina divided
into leaflets. A bud is present in the axil of petiole in both simple & compound
leaves, but not in the axil of leaflets of compound leaf.
(a) Pinnately compound leaf :- Number of leaflets are arranged on a
common axis called rachis. eg., Tamarind, curry leaf, neem etc

(b) Palmately compound leaf :- Leaflets are attached at a common point ie., at the
tip of petiole. eg., Silk cotton, loovalam.
20. Phyllotaxy :- Arrangement of leaves on stem or branch
a. Alternate :- Single leaf from each node in alternate manner. eg., china
rose,mustard, sunflower etc.
b. Opposite :- Two leaves from each node & lie opposite to each other. eg., Guava,
calotropis , ixora etc
c. Whorled :- More than two leaves from one node & form a whorl. eg., Alstonia,
Allamanda etc
21. Modification of leaf :-
 Modification for storage – Scale leaves – Fleshy leaves of onion & garlic.
 Modification for climbing – Tendrils – Spirally coiled structure. eg., Pea, Gloriosa
 Modification for defence & to reduce transpiration - Spine leaf - eg., Cactus
 Modification for photosynthesis – Phyllode –eg., In Acacia, leaves are small &
short lived. So Petiole expand, become green to perform photosynthesis.
 Modification to catch insects - eg., Pitcher plant , venus-fly-trap .
22. Inflorescence :- arrangement of flowers on floral axis
a. Racemose :- Peduncle (main axis ) continues to grow (unlimited growth). Flowers
borne laterally in an Acropetal succession. eg.,Crotalaria
b. Cymose :- Main axis terminates in a flower (limited growth). Flowers borne in a
Basipetal succession. eg., Jasmine
23. Reproductive Part in Angiosperm :- Flower
24. Flower is a modified shoot . Justify ? :- Shoot apical meristem changes to floral
meristem. Internodes do not elongate. Axis gets condensed. Apex produce floral whorls
laterally at successive nodes instead of leaves. When a shoot tip transforms into a
flower, it is always Solitary.
25. Pedicel :- Stalk of the flower
26. Thalamus/ Receptacle :- Swollen tip of pedicel from which floral whorls arises
27. Bisexual flower :- Flower has both androecium & gynoecium. eg., Ixora
28. Unisexual flower :- Flower having either androecium /gynoecium eg., Cucumber
29. Actinomorphic symmetry :- Flower can be divide into two equal parts in any radial plane
passing through the centre eg., Mustard, Datura, Chilli, Shoe flower etc
30. Zygomorphic symmetry :- Flower can be divided into two equal parts only in one plane
eg., Pea Gulmohur, Bean, Cassia etc
31. Asymmetric :- Flower cannot be divided int two equal parts by any vertical plane
passing through the centre . eg., Canna
32. Trimerous flower :- Floral whorls are 3 /multiples of 3 in number
33. Tetramerous flower :- Floral whorls are 4 /multiples of 4 in number
34. Pentamerous flower :-Floral whorls are 5 /multiples of 5 in number

35. Bract :- Reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel ( flower with bract – Bracteate.
Flower without bract – Ebracteate)
36. Non essential whorles :- Parts of flower which are not essential for reproduction
 Calyx :- Outer, greenen whorl. Its members are Sepals.. It Protect flower in the bud
stage. May be Gamosepalous (united sepals) or polysepalous (free sepals.)
 Corolla :- Second whorl. Members are petals (brightly coloured to attract insects
for pollination) gamopetalous (united petals) .polypetalous (petals free). Shape of
corolla may be varied.
 Perianth – Undifferentiated calyx and corolla. Members are Tepals.
37. Essential whorles :- Parts of flower which are essential for reproduction.
a) Androecium :- Male reproductive organ. Composed of stamens (consists of filament
& anther).Anther is bilobed & each lobe has two chambers (pollen sacs) in which
pollen grains are produced). Length of the filament in a flower may be varied eg.,
Salvia & Mustard.
 Polyandrous :-- Stamens remain free.
 Monoadelphous ::- Stamens are united to form single bundle eg., Shoe flower
 Diadelphous ::- Stamens are united to form 2 bundles eg., Pea, Crotalaria
 Polyadelphous ::- Stamens are united to form more than 2 bundles eg., Citrus
 Staminode :- Steril
Sterile stamen
 Epipetalous :-- Stamens are attached to petals eg., Brinjal
 Epiphyllous :-- Stamens are attached to perianth eg., Lilly
b) Gynoecium :-Female
Female reproductive organ. Basic unit is carpel. Carpel consists of 3
parts (Ovary (enlarged basal part), Style (el
(elongated
ongated tube) & Stigma (Receptive
surface for pollen grain). Ovary bear ovules. Ovules are attached to flattened,
cushion like Placenta
Placenta.
 Monocarpellary ovary :- one carpel present
 Multicarpellary ovary :- Presence of more than 1 carpel.
 Apocarpous ovary ::- Ovary with free carpels eg., lotus, rose
 Syncarpous ovary ::- ovary with united carpels eg., Mustard & tomato).
38. Aestivation :- Arrangement of sepal / petals in floral bud with respect to other members
of same whorl.
(1) Valvate aestivation ::- Sepals /Petals in a whorl just touch one another
without overlapping eg.,Calotropis.

(2) Twisted aestivation ::- Regular overlapping eg., Shoe flower, ladies finger,
cotton etc
(3) Imbricate aestivation ::- Irregular overlapping eg., cassia, gulmohur etc
(4) Vexillary aestivation ::- 5 petals. 1 large standard petal overlap 2 wing petals
which in turn overlap 2 unite keel petals. eg., Pea, Beans
39. Placentation :- Arrangement of ovules within the ovary
 Marginal placentation ::- Placenta forms a ridge along

ong the ventral suture
of the ovary, ovules are borne on this ridge forming two rows eg., Pea
 Axile placentation ::- Ovules on central axis of syncarpous ovary, septa

present eg., china rose, tomato, lemon
 Parietal placentation ::- Ovules Develop on inner wall of ovar y. eg., mustard,
Argemone.
 Freecentral placentation ::- Ovules on central axis, septa absent eg.,

Dianthus &Primrose
 Basal placentation ::- Single ovule at the base of the ovary eg., Sunflower,
Marigold
40. Hypogynous flower :- Gynoecium ooccupies
ccupies the highest position, other parts are situated below
it. Ovary superior. eg.,Mustard, shoe flower, Brinjal etc.
41. Epigynous flower :- Margin of thalamus grows upward enclosing the ovary completely
c &
fused with ovary. other parts arise above the ovary . Inferior ovary. eg., Guava,
Cucumber, ray florets of sunflower, Ixora etc.

42. Perigynous flower :- Gynoecium situated in the centre. Other parts are located on the rim
of thalamus almost at the same level. Half inferior ovary eg., Pea, Plum, Rose,Peach ,
Clitorea, Crotalaria etc
43. Fruit :- Ripened ovary (Ovary is developed into fruit after fertilization)
 Fruit wall:- Pericarp
 Fleshy fruit :- Pericarp is thick & fleshy. Pericarp is differentiated into outer
Epicarp , middle Mesocarp and inner Endocarp. In mango, mesocarp is fleshy. In
coconut, mesocarp is fibrous.
 Dry fruit :- Pericarp is dry. eg., Cashew Nuts , Dates, Raisins etc
 In mango & coconut, fruit is known as Drupe
44. Seed :- Ovule developed into seed after fertilization
 Seed coat - Outermost covering of seed. It has two layers, outer testa, & inner
tegmen.
 Hilum :- Scar on the seed coat through which seeds were attached to fruits.
 Micropyle :- Small pore just above the hilum.
 Embryo – Zygote developed into embryo. Consists of embryonal axis & cotyledon.
 Cotyledon :- first formed leaf. Fleshy & reserve food material ( give food to
developing seedling). Dicot seed contain 2 cotyledon & Monocot seed contain 1
cotyledon.
 Radicle:- Part of embryo that develops into root
 Plumule :- Part of embryo that develops into shoot
 Endosperm :- Nutritive tissue for embryo.
 Endospermous / Albuminous seed :- Seeds which store their food in endosperm. eg.,
castor, rice, coconut ,orchids etc.
 Non-endospermous / Exalbuminous :- Endosperm is not present in mature seeds. Store
their food in cotyledons. eg., bean, pea, gram, etc
45. Structure of Monocot seed :-

 Aleuron layer- Proteinaceous outer covering of endosperm that separates the
embryo
 Scutellum- Large & shield shaped cotyledon
 Embryonal axis contain Plumule & Radicle
 Coleoptile –protective
protective sheath covering of plumule
 Coleorhiza- Protective sheath covering of radicle
46. Vegetative characters of Fabaceae (Pea family) ::-
 Habit – trees, shrubs or herbs. Root nodules present
 Stem- erect / climber
 Leaves – alternate, pinna
pinnately
tely compound /simple, pulvinous leaf base, stipulate,
reticulate venation
47. Floral characters of Fabaceae ::-
 Inflorescence – Racemose
 Flower – Bisexual, Zygomorphic, Pentamerous, Perigynous
 Calyx – 5 sepals,, Gamosepalous, Valvate aestivation
 Corolla – 5 petals, papilionaceous corolla, vexillary aestivation
 Androecium – 10 stamens Diadelphous
 Gynoecium – monocarpellary, unilocular, half inferior ovary, marginal placentation
 Fruit – legume. Seed –one to many seeded.
48. Floral diagram & Floral formula – Fabaceae :-
49. Fabaceae - Economic importance ::-

 Sources of pulses – Gram (chana), soyabean, pigeon pea(arhar), pea, greengram,
black gramm , beans etc.
 Edible oil- Soyabean, ground nut
 Dye- Indigofera
 Fibres- Sunhemp
 Fodder- Sesbania, Trifolium
 Ornamentals- Lupin, Sweetpea
 Medicine- Muliathi, pigeon pea, clitorea(sankhupushpam) etc.
50. Vegetative characters of Solanaceae (Potato family) ::-
 Habit – herbs, shrubs, rearly trees
 Stem – herbaceous, rearly woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical , branched, solid,/hollow,
underground stem in potato

 Leaves – simple, alternate, rearly pinnately compound, exstipulate, reticulate
venation
51. Floral characterss of Solanaceae ::-
 Inflorescence – Solitary or cymose
 Flower – Bisexual, actinomorphic
 Calyx – 5 sepals, gamosepalous, valvate aestivation
 Corolla – 5 petals, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation
 Androecium – 5 stamens, epipetalous
 Gynoecium – bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, bilocular, swollen
placentation with many ovules.
 Fruits – berry / capsules
 Seed – Many, ndospermous
52. Floral diagram & Floral formula – Solanaceae :-
53. Solanaceae – Economic importance ::-

 Edible :- Potato, Brinjal
 Spice :- Chilly
 Fumigatory :- Tobacco (dried leaves of Nicotiana tabacum)
 Medicine :- Atropa belladonna, whithania somnifera (Aswagandha)
 Ornamentals :- Petunia
54. Vegetative characters of Liliaceae (Lily family) ::-
 Stem- Perennial herbs , underground bulbs/ corms/ rhiz
rhizhomes
 Leaves- alternate, exstipulate, parallel venation
55. Floral characters of Liliaceae ::-
 Inflorescence – Cymose
 Flower – Bisexual, Actinomorphic, Trimerous, Hypogynous
 Perianth – 6 tepals (3+3) united, Epiphyllous
 Gynoecium – Tricarpellary, Syncarpous , Trilocular, Superior ovary with Axile
placentation
 Fruit – Berry /Capsule. Seed – Endospermous
56. Floral diagram & Floral formula – Liliaceae :-
57. Liliaceae – Economic importance ::-

 Edible – onion, garlic, asparagus etc.
 Ornamentals- Tulip, gloriosa etc
 Medicine- Aloe (kattarvazha), Colchicum. Autumnale (produce Colchicine)
ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Tissues :- Group of cells having common origin and common function. Based on the
dividing capacity, they are classified into two Meristematic Tissues and Permanent
tissues
2. Meristems:- Actively dividing cells. Based on the position, they are divided into 3.
a) Apical meristem :-
 Occur at the tip of root & shoot.
 Primary meristem (produce primary tissues).
 Appear early in the life of a plant.
 Function – Growth in length.
 Axillary buds - Left out cells of shoot apical meristem (during the formation
of leaf & elongation of stem). They are present in the axils of leaves & are
capable of forming a branch / Flower.
b) Intercalary meristem :-
 Occurs between permanent tissues (mature tissues).
 Occur in grasses (nodes of monocot plants) and regenerate parts removed
by the grazing herbivores.
 Primary meristem (produce primary tissues).
 Appear early in life of a plant.
c) Lateral meristem :-
 Occurs in the mature regions of root and shoot.
 Cylindrical meristems
 Secondary meristem (produce secondary tissues).
 Appear later in the life of plant than primary meristem.
 Function –Secondary thickening (increase in girth / Produce woody axis). eg.,
Vascular cambium & Cork cambium.

3. Permanent tissues – Structurally & functionally specialized cells lose the ability to divide.
Permanent tissues are clas
classified into two. Simple & Complex tissues
4. Simple Tissues :- made up of only one type of cells)
a) Parenchyma :-
 Generally isodiametric in shape. They may be spherical, oval, round,
polygonal or elongated in shape.
 Thin cellulosic cell wall
wall.
 They may either be closely packed or have small intercellular spaces..
spaces.
 Perform various functions like photosynthesis, storage & secretion

b) Collenchyma :-
 Cells thickened at the corners due to the deposition of cellulose,
hemicelluloses
es & pectin
pectin.
 Oval, spherical or polygonal in shape
 Intercellular space absent
 Cells assimilate food when they contain chloroplast
 Provide mechanical support to growing parts of the plant such as young stem
& petiole of a leaf

c) Sclerenchyma :-
 Cell walls are thickened due to the deposition of lignin.
 Dead cells without protoplasts
protoplasts.
 On the basis of variation in form, structure, origin & development
sclerenchyma may be either fibres or sclereids.
 Fibres- Thick wawalled,
lled, elongated & pointed cells generally occurring in
groups.
 Sclereids – Spherical, oval or cylindrical ,highly thickened dead cells with
very narrow cavities . Found in the fruit walls of nut, pulp of fruits (like
guava, pear, & sapota ), Seed coat of legumes and leaves of teat
 Sclerenchyma – fibre & sclereid diagram.

5. Complex Tissues :- Made of more than one type of cells5. & these work together as a
unit.
a) Xylem :-
 Conducting tissue for water & minerals ( from root to stem & leaves).
 Provide mechanical strength to plant parts.
 Composed of 4 types of cells
 Tracheids :-
 Elongated /tube like cells.
 Thick & lignified walls (Inner layers of cell walls have
thickenings) .
 Tapering ends.
 Dead & without protoplasm.
 Vessels :-
 Long Cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells
called vessel members ( each with lignified walls & large
central cavity).
 Dead cells without protoplasm.
 Vessel members are interconnected through Perforations in
their common walls.
 Xylem fibres :-
 Sclerenchyma fibres .
 Dead cells. Highly thickened walls.
 Obliterate central lumen.
 Septate /Aseptate.
 Xylem parenchyma -
 Living thin walled cells with cellulosic cell wall.
 Store food materials in the form of starch / fat and other
substances like tannins.
 Radial conduction occur through Ray parenchymatous cells.
 Gymnosperms lack Xylem vessels ( vessel is a characteristic feature of
Angiosperm).
 In flowering plants (Angiosperms), Tracheids & vessels are main transporting
elements.
 Protoxylem – First formed primary xylem. Small vessels
 Metaxylem – Later formed primary xylem. Large vessels
 Endarch xylem – Protoxlem lies towards the centre & Metaxylem towards
Periphery eg., Stem.
Prepared by Nandini. K. N, NHSS Kolathur, Malappuram (dt). Page 30

 Exarch xylem – Protoxylem lies towards periphery & metaxylem towards
centre eg., Root.

b) Phloem :-
 Transport food materials ( usually from leaves to other parts).
 Composed of 4 type of cells :-
 Sieve tube elements :-
 Living ,long tube- like structures. Arranged longitudinally.
 Associated with companion cells.
 End walls are perforated in a sieve like manner & form sieve
plates.
 Mature sieve element possesses peripheral cytoplasm & large
vacuole.
 Nucleus absent. So Functions of sieve tubes are controlled by
nucleus of companion cells.
 Companion cells :-
 Specialised parenchymatous cells.
 Connected with sieve tube elements by Pit fields present
between their common wall.
 Dense cytoplasm & nucleus present.
 Helps in maintaining the pressure gradient in the sieve
tubes.
 Phloem parenchyma :-
 Living parenchymatous cells.
 Elongated cylindrical, with dense cytoplasm & nucleus.
 Cellulosic cell wall.
 Cells are connected with each other through plasmodesmata.
 Store food & other substances like resins, latex & mucilage.
 Absent in Monocots.
 Phloem fibres (bast fibres) :-
 Sclerenchymatous fibres.
 Absent in primary phloem
 Present in secondary phloem.
 Dead, Lignified, elongated , branched cells with pointed
(needle like) end walls.
 Provide mechanical strength.

 Phloem fibres of jute, flax & hemp are used commercially.
 Gymnosperms have albuminous cells & sieve cells ( Sieve tubes &
companion cells are absent in gymnosperm).
 Protophloem – First formed primary phloem with narrow sieve tubes.
 Metaphloem – Later formed Primary phloem with bigger sieve tubes.
6. Epidermal Tissue System ::- Outermost covering of the whole plant body .It consists of
Epidermis, Stomata, Trichome , hair & cuticle.
 Epidermis :-
 Outermost layer.
 Elongated compactly arranged cells , forms a continuous layer.
 Single layered parenchymatous cells with small amount of cytoplasm &
large vacuole.
 Function :-- Protection
 Cuticle :- Waxy thick layer which cover epidermis. It prevents the loss of
water. Absent in roots.
 Stomata :- Pores present in epidermis of leaves & young stems.
 Stoma /Stomatal pore is surrounded by Guard cells ( in dicot bean
shaped guard cells & in monocots dumb-bell shaped guard cells are
present) .
 Outer walls of guard cells are thin & the inner walls are highly
highl
thickened.
 Guard cells possess chloroplast & it regulate opening and closing of
stomata.
 Guard cells are surrounded by Subsidiary cells (specialised
epidermal cells) which are specialised in shape and size.
 Stomatal pore, guard cells & subsidiary ccells
ells together known as
Stomatal apparatus.
 Function –Removal
Removal of excess water through transpiration & Exchange
of gases.
 Dicot and Monocot stomata.

 Root hair :- Unicellular elongations of epidermal cells. Absorb water &
minerals from the soil.
 Trichomes / Stem hair :- Multicellular, branched / unbranched & soft / stiff.
May be secretory. Prevent water loss due to transpiration.
7. Ground Tissue System :- All tissues except epidermis & vascular bundles. Consists of
simple tissues. Cortex, pericycle, medullary ray , pith & mesophyll in leaf constitute
ground tissue system.
8. Vascular Tissue System :- Xylem & Phloem together constitute Vascular bundles.
a) Conjoint vascular bundle :- Xylem & Phloem are in the same bundle on the
same radius. Phloem located on the outer side of Xylem eg., Stem.
 Open vascular bundle – Cambium present in between Xylem & Phloem (
So able to form secondary xylem & phloem) eg., Dicot stem.
 Closed vascular bundle – Cambium absent ( do not form secondary xylem

& phloem) eg., Monocot stem.
b) Radial vascular bundle :- Xylem & Phloem occur in separate bundles on different
radius. eg., Root.
9. Dicot Root :-
 Ouermost layer is Epiblema (Epidermis) Unicellular root hairs arise from epidermal
cells.
 Cortex – Several layers of thin walled parenchymatous cells with intercellular space
below the epidermis.
 Endodermis :-
 Innermost layer of cortex. Single layer of barrel- shaped cells without
intercellular space.
 Casparian thickening :- Waxy material Suberin is deposited on the walls
of endodermis .So endodermis is impermeable to water.
 Pericycle – Few layers of thick walled parenchymatous cells , next to endodermis.
Initiation of lateral roots & vascular cambium takes place in these cells.

 Pith – Small / inconspicuous
 Conjunctive tissue – Parenchymatous cells between the xylem & phloem.
 Radial vascular bundle – 2-4 xylem & phloem bundles. Exarch xylem.
 Stele – All tissues on the innerside of the endodermis such as pericycle, vascular
bundles & pith.
10. Monocot Root :- It has outer Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Radial vascular
bundles , conjunctive tissue & pith similar to dicot root
11. Difference between Dicot & Monocot root
Dicot root Monocot root
In the cortex Air cavity absent. Air cavity present in the cortex
2-4 Xylem & Phloem bundles More than six (polyarch) xylem & phloem bundles.
Small pith Large & well developed pith
Polygonal shaped xylem Round shaped xylem
Undergo secondary growth Do not undergo secondary growth
12. Dicot stem :-

 Epidermis – Outermost protective layer ,covered with a thin layer of cuticle ,
may bear Trichomes & few stomata.
 Cortex – Several layers between epidermis & pericycle. It consists of 3 sub-
zones.
 Hypodermis – Few layers of collenchymatous cells just below the epidermis,
which provide mechanical strength to young stem.
 Cortex -Rounded thin walled parenchymatous cells with intercellular space.
 Endodermis – Innermost layer of cortex. Cells are rich in starch grains , So the
layer is Starch sheath.
 Pericycle – Innerside of the endodermis and above the phloem in the form of
semi – lunar patches of sclerenchyma (Bundle cap).

 Medullary ray – Few layers of radially placed parenchymatous cells in between
vascular bundles.
 Vascular bundle - Conjoint, open with endarch xylem.
 Pith – Large number of rounded parenchymatous cells with large intercellular
spaces, occupies the central portion of the stem.
13. Monocot Stem :-

 It has Epidermis & Sclrenchymatous Hypodermis.
 Numerous vascular bundles (Conjoint, closed, endarch xylem).
 Peripheral vascular bundles are smaller than centrally located ones.
 Phloem parenchyma absent.
 Water containing cavities are present within the vascular bundle.
14. Difference between Dicot & Monocot stem
Dicot stem Monocot stem
Collenchymatous hypodermis Sclerenchymatous hypodermis
Differentiated cortex Undifferentiated cortex
Bundle cap present Bundle sheath present
Limited number of vascular bundles Numerous Vascular bundles
Vascular bundles arranged in the form of a ring Scattered vascular bundles
Open vascular bundle ( cambium present) Closed vascular bundles ( Cambium absent)
Well developed pith Pith absent
Undergo secondary growth Do not undergo secondary growth

Protoxylem lacunae (water containing cavity) Protoxylem lacunae (water containing
absent cavity) present
15. Difference between Root & Stem
Stem Root
Conjoint vascular bundle Radial vascular bundle
Endarch xylem Exarch xylem
Multicellular hair (Trichome) Unicellular root hair
Cuticle present Cuticle absent
16. Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf :- 3 main parts. Epidermis, Mesophyll & Vascular
bundle.
 Epidermis -Cover both upper ( adaxial) & lower ( abaxial) surface.
 Cuticle – Covers the upper & lower epidermis.
 Lower epidermis bears more stomata.
 Mesophyll –Tissue ( parenchymatous cells) between the upper & lower
epidermis. It possess chloroplast & carry out photosynthesis. It has 2 types of
cells.
 Palisade parenchyma – Elongated cells placed below the upper
epidermis, arranged vertically & parallel to each other.
 Spongy parenchyma – Oval /round & loosely arranged parenchymatous
cells below the palisade parenchyma & extends to lower epidermis.
Intercellular spaces & air cavities are present.
 Vascular bundles – Present in the veins & midrib. Vascular bundles are
surrounded by a layer of thick walled bundle sheath cells.
17. Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf :-
 3 main parts. Epidermis, Mesophyll & Vascular bundle.
 Stomata are equally distributed on both upper & lower epidermis
 Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade & spongy parenchyma
 Bulliform cells –Large, empty, colourless cells occur in the upper epidermis of
many grasses. When they absorb water & are turgid, leaf surface is exposed.
When they are flaccid due to water stress, they make the leaves curl inwards to
minimize water loss.
18. Anatomical difference between dicot & monocot leaf
Dicot leaf Monocot leaf

Mesophyll is differentiated into Mesophyll is not differentiated into
palisade & spongy parenchyma palisade & spongy parenchyma
Bulliform cells absent Bulliform cells present
lower epidermis has more Equal distribution of stomata on both

number of stomata upper & lower epidermis.
Guard cells of stomata are bean Guard cells are dumbbell shaped.
shaped
Dicot leaf Monocot leaf
19. Secondary Growth :-

 Increase in thickness exhibited by most of the dicot plants.
 Tissue involved in secondary growth – lateral meristems ( Vascular cambium &
Cork cambium)
 Vascular cambium –Meristemmatic
Meristemmatic layer responsible for cutting off
vascular tissues.
 Cork cambium – Meristemmatic layer responsible for formation of
periderm.
 Stele- central part of root & stem consisting of pith, vascular bundles,
medullary
ry rays & pericycle.
20. Stelar Secondary Thickening (by the activity of vascular cambium) :-
 Intrafascicular cambium –cambium
cambium present between primary xylem & primary
phloem
 Cells of medullary rays, adjoining intrafascicular cambium become
meristemmatic to foform Interfascicular cambium.
 Intra fascicular cambium & interfascicular cambium join together to form
Vascular cambium.
 Vascular cambium cut off new cells towards inner & outersides. Inner cells
mature into secondary xylem & outer cells mature into secondarydary phloem.
 Cambium is more active towards innerside. So the amount of secondary xylem is
more than the secondary phloem.

 Primary & secondary phloems get gradually crushed due to the continued
formation & accumulation of secondary xylem.
 Secondary medullary rays – At some places , cambium forms a narrow band of
parenchyma which passes through secondary xylem & phloem in the radial
directions.
21. Spring wood / Early wood :-

 Xylem/ Wood formed during spring season.
 Cambium is more active & produce large number of xylem having vessels with
wider cavities.
 Lighter in colour
 Lower density
22. Autumn wood / Late wood :-
 Xylem/ Wood formed during winter season
 Cambium is less active & produce fewer xylem that have narrow vessels
 Dark in colour
 Higher density
23. Annual ring:- The alternation of spring wood & autumn wood in a concentric circle on
the trunk. Annual rings in a cut stem give an estimate of the age of tree
24. Heart wood :-
 Older,harder,dead central wood (xylem) of trees.
 Secondary xylem is dark brown in colour due to the deposition of resins, tannins,
oils, gums, aromatic substances & essential oils.
 Deposition of organic compounds make it hard, durable & resistant to the
attack of micro organisms &insects.
 Dead elements with lignified walls.
 Give mechanical support to stem
25. Sap wood :-
 soft outer layers of recently formed secondary xylem between heart wood &
bark.
 Lighter in colour.
 Involved in the conduction of water & minerals.
26. Extrastelar Secondary Thickening - by the activity of cork cambium:-
 Due to the activity of vascular cambium, outer cortical & epidermal cells get
broken and need to be replaced.

 Some cortical cells become meristemmatic to form Cork cambium (Phellogen) .
Phellogen is a couple of layers thick. Ma
Made
de of narrow ,thinwalled, rectangular
cells.
 Cork cambium cut off cells on both sides. Outer cells differentiates into Cork
(Phellum)) & inner cells differentiates into Secondary cortex (Phelloderm).
(Phelloderm
 Phellogen, phellum & phelloderm are collectively known aas Periderm.
 Cork is impermeable to water due to suberin deposition in the cell walls.
 Ceils of secondary cortex are parenchymatous.
 Bark- All tissues exterior to vascular cambium (Periderm & secondary phloem).
phloem)
 Early/ soft bark – Bark formed early in the season.
 Late/ hard bark
bark- Bark formed towards the end of the season.
 Complementary cells
cells- loosely arranged parenchymatous cells, which are cuts off
by phellogen towards outerside instead of cork cell at certain regions.
 Lenticels- Lens shaped opening found on the epidermis of woody trees, through
which gas exchange takes place.
27. Secondary Thickening In Root :-

 Vascular cambium is completely secondary in origin.
 Tissue located just below the phloem bundles & portion of pericycle just above
the protoxylem become meristemmatic. They join together to form wavy
vascular cambium.
 Vascular cambium cut cells towards innerside & outerside. Inner cells mature
into secondary xylem & outer cells mature into secondary p
phloem.
hloem.
 Cambium is more active towards innerside. So more secondary xylem is formed.
 Due to the continuous activity , wavy vascular cambium becomes circular.
 Primary & secondary phloem get gradually crushed.

CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE
1. Cell :- fundamental structural & functional unit of all living organisms.
2. Cell theory :- All living organisms are composed of cells & products of cells. All cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
3. Who discovered the cell? :- Robert Hook
4. Who first saw & described a living cell? :- Anton Von Leeuwenhoek
5. Who discovered nucleus? :-Robert Brown
6. Who discovered that all plants are made of cells? :- Matthias Schleiden (1838)
7. Who discovered that all animals are made of cells ? :- Theodore Schwann (1839) .He
Studied animal cells & reported the presence of plasma membrane . He observed that
cell wall is the unique character of plant cell.
8. Who proposed the cell theory? :- Schleiden & Schwann .
9. Who modified the cell theory ? :- Rudolf Virchow (1855) . He explained that cells divide
& new cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
10. Who proposed the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane ? :- Singer & Nicholson
(1972)
11. Who discovered golgi apparatus ? :- Camillo Golgi (1898)
12. Who discovered ribosomes ? :- George Palade (1953)
13. Who coined the name ‘chromatin’ :- Flemming
14. Single membrane bound vesicles :- Vacoule, Lysosome, Endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgicomplex, Microbodies
15. Double membrane bound vesicles :- Chloroplast, Mitochondria, Nucleus
16. Non membrane bound vesicle :- Ribosome
17. Endomembrane system :- Group of membraneous organelles having co-ordinate
function. They include –Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, Lysosome, Vacoule
18. Prokaryotic cells:-
 There is no well defined nucleus & cell organelles.
 Genetic material :- Naked DNA (Nuclear membrane absent)
 Plasmid :-
 Small, circular, self replicating extra chromosomal DNA present in
prokaryotic cell.
 provide resistance to antibiotics.
 also used as a vector in genetic engineering processes.
 cell envelope :-
 chemically complex three layerd structure.

 Glycocalyx :- outer layer. It may be a Slime layer (loose sheath) or
Capsule (tough outer coat)
 cell wall :-Middle layer. Determines the shape of the cell & provides a
strong structural support to prevent the bacterium from bursting
 Plasma membrane. :- Inner layer . Selectively permeable. Structurally
similar to Eukaryotic plasma membrane.
 Function :- Protection.
 Gram staining :-
 Christian Gram developed a technique of staining bacteria
 Gram positive bacteria :- Bacteria which take up & retain stain after
washing.
 Gram negative bacteria :- They do not retain stain after washing.
 Mycoplasma lack cell wall.
 Cytoplasm – Fluid matrix filling the cell.
 Ribosome :-
 70S type - made of two subunits , Large subunit 50S & Small subunit 30S).
 Polyribosomes / Polysome – Several ribosomes may attach to a single
mRNA & form a chain
 Function – Protein synthesis.
 Mesosome :-
 Membraneous extensions of plasma membrane ( Infoldings of cell
membrane).
 They are in the form of Vesicles, tubules & lamellae.
 Functions of mesosome :-
 Respiration
 Secretion
 Cell wall formation, DNA replication & distribution to daughter
cells
 To increase the surface area of the plasma membrane
 Inclusion bodies :-
 Reserve materials are stored in the cytoplasm .
 Not covered by any membrane (lie free in the cytoplasm).
 eg., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules & glycogen granules.
 Flagella :-
 Thin filamentous extensions from cell wall.
 Help in locomotion.
 Composed of three parts – filament (longest portion & extends the cell
surface to outside) , hook & basal body

 Bacteria show a range in the number & arrangement of flagella.
 Pili :- Surface outgrowth. Elongated tubular structures made of a special protein.
Longer than fimbriae.
 Fimbriae :- Small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell. Help to attach the
bacteria to rocks in streams & also to the host tissues.
 Prokaryotic organisms are bacteria, blue-green algae, & mycoplasma ( PPLO
/Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms).
 Prokaryotes are smaller & multiply more rapidly than Eukaryotes.
 Prokaryotes vary in shape & size .Four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus ( rod
like), coccus ( Spherical) , vibrio ( comma shaped) & spirillum ( Spiral).
19. Eukaryotic Cell –well defined nucleus, nuclear membrane , cell organelles, cystoskeltal
structures are present. They include Protists, Fungi, Plants & Animals.
20. Difference between plant & animal cells :-
 Plant cells possess cell wall, plastids & large central vacuole, which are absent in
animal cells.
 Animal cells have centrioles, which are absent in plant cells.
21. Cell Membrane:-
 Cell membrane is mainly composed of Lipids ( arranged in a bilayer) , Proteins
& Carbohydrates.
 Lipids are arranged with the Polar head ( hydrophilic) towards the outerside &
non-polar tail /hydrophobic tail towards the inner part. Non-polar tail is thus
protected from aquous environment.
 Membrane contain phospholipids & cholesterol. Lipid component mainly
consists of phosphoglycerides.
 Ratio of protein & lipids varies in different cell types. eg., in man, membrane of
RBC has approximately 52% protein & 40% lipids.
 Membrane proteins are of two types Integral proteins ( Partially /totally buried
in the membrane) & Peripheral proteins ( lie on the surface of the membrane).
 According to fluid mosaic model, quasi fluid nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of proteins within the overall bilayer. This ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its Fluidity.
 Functions of cell membrane :-
 Transport of molecules across it ( Membrane is selectively permeable /
transport some molecules across it).

 Cell growth
 Formation of intercellular junctions
 Secretion (5) Endocytosis
 Cell division.
 Passive transport – Movement of molecules across the membrane without using
energy.
 Diffusion – Movement of molecules ( liquid, solid / gas) from higher concentration to
lower concentration. Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by simple
diffusion.
 Osmosis –Movement of water by diffusion through cell membrane.
 Polar molecule ( water soluble substances) cannot pass through non - polar lipid bilayer.
So Polar molecules require a Carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their
transport.
 Active transport – Movement of molecules across the membrane using energy ( Against
the concentration gradient , i.e. from lower to higher concentration.) eg., Na+ K+ Pump.
22. Cell wall :-

 Outer covering for the plasma membrane of fungi & plants.
 Most of the Plant cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins &
proteins.
 Algal cell wall is made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans & minerals like
calcium carbonate.
 Primary wall (cell wall of young plant cell) is capable of growth. As the cell
matures,primary wall gradually diminishes & the secondary wall is formed on
the innerside of cell.
 Middle lamella :- A layer which holds/ glue neighbouring cells together
(Cementing material between two cells). Made up of Calcium pectate
 Plasmodesmata :- A channel across the cell wall , which connect the cytoplasm
of neighbouring cells.
 Functions of cell wall :-
 Give shape to the cell
 Protects the cell from mechanical damage & infection.

 Helps in cell
cell-to-cell
cell interaction & provides barrier to undesirable
macromolecules
23. Endoplasmic reticulum :--
 Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
 Divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments. Luminal (inside
ER) & Extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER (RER) :-
 Endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their surface.
 They are extensive & continuous with the outer membrane of the
nucleus.
 Function – Protein synthesis & Secretion
 Smooth h endoplasmic reticulum (SER) :-
 Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes.
 Function ::- Synthesis of lipid (In animal cells, steroidal hormones are
synthesized in SER)
24. Golgi apparatus :-

 Located in the cytoplasm next to ER & nea near the nucleus
 Made up of Cisternae (flat, disc shaped sac) with distinct convex cis/ forming
face & concave trans/ maturing face. These two faces are entirely different
but interconnected.
 Function of golgi apparatus ::- Packaging & secretion
 Golgi apparatus
aratus is the important site of formation of glycoproteins &
glycolipids.
25. How the golgi apparatus remains in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum? :-
:
 Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with cis face
of golgi apparatus & move towards maturing face.
 A number of proteins synthesized by RER are modified in the cisternae of the
golgi apparatus before they are released from its trans face
26. Lysosomes :-

 Membrane bound vesicular structures
 Formed by the process of packaging in golgi apparatus.
 Suicidal bag :-Lysosomes are rich in almost all hydrolytic enzymes (optimally
active at the acidic pH). These enzymes can digest their own cell, causing the cell
to die.
27. Vacoules :-
 Membrane bound space found in cytoplasm.
 It contains water, sap, excretory products & other materials not useful for the
cell.
 Vacoule is bounded by single membrane called tonoplast.
 Tonoplast facilitate transport of ions against concentration gradient into the
vacuole (concentration is higher in vacuole than in the cytoplasm)
 In plant cells, vacuole occupies 90% of the volume of cell.
 Contractile vacuole in amoeba- important for excretion.
 Food vacuoles in protists – formed by engulfing the food materials.
28. Mitochondria / Power houses of cell
 Double membrane bound cell organelle . Outer & Inner membrane divide its
lumen into outer and inner compartments.
 Matrix ( Inner compartment) - Space enclosed by inner membrane . Matrix
possesses Single circular DNA , Few RNA molecules , Ribosomes (70S) &
components required for protein synthesis.
 Peri mitochondrial space (Outer compartment) – Space between outer & inner
membrane.
 Cristae – Infoldings of inner membrane towards matrix. It Increase the surface
area.
 Sites of Aerobic Respiration – Produce cellular energy in the form of ATP. So
they are called Power houses of cell.
 Unless specifically stained, mitochondria are not easily visible under microscope.
 Number per cell is varied depending on the physiological activity of cell. Shape &
size also varied.
29. Plastids :-
 Found in plants & in Euglenoids. Large organelle, so easily observed under the
microscope. Bear some specific pigments, which impart specific colours.

 Chromoplast - Coloured plastids. Fat soluble Carotenoid pigments like Carotene,
Xanthophylls etc are present. They give Yellow, Orange / Red colour.
 Leucoplast – Colourless plastid with stored nutrients. They are Amyloplast
(store carbohydrate / Starch eg., potato), Elaioplast ( Store oil & fat) ,
Aleuroplast ( store proteins .
 Chloroplast :-
 Green plastids which contain green pigment Chlorophyll.
 Found in the mesophyll cells of leaf.
 Lens shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or ribbon like organelles having
variable length.
 Number varies from 1 per cell ( Chlamydomonas) to 20 -30 per cell in
mesophyll.
 Function :- Photosynthesis.
30. Structure of chloroplast :-
 Double membrane bound cell organelle. Smooth Outer & Inner membrane
Present.
 Peri plastidal space – Space between Outer & inner membrane.
 Stroma – Inner part of chloroplast. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis
& protein synthesis. It contain Small, double stranded circular DNAS &
Ribosomes (70S)
 Thylakoids – Flattened membraneous sacs present in stroma. Thylakoid
membrane encloses a space called lumen. Chlorophyll pigments are present in
the thylakoids.
 Grana – Group of thylakoids ( thylakoids are arranged in stacks like piles of coins)
 Stroma lamella – Flat membraneous tubules connecting the thylakoids of grana.
31. Ribosomes
 Granular structures.
 Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) .
 Not surrounded by any membrane.
 Each ribosome has two subunits. ( Larger & Smaller).
 Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S . Here Larger subunit is 60S & smaller subunit 40S.
 Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S. Here Larger subunit is 50S & smaller subunit 30S.
 ‘S’ ( Svedberg’s unit) – Sedimentation coefficient, a measure of density & size.

32. Cytoskelton :-
 Elaborate network of fi filamentous
lamentous proteinaceous structures present in the
cytoplasm. eg., Microtubules
 Functions :- Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
33. Cilia & Flagella :-
 Both are hair like outgrowths of the cell membrane . Help in locomotion.
 They
hey emerge from centriole
centriole-like structure called basal bodies
 Cilia – small. More in number. Work like oars, causing the movement of either
the cell or surrounding fluid.
 Flagella – Long. Less in number. Responsible for cell movement. Prokaryotic &
eukaryotic
tic flagellas are structurally different.
 Structure of cilia & flagella:
flagella:-
 Covered with plasma membrane
 Has a central core called axoneme.
 Axoneme possesses microtubules – 9 pair of doublets of peripheral
microtubules & a pair of centrally located microtub
microtubules
ules
(9+2 arrangement)
 Central tubules are connected by bridges & enclosed by central sheath
 Central sheath is connected to each peripheral doublet by radial spoke (9
radial spokes present)
 Peripheral doublets are interconnected b by linkers
34. Centrosome :-
 Organ which contain 2 cylindrical centrioles
 Centrioles are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
materials
 Centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.
35. Structure of centriole :-
 Made up of 9 peripheral triplet tubulins. Adjascent triplets are linked.
 Central part is proteinaceous hub.

 Hub is connected with peripheral tubules by radial spoke.
 Functions of centrioles :- They form the basal body of cilia , flagella and spindle
fibres
36. Nucleus :-
 Double membrane bound cell organelle
 Outer membrane remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and also
bears ribosomes on it.
 Nuclear pore – Minute pores present in nuclear envelope, formed by the fusion
of its two membrane. Through nuclear pores RNA & protein molecules move in
both directions between the nucleus & cytoplasm.
 Peri nuclear space – Space between outer & inner nuclar membrane (10 -15nm).
It forms a barrier between the materials present inside the nucleus & that of
cytoplasm.
 Nucleoplasm – Nuclear matrix which contain Chromain & Nucleolus.
 Nucleoli – Spherical structures . Not a membrane bound structure. Content is
continuous with the rest of nucleoplasm. Site for active ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis.
 Chromatin – Highly extended & elaborate nucleo protein fibres present in the
interphase nucleus .
 Chromatin contains DNA , histone proteins, non-histone proteins & RNA.
 A single human cell has approximately 2m long thread of DNA distributed
among its 46 chromosomes.
 Chromosome – (visible only in dividing cells). It has a primary constriction
(Centromere) on the sides of which disc shaped structures called Kinetochores
are present.
 Centromere holds 2 chromatids of a chromosome. A few chromosomes have
non- staining secondary constrictions , this gives the appearance of a small
fragment called Satellite.
37. Chromosomes :-
 Metacentric :- Middle Centromere. 2 equal arms.
 Sub-metacentric :- Centromere slightly away from the middle. one shorter arm &
one longer arm.

 Acrocentric :- Centromere is close to its end . one extremely short & one very long
arm.
 Telocentric :- Terminal centromere
38. Microbodies :- Membrane bound minute vesicles that contain various enzymes. They
are present in both plant & animal cells.
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

1. Cell cycle – The sequence of even
events
ts by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes
the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells.
2. Phases of cell cycle :-
 Human cell divide once in every 24 hours. This duration of cell cycle vary from
organism to organism
ganism (Yeast divides in 90 minute).
 Cell cycle divided into 2 phases. Interphase & M phase /Mitosis phase.
 M Phase :- Cell division takes place. Starts with nuclear division
( karyokinesis
karyokinesis) & ends with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
okinesis). Lasts for
only about an hour in human cell.
 Interphase :-- Resting phase during which cell is preparing for growth. lasts
95% duration of cell cycle. In human cell 23 hour. It is divided into 3 phases
 G1 phase ::- Post mitotic gap phase . Cell is metabolically active &
Continuously grows.
 S phase ::- Synthesis phase.. DNA synthesis / DNA replication takes place.
 G2 phase :- Pre mitotic gap phase.. Proteins are synthesized & the cell
grows.
 In animal cells, Du
During
ring S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus &
Centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm
cytoplasm.
 In animal cells, Mitotic division is only seen in diploid vegetative cells. But in
plants Mitosis takes place in both haploid and diploid cells

3. G0 (Quiscent stage) :-
 Some cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase to G0 phase (inactive stage).
 Cells remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do
so. eg., Heart cell in adult, Neurons etc.
4. Mitosis -:-
 Seen in vegetative cells.
 Parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
 No change in chromosome number ( Equational division).
5. Significance of mitosis:-
 Cell growth
 Cell repair
 Maintenance of nucleo- cytoplasmic ratio.
 Regeneration
6. Stages of Mitosis :- Karyokinesis include 4 stages
 Prophase :-
 Chromatin reticulum condenses to form Chromosomes.
 Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus disappear.
 Metaphase :-
 Chromosomes are arranged at equatorial plane.
 Spindle fibres from opposite poles attach to the kinetochore of
centromere.
 Anaphase :-
 Centromere split.
 Chromatids move towards opposite poles.
 Telophase :-
 Chromosomes decondenses to form chromatin reticulum.
 Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus reappear.
7. Cytokinesis :-

 Division of cytoplasm.
 In animal cell, a furrow appeared in the plasma membrane gradually deepens
& joins in the centre
 In plant cell, a cell-plate is formed at the centre & grows outward to meet the
existing lateral wall.
8. Meiosis :-
 Seen in reproductive cells.
 Parent cell divides into 4 daughter cells.
 Chromosome number reduced to half.
 Leads to the formation of haploid gametes.
 Involves 2 sequential cycles of division, Meiosis Ι & Meiosis ΙΙ .

9. Significance of Meiosis :-
 Maintain chromosome number
 create variation.
 Formation of gametes in sexually reproducing organisms.
10. Meiosis Ι (Reduction division) :-
 Prophase Ι – Longer & more complex phase. Subdivided into 5 phases. First two
stages of prophase Ι are short lived.
 Leptotene :- Chromosomes become visible under light microscope.
 Zygotene :-
 Homologous chromosomes starts pairing .
 Synapsis / Synaptonemal complex formation.
 Bivalent /Tetrad formation.
 Pachytene :-
 Appearance of recombination nodules.
 Crossing over /Exchange of genetic material takes place between
non - sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
 Recombinase enzyme - mediated process.
 Diplotene :-
 Dissolution of synaptonemal complex
 Separation of homologous chromosomes (except at the site of
crossovers ie. at Chiasmata).
 In Oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for months /
years.
 Diakinesis :-
 Terminalisation of Chiasmata.
 Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus disappears.

 Metaphase Ι :-
 Homologous chromosomes are arranged at equatorial plane.
 Spindle fibres from opposite poles attach to kinetochore of centromere.
 Anaphase Ι :-
 Homologous chromosomes separate ( Sister chromatids remain
associated with their centromere) .
 Separated homologous chromosomes move towards opposite poles.
 Telophase Ι :-
 Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus reappear.
 Cytokinesis follows & this is Dyad of cells.
11. Meiosis ΙΙ ( Equational division) :- Resemble mitosis.

 Prophase ΙΙ
 Chromosomes become compact
 Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus disappear.
 Metaphase ΙΙ
 Chromosomes arranged at equatorial plane.
 Spindle fibres from opposite poles attach to the kinetochore of
centromere.
 Anaphase ΙΙ
 Centromere split.
 Chromatids move towards opposite poles.
 Telophase ΙΙ
 Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus reappear.
 Chromosomes decondenses to form chromatin reticulum.
 Cytokinesis follows leads to the formation of 4 cells / Tetrads.
12. Distinguish
h Anaphase of mitosis from Anaphase Ι of meiosis ? :-
 Anaphase of mitosis – Centromere split & chromatids move towards opposite
poles

 Anaphase Ι of meiosis – Homologous chromosomes separate & move towards
opposite poles
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
1. Translocation :- Transport of substances over long distance is through xylem & phloem
(vascular system)
2. Diffusion :- Movement of molecules (may be gas, liquid or solid) from higher
concentration to lower conconcentration .
3. Facilitated diffusion :- Diffusion takes place with the help of proteins.
4. Reason for facilitated diffusion ::- Smaller substances & lipid soluble substances can
move faster through cell membrane, but hydrophylic substances , cannot pass throughthrou
the cell membrane. So water soluble substances moved by the help of proteins present
in the cell membrane.
5. Properties of facilitated diffusion ::-
 Requires special membrane protein
 No expenditure of energy
 Highly selective (specific)
 Transport rate reacreaches maximum when all the proteins are being used
 Sensitive to inhibitors which react with protein side chains
6. Features of transport proteins ::-
 Proteins form channels in the membrane for molecules to pass through.
 Some molecules are always open; others ca can be controlled.
 Some are large , allowing a variety of molecules to cross
7. Porins :-
 Proteins that form large pores in the outer membranes of the plastids,
mitochondria, & some bacteria.
 They allow molecules upto the size of small proteins to pass through.
through
8. How do transport proteins facilitate diffusion ?
 An extracellular molecule bound tto the transport protein
 Transport protein then rotates & release the molecule inside the cell
 eg., water channels – made up of 8 different types of aquaporins.
9. Uniport :- Only one molecule is transported through carrier protein

10. Antiport :- Two molecules move in opposite direction

11. Symport :- Two molecules move in same direction.
12. Active transport :-

 Use energy to transport & pump molecules against a concentration gradient.
 Requires membrane proteins
 Transport rate reaches maximum when all proteins are being used
 Highly selective (specific)
 Sensitive to inhibitors which react with protein side chain
chains
13. Water Potential :-
 Free energy of water molecules to move in a system /chemical potential of
water
 Denoted
enoted by the Greek symbol Psi or Ѱ & is expressed in pressure units such as
pascals (Pa).
14. Pure water have greatest water potential. Justify? :-
 Waterr potential of pure water at standard temperature & pressure is 0 (zero).
 Kinetic energy depends upon the concentration of the substance (When
concentration of water is higher, Its kinetic energy become higher).
15. What are the components that determine wat water potential :- Solute potential (Ѱs)
( &
Pressure potential (Ѱp) . Ѱw = Ѱs +Ѱp.
16. All solutions have lower water potential than pure water. why? ::- If a solute is dissolved
in pure water, concentration of water decreases ( free energy of water molecule
decreases) .
17. Solute potential :- Lowering of water potential due to the dissolution of a solute. It is
always negative.
18. Pressure potential :- is usually positive. If a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure
is applied to pure water or a solution, Its water potential increases.
19. Turgor pressure :- A pressure built up against the cell wall, when water enters into the
cell due to diffusion. It makes the cell turgid .
20. Wall pressure :- Pressure exerted by the cell wall against the turgor pressure.
21. Osmosis :- Movement of water molecules from its higher concentration to its lower
concentration through a semi permeable membrane.
 In plant cells, cell membrane & tonoplast ( membrane of the vacuole) are
indicators of movement of molecules in or out of the cell.
 Rate of osmosisosis & direction of water movement depends on pressure gradient
and concentration gradient .

 water move from solution having high water potential to solution having lower
water potential until equilibrium is reached. At equilibrium two chambers
should have
ve nearly same water potential.
22. Thistle funnel experiment to demonstrate osmosis

osmosis. :-
 A thistle funnel is filled with sucrose solution .
 End of thistle funnel is covered with egg membrane ( semi permeable
membrane)
 Thistle funnel is kept inverted in a be
beaker containing water
 Water will move from beaker to funnel through egg membrane
 Solution level in funnel increases.
23. Osmotic pressure :- Minimum pressure , applied on the solution to stop osmosis.
24. Osmotic potential :- Potential of a water molecules to momove
ve from hypotonic solution to
a hypertonic solution through a semi permeable membrane. ( Osmotic potential is a
measure of water potential for movement from a region of lower solute concentration
to higher solute concentration). Also known as Solute potent
potential.
25. Osmotic pressure is numerically equal to Osmotic potential, but sign is opposite.
(Osmotic pressure is positive and osmotic potential is negative).
26. Isotonic solution – External solution balances the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm
(both
both External solution & cytoplasm have same water potential / they attain
equilibrium state).
27. Hypotonic solution – Less concentrated solution (dilute solution / low Salt
concentration)
28. Hypertonic solution - More concentrated solution ( high salt concent
concentration).
ration).
29. Exosmosis – Movement of water out of the cell when the cells are placed in a hypertonic
solution (leads to Shrinkage of cell).
30. Endosmosis – Movement of water into the cell when the cells are placed in a hypotonic
solution (leads to Swelling of ce
cell).

31. When a cell is placed in an Isotonic solution - there is no net flow of water towards
inside or outside.
32. Plasmolysis - Water moves out of the cell & the cell membrane shrinks away from its
cell wall ( Shrinkage of cell membrane due to exosmosis). Ce Cellll is said to be Plasmolysed.
eg., shrinkage of vegetables in hypertonic solution.
 When a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water is first move out from
cytoplasm & then from vacuole. This movement of water causes protoplast to
shrink.
 Hypertonic solution
olution occupies the space between the cell wall and shrunken
protoplast in a plasmolysed cell.
33. Deplasmolysis :- Process of plasmolysis is reversible . When a plasmolysed cell is placed
in hypotonic solution, water move into the cell and become turgid.
34. Turgid cell – Swollen cell that has turgor pressure.
35. Flaccid cell – The cell in which water flows in and out of the cell and is in equilibrium.
Here cells are placed in isotonic solution. There is no turgor pressure.
36. Turgor pressure / Pressure potential (Ѱp) of a flaccid cell :- zero.
37. Imbibition :- Absorption of water by hydrophilic colloids.

38. Pre requisite for imbibitions ::-
 Water potential gradient between the absorbent & the liquid imbibedimbib .
 Affinity between absorbe
absorbent & the liquid
39. Imbibition - examples :-
 Absorption of water by seeds - Seeds absorb water & germinate into a seedling.
 Absorption of water by dry woods - Pressure that is produced by the swelling of
wood had been used by prehistoric man to split rocks & boulders.
40. How do Plants Absorb Water ? :- Water is absorbed along with mineral solutes by the
root hairs , by diffusion.. From root hairs, water move deeper into
nto root layers by two
pathways – Apoplast & symplast pathways
41. Apoplast pathway :- movement of water throu through
gh intercellular spaces & cell wall.
 Mass flow of water occurs through intercellular spaces due to adhesive &
cohesive forces.
 Apoplast is continuous throughout the plant except at the casparian strips of the
endodermis.
 Water movement does not involv involve crossing the cell membrane.

42. Symplast pathway :- movement of water through the cells (through cytoplasm) &
Intercellular movement is through plasmodesmata.
 Water enter the cell through cell membrane, hence movement is slower.
 Symplastic movement may be aided by cytoplasmic streaming.
43. Movement of water is ultimately symplastic in the endodermis . Why ? :-: Endodermis is
impermeable to water due to suberin deposition (caspari
(casparian
an thickening).
44. Movement of water through root layers:

layers:-
 Root
ot hair absorb water and minerals.
 Water move into cortical cells. (Most of the water flow occurs via apoplast
pathway since cortical cells are loosely packed)
 Water moves through the symplast to cross endodermis & enter into xylem.
 Inside xylem, water is again free to move through apoplast pathway.
 From root xylem , water move up into stem and leaf.
45. Mycorrhiza :– Symbiotic association between fungus and roots of higher plants (like
pinus).
 Fungal filament form a network around the young roo roott / they penetrate the root
cells.
 Hyphae have large surface area, so they absorb water and minerals from a larger
volume of soil that a root cannot do.
 Fungus give water & minerals to roots. Roots give sugar & N N- containing
compounds to fungus.
 Pinus have an obligate association with mycorrhiza. So Pinus seeds cannot
germinate without the presence of mycorrhizal association.
46. Root pressure :- Positive pressure developed inside the root xylem due to the
accumulation of water. This pressure helps in the upward movement of water ( push
water to a small height).
47. Guttation :-
 Loss of water in the form of liquid droplet through special openings (hydathode)
of veins of leaf blade & leaf tip of many herbs.

 Guttation is an effect of root pressure, which occurs at night & early morning.
48. Transpiration pull :-
 Biological process in which force of pulling is produced inside the xylem & helps
in the upward movement of water (Suction force or pull that draws water up
through a plant)
 Upward flow of water through xylem in plants can achieve fairly high rates, upto
15metres per hour by transpiration pull.
 Water is ‘Pulled’ through the plant & the driving force for this process is
transpiration.
 This is also known as cohesion – tension – transpiration pull model of water
transport.
49. Transpiration :- Evaporative loss of water through stomata.
50. Opening & closing of stomata :-
 Stomata open in the day time & close during the night.
 Opening or closing of stomata is due to change in the turgidity of guard cells .
 When water enters , guard cell become turgid. Then thin outer wall bulge out
and force the inner walls ( thick & elastic) into a crescent shape and the stoma
open.
 When guard cell lose water, elastic inner walls regain their original shape , guard
cells become flaccid and stoma closes.
 Opening of stomata is also aided due to the orientation of microfibrils in the cell
walls of the guard cells . Cellulose microfibrils are oriented radially than
longitudinally making it easier for the stoma to open.
51. Difference between dcot & monocot stomata :-
 In dicot leaf, lower epidermis has more number of stomata . In monocot leaf,
stomata are equally distributed on both surfaces.
 Bean shaped / kidney shaped guard cells , in dicot. Dumb-bell shaped guard cells
in monocot
52. Functions of stomata :-
 Transpiration.
 Exchange of Oxygen & Carbon dioxide in the leaf
53. Factors affecting Transpiration:-

a) External factors - Temperature, light, humidity, wind speed etc.

b) Plant factors - Number & distribution of stomata
stomata,, percent of open stomata, water
status of the plant, canopy structure etc.
54. Physical properties of water, required for ascent of xylem sap ::-
 Cohesion – Mutual attraction between water molecules.
 Adhesion – Attraction of water molecules to polar surface ( the surface of
tracheary elements)
 Surface Tension – Water molecules are attracted to each other in the liquid
phase more than to water in the gas phase.
 These Properties give water high tensile strength ( Ability to resist a pulling
force) and high
h Capillarity (Ability to rise in thin tubes). In plants, capillarity is
aided by the small diameter of the tracheary elements (Tracheids & Vessels).
55. Water movement in leaf :-
 Water evaporates through the stomata
 a pressure gradient established between o outside
utside air & air spaces of leaf and this
gradient transmitted into the mesophyll cells & on the xylem.
 Since the thin film of water over the cell is continuous, it results in pulling of
water, molecule by molecule, into the mesophyll cells and then to guard gua cells
from leaf xylem.
 This ‘pulling force’ generated by transpiration create a pressure sufficient to lift
water from root to leaf xylem.
 System of xylem vessels from the root to the leaf vein , supply needed water for
photosynthesis.
56. Transpiration – Merits :--

 Create transpiration pull
 Helps in absorption & upward movement of water and minerals
 Cools leaf surfaces
 Maintains the structure & shape of plants by keeping cells turgid
 Supplies water for photosynthesis
57. Transpiration – demerits ::- Leads to wilting & death of plant
58. Transpiration is a necessary evil. justify? ::-
 Transpiration has several merits like remove excess water , helps in absorption
& translocation of water etc.

 At the same time, increase in the rate of transpiration leads to wilting & death of
plant
59. Uptake of minerals :- Minerals are absorbed & transported by active & passive mode.
60. All minerals cannot be passively absorbed by the roots / Most minerals must enter the
root by active absorption into cytoplasm of epidermal cells. Why? :-
 Minerals are present in the soil as charged particles (ions) which cannot move
across cell membranes.
 Concentration of minerals in the soil is usually lower than the concentration of
minerals in the root.
61. Where is the control points for mineral absorption ? why ? :-
 Transport proteins of root endodermal cells are control points, where a plant
adjusts the quantity & types of solutes that reach the xylem
 Layer of suberin (casparian thickening) has the ability to actively transport ions in
one direction only.
62. Translocation of mineral ions :-
 Mineral ions are translocated to all parts of plant along with water through
xylem .
 Unloading of mineral ions occurs at the fine vein endings through diffusion &
active uptake by these cells.
63. Direction of movement in the phloem is bidirectional why ? :- Source (Part of the plant
in which food is available) & Sink ( Part that needs the food) may be reversed
depending on the season / plants needs.
64. Direction of movement through xylem :- Unidirectional
65. Phloem sap :- Mainly water & sucrose. Other sugars, hormones & aminoacids are also
transported through phloem
66. Pressure flow / mass flow hypothesis :- Accepted mechanism used for the translocation
of sugars from source to sink
 Glucose formed in the leaves , converted into sucrose & reach at companion cell
& then into sieve tubes by active transport.
 Produce a hypertonic condition in the phloem
 Water from xylem moves into phloem by osmosis.
 Phloem sap will move to area having low osmotic pressure
 Sucrose move out of the phloem sap into the cell (which need sugar for life
processes) by active transport.

67. Girdling experiment :-
 Used to identify tissues through which food is transported.
 On the trunk of a tree, a ring of bark upto a depth of the phloem layer is
removed.
 In the absence of downward movement, portion of the bark above the ring
becomes swollen after a few weeks.
 This experiment shows that food is translocated through food.
MINERAL NUTRITION
1. Nutrition :- Process by which a living organism receives & utilizes the chemical
substances for its normal growth & development.
2. Nutrients :- Chemicals which provide nourishment to living organisms.
3. Mineral element :- Inorganic nutrients which are ob obtained
tained by the plants from the soil
4. Hydroponics :- Soilless culture of plants in nutrient medium
5. Uses of hydroponics :-
 Essential elements are identified & their deficiency symptoms were discovered.
 Commercial production of vegetables such as tomato, seed seedless
less cucumber &
lettuce.
6. Criteria for Essentiality :-

 Element must be necessary for normal growth and reproduction
 Elements must be specific. ( not replaced by another element)
 Element must be directly involved in the memetabolism.
7. Classification of essential elements based on their quantitative requirements :-
:
 Macronutrients ::- Needed in large amounts (more than 10 mmole/kg of dry matter).
They are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulphur, Potassium,
Calcium
alcium & Magnesium
 Micronutrients :- Needed in small amounts (less than10 mmole/kg of dry matter).
They are Iron, Manganese, Copper, Molybdenum, Zinc, Boron, Chlorine & Nickel.
8. Classification of essential elements based on their function ::-
 Components of biomolecules /Structural elements of cells. eg., Carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen & nitrogen
 Components of energy – related chemical compounds in plants. eg., Magnesium in
chlorophyll and Phosphorous in ATP

 Elements that activate / inhibit enzymes. Eg., Mg2+ (activator for both rubisco and PEP
carboxylase enzymes), Zn2+ (activator of alcohol dehydrogenase) and Mo (
Nitrogenase enzyme
 Elements which alter osmotic potential of a cell. eg., Potassium (Opening and closing of
stomata)
9. Role of Macro - & Micro- nutrients :-
 Nitrogen :-
 constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls, and many
of the vitamins.
 Nitrogen exist as N≡N.
 Only absorbable form of nitrogen is soil Nitrate (NO3-).
 Phosphorous :-
 Absorbed by plants in the form of phosphate ions
 . Constituent of cell membrane, nucleic acids , nucleoproteins etc.
 Potassium :-
 Absorbed as potassium ions.
 Help to maintain anion - cation balance in cells
 Involved in protein synthesis
 Role in opening & closing of stomata
 Calcium :-
 Absorbed as calcium ions.
 Used in the synthesis of cell wall
 It activate enzymes.
 Magnesium :-
 Absorbed in the form of Mg2+ ions.
 Activate enzymes for respiration, photosynthesis
 Involved in the synthesis of DNA & RNA
 Constituent of chlorophyll
 Sulphur :-
 Absorbed in the form of sulphate.
 Present in amino acids like cysteine & methionine
 Main constituent of coenzymes & vitamins
 Iron :-
 Absorbed in the form of ferric ion.
 Constituent of cytochromes
 Involved in the synthesis of chlorophyll
 Manganese :-
 Absorbed in the form of Mn2+ ions.

 Role in photolysis of water.
 Zinc :-
 Absorbed in the form of Zn2+ ions.
 Activate enzymes
 Essential for the synthesis of Auxin.
 Copper :-
 Absorbed as cupric ions .
 Involved in various metabolic activities & redox reactions.
 Boron :-
 Absorbed as BO33- / B4O72- ions.
 Required for uptake of calcium, cell elongation & pollen germination.
 Molybdenum :-
 Absorbed in the form of Molybdate ions.
 Component of nitrogenas, nitrate reductase enzymes.
 Chlorine :-
 Absorbed in the form of Cl- ions.
 Required for photolysis of water.
10. Deficiency :-
 Critical concentration :– Concentration of the essential element below which
plant growth is retarded.
 The element is said to be deficient when present below the critical
concentration.
 Deficiency symptoms :- Morphological changes in a plant due to deficiency of
essential elements.
11. Mobile elements :-
 Elements that are actively mobilised within the plants & exported to young
developing tissues.
 Deficiency symptoms appear first in the older tissues.
 In older leaves, biomolecules containing these elements are broken down,
making these elements available for mobilising to younger leaves.
 eg., Nitrogen, Potassium, & Magnesium.
12. Immobile elements :-
 Elements that are not transported out of mature organs.
 Deficiency symptoms appear first in the young tissues.
 eg., Sulphur & Calcium
13. Deficiency symptoms shown in plants :-

 Chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll leading to yellowing in leaves) :- Caused by the
deficiency of N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo
 Necrosis (death of tissues) :- Caused by the deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K
 Inhibition of cell division :- Lack or low level of N, K, S, Mo
 Delay flowering :- Caused by the deficiency of N, S, Mo
14. Toxicity of Micronutrients :-
 Moderate increase in the amount of micronutrients in plants.
 Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues
by about 10 % is considered toxic
 Excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another element.
 eg., Symptoms of manganese toxicity is the appearance of brown spots
surrounded by chlorotic veins.
15. Excess manganese induce deficiencies of iron, magnesium & calcium . justify ? :-
Manganese competes with iron & magnesium for uptake & with magnesium for binding
with enzymes. Manganese also inhibit calcium translocation in shoot apex ( Symptoms
of manganese toxicity may be the deficiency symptoms of iron, magnesium & calcium).
16. Mechanism of absorption of elements :-
 First phase is passive transport – Initial rapid uptake of ions into free space/
outer space (apoplast) . This movement occurs through ion channels. Trans
membrane proteins function as selective pores.
 Second phase is active transport – ions are taken in slowly into the inner space
(symplast) . Entry/exit of ions to & from the symplast requires energy.
17. Flux :- Movement of ions
 Influx :- Inward movement of ions into the cells
 Efflux :- Outward movement of ions from cell
18. Nitrogen Cycle
19. Nitrogen fixation :- Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to soil nitrogenous compounds.

 Biological nitrogen fixation :- Reduction of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia by
living organisms.

 Industrial nitrogen fixation:- Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile
exhausts, and power generating stations are sources of nitrogen oxides.
 Electrical nitrogen fixation :- Lightning and ultra violet radiation provide energy
to convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogen oxides.
20. Nitrification :- Conversion of ammonia into soil nitrate by Nitrifying bacterias.
 At first Ammonia oxidized to Nitrite by Nitrite bacterias like Nitrosomonas /
Nitrococcus.
 Nitrite is then oxidized to Nitrate by Nitrate bacterias like Nitrobactor.
 Nitrifying bacterias are chemoautotrophs.
2NH3 + 3O2 2NO2- +2H+ +2H2O
2NO2- + O2 2NO3-
21. Nitrate assimilation :- Plants absorb and assimilate soil nitrate (NO 3-) to form
aminoacids and proteins. Proteins are transported to animal body through food chain.
22. Ammonification :- Decomposition of organic nitrogen of dead plants and animals into
ammonia. Some of this ammonia volatalises and re-enters the atmosphere but most of
it is converted to Nitrate (NO3-) through nitrification.
23. Denitrification – Soil Nitrate (NO3-) is converted to atmospheric Nitrogen by Denitrifying
bacterias like Pseudomonas & Thiobacillus.
24. Biological Nitrogen Fixation:-
N≡N Nitrogenase NH3
25. Nitrogen fixers – Prokaryotes in which Nitrogenase enzyme is present.

26. Free living nitrogen fixing aerbic microbes – Azotobacter & Beijernickia
27. Nitrogen fixing anaerobic bacteria – Rhodospirillum.
28. Free living Nitrogen fixing cyanobacterias – Anabaena & Nostoc
29. Symbionts :- Rhizobium & Frankia.
 Rhizobium Produce nitrogen fixing nodules on roots of leguminous plants such
as alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet pea, garden pea etc.
 Frankia produce nitrogen fixing nodules on roots of non- leguminous plants like
Alnus.
30. Root Nodule Formation - Steps:-
 Rhizobium bacteria multiply and colonise the surroundings of roots and get
attached to the epidermal & root hair cells.
 Root hair curl & the bacteria invade the root hair.
 Infection thread carries bacteria to the inner cortex
 Bacteria get modified into rod shaped bacteroids and cause inner cortical &
pericycle cells to divide.

 Division & growth of cortical and pericycle cells lead to nodule formation.
 Mature nodule establishes direct vascular connection with the host for exchange
e
of nutrients.
31. Nitrogenase enzyme :-

 Mo-Fe Fe protein present in root nodule.
 It catalyses the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia.
 It is highly sensitive to the molecular oxygen (requir
(requires
es anaerobic condition to
work)
32. Leg- haemoglobin /Leguminous
eguminous haemoglobin :-
 Oxygen scavenger which protect nitrogenase enzyme.
 Pink pigment present in root nodule
nodule.
33. Nitrogen fixing bacterias live as aerobes under free living conditions but during
Nitrogen fixing events, they become anaerobic. Why ? ::- Nitrogenase enzyme requires
anaerobic condition to work
N2 + 8e- +8H+ 16ATP 2NH3 + H2 +16 ADP +16Pi
34. Fate of ammonia :-

 At physiological pH, ammonia is protonated to form NH4+ (ammonium ions).
 Ammonium ion is toxic to plants.
 So NH4+ is used to synthesize aminoacids in plants.
 Two ways – Reductive amination & Transamination.
35. Reductive amination :-
 Ammonia reacts with ἀ- ketoglutaric acid & forms glutamic acid
 In the presence of enzyme Glutamate dehydrogenase.
 Equation :- ἀ- ketoglutaric acid + NH4+ +NADPH → glutamate +H2O +NADP
36. Transamination :-
 Involves transfer of amino group from one amino acid to the keto ggroup
roup of keto acid.
 Glutamic acid is the main amino acid from which transfer of amino group takes place
 Enzyme transaminase catalyses such reactions.
37. Amide :-

 Inorganic compound derived from ammonia by replacement of an atom of hydrogen
with another element.
 Important amides are Asparagine & Glutamine – Found in plants & are a structural part
of protein
 Asparagine derived from aspartic acid & Glutamine derived from glutamic acid
 Amides contain more nitrogen than the amino acids
 Transported to other parts of plant through xylem.
38. Ureides :- These compounds have high nitrogen to carbon ratio. Nodules of some plants (eg.,
soyabean) export fixed nitrogen as ureides.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

1. Photosynthesis :- Process in which green plants prepare food using CO 2 and H2O in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll pigment.
6 CO2 +12 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 H2O +6 O2
2. Variegated leaf experiment :-
 Starch test in a variegated leaf or leaf that was partially covered with black paper
and one that was exposed to light.
 Inference – Chlorophyll pigment is necessary for photosynthesis
3. Half leaf experiment :-
 A part of a leaf is enclosed in a test tube containing some KOH soaked cotton
(that absorbs CO2)
 Other half is exposed to air
 Setup is placed in light for some time.
 Starch test – exposed part of leaf tested positive & portion that was in the tube
tested negative.
 Inference - CO2 is essential for photosynthesis.
4. Early experiments :-
Scientist Inference of experiment
Joseph priestley Plants restore to the air that was spoiled by breathing rat & burning candle
Jan Ingenhousz Plants use light to produce oxygen
Julius von sachs Starch/glucose is produced on green parts of the plant
T.W.Engelmann Most of the photosynthesis takes place in the red & blue regions of spectrum
Cornelius Van Niel Plants release oxygen as a result of splitting of water molecules.

5. Site of photosynthesis :- Chloroplast. There is a clear division of labour within the
chloroplast.
6. Site of light reaction :- Thylakoid . Chlorophyll pigment present in thylakoid trap light
energy and produce ATP & NADPH.
7. Site of dark reaction :- Stroma. Enzymatic reactions synthesize glucose which in turn
forms starch.
8. Pigments :- Substances that have an ability to absorb light, at specific wavelengths.
9. Leaf pigments can be separated by :- Paper Chromatography.
10. Pigments involved in Photosynthesis :- Colour in the leaves is due to 4 pigments.
 Chlorophyll a (bright or blue green in the chromatogram) is the major pigment
responsible for trapping light .
 Accessory pigments - Chlorophyll b (yellow green), Xanthophylls
thophylls (yellow), and
Carotenoids (yellow to yellow
yellow-orange).
11. Role of accessory pigments ::-
 They absorb light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a.
 Protect chlorophyll a from photo - oxidation
12. Action spectrum indicates overall rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength of light
13. Absorption spectrum indicates the wavelengths of light absorbed by each pigment.

Action spectrum superimposed on absorption spectrum.
14. Light Reaction / Photochemical phase include :-

 light absorption
 water splitting
 oxygen release
 formation of ATP & NADPH .
 Several protein complexes are involved in this process
15. Light harvesting complex / Antennae :-
 Pigment-Protein complex that absorb light energy.
 All the pigments except one molecule of chlorophyll a is a light harvesting
complex.
 They are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules bound to the protein
within the Photosystem Ι & Photosystem ΙΙ .
16. Photosystem :-
 Structural & Functional units for photosynthesis.
 Photosystem has a reaction centre & light harvesting complex (which Use light
energy to transfer electrons across thylakoid membrane and the electrons are
used to produce ATP & NADPH).
17. Photosystem Ι (PS Ι) :- Reaction centre (Chlorophyll a)– P700 has an absorption
maximum at 700nm
18. Photosystem ΙΙ (PS ΙΙ) :- Reaction centre ( chlorophyll a)- P680 has an absorption
maximum at 680nm.
19. Electron Transport / Photophosphorylation :- Synthesis of ATP from ADP & inorganic
phosphate (Pi) in the presence of light.
20. Cyclic photophosphorylation -
 In PS Ι , reaction centre absorb 700nm wavelength of red light .
 Electrons become excited and jump into an orbit farther from the atomic
nucleus.
 These electrons are picked up by an electron acceptor.
 Excited electrons cycled back to the PS Ι through an electron transport system
consisting of cytochromes .
 Cyclic flow results in the synthesis of ATP.

 Possible location is stroma lamella, because stroma lamella membrane lack PS ΙΙ
and NADP reductase enzyme.
21. Non-cyclic
cyclic photophosphorylation :-
 In PSΙΙ , reaction centre absorb 680nm wavelength of red light.
 Electrons become excited and jump into an orbit farther from the atomic
nucleus.
 These electrons are picked up by an electron acceptor.
 Down hill movement of electrons through an electron transport system
consisting of cytochromes and reach PS Ι ( ATP is formed during this transport).
 Electrons in the PS Ι are also excited
cited when they receive red light of 700nm
wavelength and are transferred to another acceptor molecule.
 Again downhill movement of electrons (results
esults in the synthesis of NADPH).
NADPH
 Electrons needed to replace those removed from PS Ι are provided by PS ΙΙ.
22. Difference between Cyclic and Non

Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation :-
Cycic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic

cyclic photophosphorylation
Only PS Ι is functional Ps Ι and PS ΙΙ are functional
Electrons from PS Ι are cycled back Electrons are not cycled back
ATP is synthesized ATP & NADPH are synthesized
Photolysis of water absent Photolysis of water present
Location- Stroma lamella Location -Thylakoid membrane
Found in bacterial cell Found in green plants

23. Photolysis of water :-
 Splitting of water in the presence of light.
 Water splitting complex (located on the inner side of the Thylakoid membrane)
is associated with PS ΙΙ.
 The electrons moved from PS ΙΙ during non- cyclic photophospohorylation is
replaced by electrons available due to splitting of water.
 Creates Oxygen .
 2H2O → 4H+ + O2 + 4 e-
24. Chemiosmotic Hypothesis ( Explain the mechanism of ATP synthesis) :-
 Required components :- Proton gradient, Proton pump, ATP synthase enzyme.
 Energy is used to pump protons across a membrane , to create a gradient or a
high comcentration of protons within the thylakoid lumen.
 Diffusion of protons from lumen to stroma through the channel of ATP synthase
enzyme, release energy to produce ATP.
25. Protons in the stroma decreases in number and there is an accumulation of protons in
the lumen / a proton gradient is established across the membrane due to three reasons.
What are they?
1) Photolysis of water takes place on the innerside of the thylakoid membrane.
2) As electron transfer through photosystems , Protons are transported across the
membrane into the thylakoid lumen . (Primary electron acceptor transfer its
electron to H carrier . H carrier remove proton from stroma and transfer
electron to electron carrier. During this transport , proton is released into lumen)
3) Protons necessary for the reduction of NADP + to NADPH +H+ is removed from
stroma .
26. Location of NADP reductase enzyme :- stroma side of the thylakoid membrane
27. ATP synthase enzyme :- consists of 2 parts.
 CF0 - embedded in the thylakoid membrane & forms a trans membrane
channel that carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the membrane.
 CF1 – Protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid membrane on the side that
faces the stroma.
28. ATP synthesis :-
 Proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane is broken down due to the
movement of protons from lumen to stroma through transmembrane channel
of the CF0 of the ATP synthase enzyme.
 Breakdown of gradient provide energy for ATP synthesis.
29. Uses of ATP and NADPH :- Used in the dark reaction to fix CO2 and synthesize glucose.

30. Calvin Cycle / Biosynthetic phase /Dark reaction :- Traced out by Melvin Calvin.
31. stages of Calvin cycle :-

 Carboxylation :-
 6 molecules of Ribulose -1,5-biphosphate (RuBP) absorb 6CO2 from
atmosphere and form 12 molecules of 3-PGA.
 This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO (RuBP carboxylase-
oxygenase). This enzyme has carboxylation and oxygenation activity.
 Reduction /Reversal of glycolysis :-
 3-PGA is converted to 1 glucose molecule through a series of reactions.
 12 molecules of ATP & 12 molecules of NADPH are utilized for reduction
reactions.
 Regeneration of RuBP :-
 Out of 12molecules of 3-PGAL formed during reduction, 2 molecules -
reduced to glucose & 10 molecules - regenerated to 6 molecules of
RuBP .
 6ATP molecules are used in this reaction
6 CO2 1 glucose.
18 ATP 18 ADP +18 Pi
12 NADPH 12 NADP + 12 H+
32. Hatch & Slack Pathway/ C4 Cycle :-
 Plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4 pathway to fix CO2
 Pathway completes in mesophyll & bundle sheath cells.
 Pathway is traced out by Hatch & Slack

33. ‘Kranz’ anatomy ( kranz means wreath) :-
 Special leaf anatomy present in C4 plants
 Specialised large cells called bundle sheath cells may form several layers around
the vascular bundles.
 Mesophyll cells are clustered around the bundle sheath cells in a ring-like
fashion
34. Special characteristics of bundle sheath cells in C 4 plants :-
 Presence of large, agranal chloroplast
 Thick walls impermeable to gases .
 No intercellular space.
 Rich in an enzyme RuBisCO, but lack PEPcarboxylase
35. Difference between chloroplast of mesophyll cells & chloroplast of bundlesheath cells?:-
Mesophyll cells possess small, granal chloroplast (grana or thylakoid present). But
bundlesheath cells possess large agranal chloroplast (Grana absent)
36. C4 cycle – Steps :-
 Phosphoenol pyruvic acid (PEP) present in the mesophyll cell receive CO2 from
atmosphere & form Oxalo Acetic Acid (C4 acid). PEP carboxylase enzyme
catalyse this reaction.
 OAA Converted to 4- C compounds like malic acid / aspartic acid & are
transported to bundle sheath cells.
 In bundle sheath cells, C4 acids are broken down to release CO2 & 3-C compound
Pyruvic acid.
 Pyruvic acid is transported back to the mesophyll & converted to PEP
 CO2 released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C3cycle
37. Basic pathway that results in the formation of sugar/ glucose :- C 3 cycle (common to C3
& C4 plants)
38. Photo respiration /C2 Cycle :-
 Metabolic pathway occurs in the presence of light.
 During this process O2 is consumed & CO2 is released .

 RuBP combines with O2 to form 1 molecule of 3PGA & 1 molecule of
phosphoglycolate, when, O2 concentration is more than that of CO2.
 Enzyme RuBisCO catalyse this reaction
RuBP + O2 → 3PGA + Phosphoglycolate
39. Photorespiration is a wasteful process. Why? :-
 There is no synthesis of ATP & NADPH (energy) , but ATP is utilised
 No glucose formation
40. In C4 plants , photorespiration does not occur. Why? :-
 There is no release of Oxygen due to photolysis of water because of the
absence of grana
 Cell wall of bundle sheath cells are thick & impermeable to gases .
 RuBisCO is present in bundlesheath cells.
 There is enough supply of CO2
41. Difference between C3 & C4 Cycle
C3 Cycle C4 Cycle
C3 cycle takes place in mesophyll cells C3 Cycle takes place in bundlesheath cells
Only mesophyll cells involved Both mesophyll cells & bundlesheath cells involved
Initial carboxylation – in mesophyll cells Initial carboxylation - in Mesophyll cells
Primary CO2 acceptor – RuBP Primary CO2 acceptor – PEP
Number of C in the primary CO2 acceptor -5 Number of C in the primary CO2 acceptor-3
Primary CO2 fixation product – PGA Primary CO2 fixation product – OAA
Number of C in the Primary CO2 fixation product Number of C in the Primary CO2 fixation product -4
–3
Carboxylase enzyme which catalyse first Carboxylase enzyme which catalyse first
carboxylation reaction - RuBisCO carboxylation reaction – PEP
RuBisCO is present in mesophyll cells RuBisCO present in bundlesheath cells
Optimum temperature is low Optimum temperature is high
Photorespiration is high No photorespiration

Leaves have no kranz anatomy Leaves show kranz anatomy
Low photosynthetic rate/ less efficient High photosynthetic rate / efficient
CO2 compensation point is high CO2 compensation point is low
18 ATPs are required for fixing 6 CO2 molecules 30 ATPs are required for fixing 6 CO2 molecules
eg., Wheat, rice, cotton eg., Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane
42. Factors affecting photosynthesis :-

 Internal factors :-
 Number, size, age & orientation of leaves.
 Orientation of mesophyll cells & chloroplast
 Internal CO2 concentration & amount of chlorophyll
 External factors :-
 Light :-
 Light quality – Photosynthetic rate is maximum in red & blue light
 Light intensity – Photosynthetic rate is maximum in intense light
than dim light
 Duration of exposure :- Photosynthetic rate is maximum in
intermittent light than continuous light
 Increase in the incident light beyond a point – causes breakdown
of chlorophyll & decrease in photosynthesis.
 Carbon dioxide concentration :-
 CO2 concentration is very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 &
0.04 percent). Increase in concentration upto 0.05 percent can
cause an increase in photosynthesis, beyond this levels can
become damaging.
 Availability of CO2 level is a limiting factor to C3 plants
 Tomatoes & bell pepper (C3 plants) are the green house crops
respond to higher CO2 concentration by showing increased rate of
photosynthesis leading to higher productivity.
 Temperature :-
 Dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled
 Light reactions are also temperature sensitive, but are affected to
a lesser extend.
 C4 plants have higher temperature optimum than C3 plants

 Tropical plants have higher temperature optimum than
temperate plants.
 Water :-
 Necessary for photosynthesis & all enzymatic actions.
 Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing the CO 2
availability.
 Water stress makes leaves wilt.
43. Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factors :- If a chemical process is affected by more than one
factor, then its rate will be determined by the factor which is nearest to its minimal
value (factor nearest to minimal value directly affects the process if its quantity is
changed)
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
1. Cellular Respiration – Metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to release energy /
Oxidative breakdown of glucose into CO2, water & energy.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
2. Stages of cellular respiration :- Glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and Electron transport system &
Oxidative decarboxylation
3. Respiratory substrate :- Compounds that are oxidised during the process of cellular
respiration. eg., Carbohydrates, proteins, fats & organic acids.
4. Energy currency of cell –ATP (utilised in various energy requiring processes of organism)
5. Difference between Aerobic & Anaerobic respiration:-
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Complete oxidation of glucose Incomplete oxidation of glucose

Presence of Oxygen Absence of Oxygen
Produce 38 ATP Produce 2 ATP
Oxidation is very vigorous Oxidation is slow process
6. Glycolysis / EMP Pathway :-
 Partial oxidation of glucose into 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid.
 Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm.
 Common step for both Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration.
 Scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Mayerhof, & J.Parnas .
So the pathway is called EMP Pathway.
 In plants glucose is derived from sucrose /stored carbohydrates. Sucrose is
converted into glucose & fructose by the enzyme invertase. These
monosaccharides enter into the pathway.

 Chain of 10 reactions under the control of different enzymes.
7. Glycolytic pathway :-
 Phosphorylation of glucose. Enzyme hexokinase. ATP utilised.
 Isomerisation of Glucose -6- phosphate . Enzyme isomerase
 Phosphorylation of Fructose-6-phosphate. Enzyme kinase. ATP utilised.
 Splitting of Fructose 1,6 biphosphate. Enzyme aldolase
 Isomerisation of DHAP into 3PGAL. Enzyme isomerase
 Oxidative phosphorylation of 3 PGAL. Enzyme dehydrogenase. NADH+H +
formed.
 Transfer of Phopsphate group from 1,3, BPGA to ADP. Enzyme kinase. ATP is
formed.
 Phosphate group is shifted from 3rd Carbon to 2nd Carbon of 3 PGA. Enzyme
mutase.
 Dehydration of 2 PGA . Enzyme Enolase.
 Transfer of phosphate group from PEP to ADP. Enzyme kinase. ATP is formed.
8. End products of glycolysis :-

 4 ATP formed & 2 ATP Used. So net gain is 2 ATP.
 2 NADH2 (transferred into the matrix and undergoes Oxidative phosphorylation)
& 2 Pyruvic acid molecules are formed.
9. Fate of Pyruvic acid :- Anaerobic respiration (Alcoholic fermentation & Lactic acid
fermentation) & Aerobic respiration.
10. Oxidative decarboxylation / Link reaction

Pyruvic acid + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO 2 +NADH + H+
 Pyruvic acid undergo oxidation & decarboxylation . catalysed by pyruvic

dehydrogenase enzyme in the presence of Mg2+ ions. Coenzyme A is involved .
 2 molecules of NADH are produced from 2 molecules of pyruvic uvic acid.
 Connecting link between glycolysis & Kreb’s cycle . Acetyl CoA enters rs into Kreb’s
cycle.
11. Kreb’s Cycle / Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle / Citric Acid Cycle
 Hans Krebs elucidate this pathway , so it is known as Kreb’s cycle.
 First stable compound is Citric Acid , so it is known as Citric acid cycle.
 Citric acid is a tricarboxyli
tricarboxylic acid , so Tricarboxylic acid cycle.
 Occurs in Mitochondrial matrix.
 Krebs cycle occur twice as 2 pyruvic acid molecules are formed during dur glycolysis.
12. Kreb’s cycle –pathway :-
 Oxaloacetic acid (OAA - 4-C C compound) joins with Acetyl coenzyme A to form
Citric acid (6- C compound). Catalysed by the enzyme Citrate synthase .
Coenzyme A is released.
 Citric acid is isomerised to Isocitric acid.
 Isocitric acid undergo Oxidation & decarboxylation to form 𝛼 -Ketoglutaric
Ketoglutaric acid
+
(5-C
C compound) . CO2 removed. NADH + H formed.
 𝛼 - Ketoglutaric acid undergo Oxidative decarboxylation to form Succinyl CoA.
Coenzyme A is involved in this reaction. CO 2 is removed. NADH + H+ formed.
 Succinyl CoA undrgo substrate level phosphorylation to form Succinic acid (4-C
compound). Coenzyme A released. GTP is synthesised later it converted to ATP.
 Succinic acid Oxidised to Malic acid (4 (4-C compound). FADH2 formed.
 Malic acid is oxidised to Oxalo acetic acid (OAA). NADH + H + formed .
13. End product of krebs cycle ::- After link reaction and Kreb’s cycle , 6 molecules of CO2 , 8
NADH + H+ , 2 FADH2 and 2ATP molecules are formed.
14. Electron Transport System (ETS) :-

 Metabolic pathway through which the electron passes from one carrier to
another.
 Electrons are passed on to O2 resulting in the formation of H2O.
 ETS occurs in the Inner mitochondrial membrane.
 Process to release & utilise the energy stored in NADH + H+ and FADH2.
 Electron carriers :- FMN (Flavin mono nucleotide) , Fe-S , Ubiquinone (UQ),
Cytochrome b, Cytochrome c1 , Cytochrome c , Cytochrome a , Cytochrome a 3
 ETS –Mechanism has 5 complexes, located / embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
 Complex Ι - Made up of NADH dehydrogenase enzyme which oxidise
NADH , FMN & Fe-S,
 Complex ΙΙ - Succinate dehydrogenase which oxidise FADH2 ,
 Complex ΙΙΙ - cytochrome b- cytochrome c1 complex
 Complex Ιᴠ - cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochrome a
,cytochrome a3 & two copper centres
 Complex Ι , Complex ΙΙ , Complex ΙΙΙ & Complex Ιᴠ are part of Electron
transport chain .
 Complex ᴠ (ATP Synthase) synthesize ATP through Oxidative
phosphorylation.
 Ubiquinone is located within the inner mitochondrial membrane.
 Cytochrome c is a small protein attached to the outer surface of the inner
mitochondrial membrane and act as a mobile carrier for transfer of electrons
between Complex ΙΙΙ & Complex Ιᴠ.
15. Electron transport from NADH+ H+ & FADH2 to O2 :-
 Electrons from NADH , present in the mitochondrial matrix are transferred to
Ubiquinone through FMN & Fe-S (Complex Ι ). 4 H+ ions are moved from matrix
to inter-membrane space during this step
 Ubiquinone also receive electrons from FADH2 (Complex ΙΙ)
 Ubiquinone is oxidised with the transfer of electrons to Cytochrome c through
Complex ΙΙΙ . When electrons travel through cytochrome b & cytochrome c 1, 4
H+ ions are moved from matrix to inter-membrane space.
 Complex Ιᴠ receive electron from cytochrome c and transferred to ½ O 2. Oxygen
accept 2 H+ from matrix to form H2 O. When electrons travelled through
Complex Ιᴠ , 2 H+ ions moved from matrix to inter-membrane space.

16. Electron transfer through electron carriers :-
 NADH++H+ → FMN → FeS → Ubiquinone → Cyt b → FeS → Cyt c 1 → Cyt c →
Cyt a → Cyt a3 → ½ O2
 FADH2 → Ubiquinone → Cyt b →Fes → Cyt c1 → Cyt c → Cyt a → Cyt a3 → ½ O2
17. Role of O2 in aerobic respiration :- Oxygen act as the final electron & Proton (hydrogen)
acceptor.
18. Terminal oxidation :-
 Final step in aerobic respiration which involves the passage of electrons &
protons to Oxygen, the final acceptor
 It involves two processes – Electron transport & Oxidative phosphorylation
19. Oxidative phosphorylation –ATP synthesis through oxidation (Energy of oxidation-
reduction is used for ATP synthesis).
 Energy released during the ETS is utilised in ATP synthesis with the help of
Complex ᴠ.
 ATP synthase enzyme (Complex ᴠ) consists of 2 components, F1 particle
(peripheral membrane protein complex) that contains the site for synthesis of
ATP and F0 particle (integral protein complex) that forms channel through
which protons cross the inner membrane.
 For each ATP produced, 4 H+ passes through F0 from the inter-membrane space
to the matrix down the electrochemical proton gradient.

20. Anaerobic respiration :- Glucose breakdown without Oxygen.
 Alcoholic fermentation :-
 Pyruvic acid converted to CO2 and ethanol.
 Pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes
catalyse these reactions.
 Occur in prokaryotes & unicellular eukaryotes like yeast
 Lactic acid fermentation :-
 Pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid.
 Occur in some bacterial cells and in muscle cells ( during exercise, when
O2 is inadequate for aerobic respiration)
 Muscle fatigue :- Accumulation of lactic acid in muscle cells
21. Amphibolic pathway :- Both anabolism & catabolism are involved.

 During respiration, fat is broken down into fatty acid & glycerol, fatty acid again
splits into acetyl coA.
 When organism needs to synthesize fatty acids, acetyl coA would be withdrawn
from the respiratory pathway for it
22. “There are several reasons why plants can get along without respiratory organs”justify
the statemement giving reasons :-
 Unlike animals , plants have no specialized organs for gaseous exchange (Plants
have stomata & lenticels for gaseous exchange)
 Each plant part takes care of its own gas exchange needs . There is very little
transport of gases from one plant part to another.
 Plants do not have great demands for gaseous exchange, the rate of respiration
is far lower than that of animals.
 Availability of O2 is not a problem, because O2 is released within the cell during
photosynthesis.
 Diffusion helps the movement of gases.
23. Respiratory quotient :-

 Ratio of volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2 consumed in respiration
 RQ depends upon the respiratory substrate used.
24. If respiratory substrate is carbohydrate - RQ = 1
25. If respiratory substrate is fat & proteins - RQ = <1 (less than 1)
26. If respiratory substrate is organic acids- RQ = >1 (more than 1)
27. Processes like glycolysis, Krebs cycle, ETS are occur in a sequential order & NADH
produced during glycolysis enters into mitochondria to undergo Oxidative
phosphorylation. Intermediates of pathways are not utilized to synthesize other
compounds & only glucose is being respired. Do you agree with these statement ? :-
Why? :-
 No. because,
 All pathways work simultaneously & do not takes place one after
another.
 Substrates enter the pathways & are withdrawn from it as and when
necessary.
 ATP is utilised as & when needed.
 Enzymatic rates controlled by multiple means.
28. Intermediate compounds of respiratory pathways are not utilized to synthesize other
compounds . Do you agree? Why? :- No. because, Substrates enter the pathways & are
withdrawn from it as and when necessary .
29. Only glucose is being respired / glucose is the only respiratory substrate. Do you agree?
Why ? :- No. Proteins, fats & organic acids are also being respired.
30. Respiratory balance sheet :-
Stages of Number of ATP synthesised Direct Total

respiration molecules from ATP ATP
NADH+H+ FADH2 NADH+H+ FADH2
Glycolysis 2 2*3=6 2 8
Link reaction 2 2*3=6 6
Krebs cycle 6 2 6*3=18 2*2=4 2 24
Total ATP 30 4 4 38

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
1. Growth :-
 Irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ / its parts /of an individual
cell.
 Growth is accompanied by metabolic processes occur at the expense of energy.
 Plants can grow throughout their life due to the presence of meristem
 Growth is measurable :-
 Growth is measured by a variety of parameters like increase in fresh
weight, dry weight, length , area, volume & cell number.
 Examples :-
 one single root apical meristem can give rise to more than 17,500
new cell/hour (increase in cell number)
 Cells in a watermelon increase in size upto 3,50,000 times
 growth of pollen tube is measured in terms of its length
2. Open form of growth :- Form of growth where new cells are always being added to the
plant body by the activity of meristem.
3. Phases of growth :-
 Meristemmatic phase :- Root & shoot apical meristem represent this phase.
Cells divide constantly.
 Elongation phase :- Cells just next to meristemmatic zone. Characteristics - Cell
enlargement, increased vacoulation, new cell wall deposition
 Maturation phase :- Just next to elongation phase. Cells attain maximum size in
terms of wall thickening & protoplasmic modifications
4. Growth rate :- Increased growth/ unit time
5. Arithmetic growth curve :-
 Following mitotic cell division, one daughter cell continues to divide .
 The other daughter cell differentiates and matures.
 Equation- Lt=L0+rt . Lt - length at time t, L0 – length at time 0, r- growth rate
6. Geometric growth curve :-

 Following mitotic cell division, both the daughter cells retain the ability to divide.

 Initial growth is slow ((lag phase). Then growth increases at exponential rate (log/
(
exponential phase
phase) . After some time growth slows down due to limited nutrient
supply & leads to stationary phase.
 Sigmoid/ S-curve
curve obtained.
 Equation – w1= w0 ert. W1 - final size, w0 - initial size, r- growth rate, t-
t time,
e - base of natural logarithms.
7. Relative growth :- Measure

easure of the ability of the plant to produce new plant material
referred to as efficiency index
index. Hence final size of w1 depends on the initial size w0.
8. Absolute growth rate :- Measurement & the comparison of total growth / unit time
9. Relative growth rate :- Growth of given system / unit time expressed on a common
basis.
10. Necessary conditions for growth ::-
 Water, oxygen , nutrients & optimum temperature are essential for growth.
 Environmental signals such as light & gravity also affect certain stages of growth.
11. Differentiation :- Cells mature to perform specific functions. Differentiated tissues lost
the capacity of division. eg. Formation of permanent tissues from meristem.
12. Dedifferentiation :- Living differentiated tissues (permanent tissues) regain the capacity
of division under certain conditions. eg., Formation of secondary meristems ( vascular
cambium & Cork cambium) from differentiated parenchyma cells.
13. Redifferentiation :- Secondary meristem divide and produce secondary permanent
tissues which again lost their capacity of division & mature to perform specific functions.
eg., formation of secondary xylem & phloem and periderm formation.
14. Development :-
 Alll changes from germination to senescence.
 Development= Growth+differentiation
 Development in plants is under the control of intrinsic (genetic factors & activity
of hormones) and extrinsic factors ( light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition).
15. Plasticity :- Ability of a plant to follow different pathways in response to environment to
form different types of structures. eg., heter
heterophylly
phylly in cotton, coriander & larkspur

16. Plant Growth Regulators :-
 Small simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
 They could be Indole compounds (IAA), adenine derivatives (kinetin), derivatives
of carotenoids (ABA), terpenes (giberellic acid), or gas (ethylene).
 Also known as Plant growth substances, Plant hormones or Phytohormones.
 For every phase of growth, differentiation and development of plants, one or
other Phytohormones has some role to play. Such roles could be complementary
/antagonistic.
 Number of events in the life of a plant where more than 1 PGR interact to affect
that event. eg., dormancy in seeds / buds, abscission, senescence, apical
dominance etc.
17. Plant growth promoters :- involved in growth promoting activities like cell division, cell
enlargement, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting ,seed formation etc. eg., auxin,
giberellin, cytokinin.
18. Plant growth inhibitors :- important role in plant responses to wound & stresses. Also
involved in inhibiting activities like dormancy & abscission. eg., ABA & ethylene .
19. Auxin :- (from Greek ‘auxein’ : to grow) was First isolated from human urine. Produced
by the growing apex of stem & root, from where they migrate to regions of action.
20. Discovery of auxin :- First persons associated with the discovery of auxins -Charles
Darwin & his son Francis Darwin . Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from tips of
coleoptiles of oat seedlings.
21. Produced by the growing apex of stem & root, from where they migrate to regions of
action.
22. Natural auxins (derived from plants) :- IAA (indole-3-acetic acid) & IBA (indole butyric
acid)
23. Synthetic auxin :- NAA ( Naphthalein acetic acid), & 2, 4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid)
24. Physiological responses of auxin :-
1. Apical dominance - (Inhibition of growth of lateral bus by the terminal bud due
to the presence of auxin). When apical bud is removed (decapitation) lateral
buds sprout & this is widely used in tea plantations and hedge making.
2. Initiate rooting in stem cutting.
3. Promote flowering in pineapple.
4. Prevent fruit & leaf drop at early stages but promote the abscission of older
mature leaves & fruits.
5. Induce Parthenocarpy. eg., in tomatoes.

6. Weedicide (2,4-D used to kill dicot weeds, & does not affect monocot plants)
used to prepare weed-free lawns by gardners.
7. Auxin control xylem differentiation & helps in cell division
25. Discovery of Giberellin :- E. Kurosawa reported the symptoms of the ‘ bakane’ (foolish
seedling) disease in uninfected rice seedling , when seedlings were treated with sterile
filtrates of Giberella. Fujikuroi ( a fungal pathogen) Active substance is later identified as
giberellic acid. More than 100 giberellins are reported from different organisms like
fungi & higher plants. All GAs are acid.
26. Physiological responses of giberellin :-
1. Promote Bolting (Internode elongation before flowering) in beet, cabbage etc.
2. Increase the length of stem & Increase the yield in sugarcane.
3. Speed up maturity period of juvenile conifers & leads to early seed production
4. Speed up malting process in brewing industry.
5. Delay senescence.
6. Increase the length of grapes stalks.
27. Discovery of Cytokinin:- Skoog & Miller identified and crystallized cytokinesis
promoting active substance ,kinetin
28. kinetin :- first cytokinin discovered from the autoclaved herring sperm DNA. Kinetin
does not occur naturally in plants.
29. Zeatin :- Natural cytokinin present in corn-kernels and coconut milk.
30. Physiological responses of cytokinin :-
1. Overcome apical dominance
2. Shoot initiation
3. Cell division & differentiation
4. Promote nutrient mobilisation.
5. Delay senescence.
6. Produce new leaves & chloroplasts in leaves
31. Ethylene :- Only gaseous hormone. Most widely used PGR in agriculture
32. Discovery of ethylene :- Cousins confirmed the release of volatile substance from
ripened organs.
33. Ethephon :- Aquous solution which is readily absorbed and transported within the plant
& release ethylene slowly
34. Physiological responses of ethylene :-
1. Fruit ripening .
2. Enhance Respiratory climactic (Rise in rate of respiration during ripening of
fruit ).
3. Breaks seed & bud dormancy (initiate germination in peanut seeds, sprouting
of potato tubers)

4. Initiate flowering & synchronise fruit set in pineapple.
5. Induce flowering in mango
6. Promote female flowers in cucumbers & thus increase the yield.
7. Promote senescence & abscission of leaves , flowers & fruits.
8. Promote root &root hair formation, thus helping plants to increase
absorptive surface.
9. Promote rapid internode /petiole elongation in deep water rice plants (So
leaves & upper part of shoot remain above water)
35. Discovery of Abscisic acid (ABA) :- Three independent researches reported the
purification & chemical characterization of three different kinds of inhibitors , inhibitor-
B, abscission –ΙΙ & domain. Later all three were proved to be chemically identical,
named ABA
36. Physiological responses OF ABA :-
1. Stimulate the closure of stomata & increase the tolerance of plants to various
kinds of stresses. So ABA is called Stress hormone
2. Promote Abscission ( leaf fall).
3. Inhibit seed germination.
4. Induce dormancy (help seeds to withstand desiccation & other factors
unfavourable for growth)
5. ABA act as an Antagonist to giberellin (Action of ABA inhibit / limit the action
of giberellin)
37. Photoperiodism :- Response of plants to Photoperiod (period of day / night) expressed
in the form of flowering.
38. Site of perception of light / dark duration :- leaves . (Hormone responsible for
flowering, migrate from leaves to shoot apex to induce flowering only when the plants
are exposed to necessary photoperiod) .
39. Critical Photoperiod :- Length of day / light required to induce flowering
40. Classification of plants based on photoperiodism :-
 Long day plant (LDP) :- flower when they are exposed to photoperiod longer
than critical photoperiod (require more than 12 hours of light). eg., Spinach,
radish, sugar beet, potato etc.
 Short day plants (SDP) :- flower only when day length is less than critical period
(require less than 12 hours of light). They requires a long period of darkness. eg.,
Chrysanthemum, soyabean, sugarcane etc.
 Day neutral plants (DNP) :- Exposure to light / Photoperiod does not affect
flowering. eg., Cucumber, Corn, Pea etc.

41. Vernalisation :- Low temperature treatment for flowering.
 Plants like Wheat, barley & rye have two kinds of varieties: Winter & Spring
varieties.
 Spring varieties - planted in the spring and come to flower & produce
grain before the end of season
 Winter varieties - planted in autumn, they germinate & over winter
come out as seedlings, resume growth in the spring & are harvested
around mid-summer.
 Cold treatment stimulate photoperiodic flowering response in biennial plants
like Cabbage, Carrot, Sugarbeet etc.
42. Seed dormancy :-
 State in which seed is unable to germinate under favourable conditions (Inactive
period in which metabolism slows down).
 Seed dormancy is not controlled by external environment, but are under
endogenous control (controlled by conditions within the seed)
43. Causes of seed dormancy :-
 Impermeable seed coat
 Hard seed coat
 Presence of chemical inhibitors such as abscicic acid, phenolic acid & para-
ascorbic acid
 Immature embryos
44. Methods to overcome seed dormancy :-
 Seed coat barrier can be broken by
 mechanical abrasions (process of rubbing,scouring or scrapping) using
knives, sandpaper etc. In nature, these abrasions are caused by
 Microbial action
 Passage through digestive tract of animals.
 vigorous shaking
 Effect of inhibitory substances can be removed by
 Subjecting the seeds to chilling conditions.
 Application of certain chemicals like giberellic acid & nitrates
 Changing the environmental conditions, such as light & temperature.

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BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

1. Who made the first attempt of classification? :- Aristotle.

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10. General characters of Bryophytes :-

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16. Life cycle of pteridophytes :-

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 cycas pinus ginkgo

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27. Life cycle of angiosperms:-

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MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Root :-Underground non

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16. Venation :- Arrangement of veins on lamina

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 Marginal placentation ::- Placenta forms a ridge along

 Axile placentation ::- Ovules on central axis of syncarpous ovary, septa

 Freecentral placentation ::- Ovules on central axis, septa absent eg.,

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45. Structure of Monocot seed :-

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49. Fabaceae - Economic importance ::-

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53. Solanaceae – Economic importance ::-

57. Liliaceae – Economic importance ::-

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ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

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 Dicot and Monocot stomata.

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 Closed vascular bundle – Cambium absent ( do not form secondary xylem

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Small pith Large & well developed pith

Polygonal shaped xylem Round shaped xylem

Undergo secondary growth Do not undergo secondary growth

12. Dicot stem :-

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13. Monocot Stem :-

14. Difference between Dicot & Monocot stem

Dicot stem Monocot stem

Collenchymatous hypodermis Sclerenchymatous hypodermis

Differentiated cortex Undifferentiated cortex

Bundle cap present Bundle sheath present

Limited number of vascular bundles Numerous Vascular bundles