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BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Who made the first attempt of classification? :- Aristotle.
2. How did Aristotle classified plants? :- Aristotle classified plants into herbs, shrubs &
trees on the basis of morphology.
3. How did Aristotle classified animals? :- Aristotle classified animals as with red blood &
without red blood.
4. Father of taxonomy :- Carolus Linnaeus.
5. Two kingdom classification :- Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus. He divided all living
organisms into two kingdom – Kingdom Plantae & kingdom Animalia
6. Drawbacks of Two kingdom classification :-
Did not distinguish between Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes
Did not distinguish between Unicellular & Multicellular organisms.
There is no differentiation between Autotrophic & heterotrophic organisms
Large number of organisms did not fall under either category.
Similar organisms are placed under different groups
Dissimilar organisms are placed under same group
7. Five kingdom classification :- Proposed by R.H. Whittakker (1969). It include Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia
8. What are the criteria for 5 kingdom classification ? :-
Cell structure
Thallus organisation
Mode of nutrition
Reproduction
Phylogenetic relationship
9. General characters of kingdom Monera :-
Prokaryotic (Well defined nucleus & membrane bound cell organells are absent)
Non cellulosic cell wall , composed of polysaccharide & aminoacids,
Unicellular organisms
Mode of nutrition :- Autotrophic (chemosynthetic / photosynthetic) and
Heterotrophic (saprophytic/parasitic)
Members :- Bacteria & Mycoplasma
10. Bacteria :-
Sole member of kingdom monera.
Most abundant microorganism, occur almost everywhere .
They live in extreme habitats.
Their structure is very simple , but complex in behaviour.
They show most extensive metabolic diversity.
Some are autotrophic (prepare their own food) & others are heterotrophic
(require ready made food)
reproduction :-
Mainly by fission.
Under unfavourable conditions they produce spores.
Sexual reproduction by a primitive type of DNA transfe
transferr from one
bacterium to other
11. Classification of bacteria on the basis of their shape ::-
Coccus – Spherical
Bacillus – rod shaped
Vibrium – comma shaped
Spirillum – spiral shaped
12. Archebacteria:- Survive in extreme condition b because
ecause they have different cellwall
structure.
Halophiles :- Bacteria live in extreme salty areas.
Thermoacidophiles ::- live in hot springs.
Methanogens :- live in marshy areas. They are present in the gut of several
ruminant animals (cow, buffaloes etc) & produce methane (biogas biogas) from dung .
13. Eubacteria (True bacteria) ::- They have rigid cell wall. If motile, flagellum present.
Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae) ::- eg., Nostoc, Anabaena
Unicellular
colonial / filamentous
Fresh water/ Marine / Terrestrial
Photosynthetic
tosynthetic (prepare food using light energy)
Colonies are covered by mucilaginous sheath
Can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cell called heterocyst
Algal bloom
bloom:- Overproduction of cyanobacteria. It leads to water
pollution.
Dinoflagellate :-
Aquatic ( Mari
Marine)
Photosynthetic
Appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigment
present in their cell wall.
Cell wall has stiff cellulose plate on the outer surface
Two flagella – one lies longitudinally & other transversely in the furrow
between wall plates
Red tide :-- rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellate (eg., Gonyaulax)
make the sea appear red. Toxin released by large number of red
dinoflagellate may even kill fish & other marine animals.
Euglenoids :-
Aquatic (freshwater)
Photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight. If there is a lack of sunlight ,
they behave like heterotrophs (by predating small organisms)
Instead of cell wall, a protein rich layer called pellicle present, which
makes their body flexible.
2 flagella – one short & one long.
Pigments are identified to those present in higher plants.
Slime moulds :-
Saprophytic ( live & take food from dead organic matter)
Body move along decaying twigs & leaves.
Under suitable condition, they form an aggregation called plasmodium
which may grow & spread over several feet.
During unfavourable condition, Plasmodium differentiate & form fruiting
bodies which bear spores at their tip.
Spores :– possess true wall. Spo
Spores
res are extremely resistant & survive for
many years (even under unfavourable situations). Dispersed by air
currents
Sporozoans :- They have infectious spore like stage in their life
cycle. eg., Plasmodium (malarial partasite)
17. General characters of kingom Fungi :-
Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil, plants &animals. Grow in
warm &humid places
Multicellular, filamentous. Exception – Yeast (unicellular)
Hyphae (fungal body)- long slender thread like structures.
Mycelium – Network of hyphae.
Coenocytic hyphae (Aseptate hyphae) – hyphae are continuous tubes with
multinucleated cytoplasm.
Septate hyphae – hyphae having septa /cross walls.
Cell wall – composed of chitin &polysaccharides.
Saprophytic fungi – heterotrophic , live and absorb nutrients from dead
substrates.
Parasitic fungi – Live and absorb nutrients from living plants &animals.
Lichen -Symbiotic association between algae and fungus.
Mucor.
Ascomycete (Sac fungi) :-
They are saprophytes, decomposers, parasites or coprophilous (growing
on dung.
Mycelium is branched & septate.
Asexual reproduction :- Conidia (asexual spore) produced exogenously on
special mycelium called Conidiophores. Conidia germinate to produce
mycelium.
Sexual reproduction :- Ascospores (sexual spores) produced
endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). Asci are arranged in fruiting
bodies called Ascocarp.
eg., Penicillium, Yeast, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora (used in
biochemical & genetic work), Morels & tuffles (edible)
Aspergillus
Basidiomycete (bracket fungi) :-
Grow in soil, on log and tree stumps and as parasite.
Mycelium is branched & septate.
Asexual reproduction – generally not found.
Vegetative reproduction :- fragmentation
Sexual reproduction :-4 Basidiospores (sexual spore) are produced
endogenously on basidium. Basidias are arranged in a fruiting body called
Basidiocarp
eg., Agaricus (Mushroom), Ustilago (smut fungus), Puccinia (rust fungus)
Agaricus.
Deuteromycete (Imperfect fungi) :-
Mycelium is septate & branched.
Sexual phase is unknown, so they are called imperfect fungi.
Asexual reproduction :- by conidia
Vegetative reproduction :- fragmentation
Majority are decomposers of litter & help in mineral cycling.
eg., Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma
25. Bacteriophage – Viruses that infect bacteria. They have double stranded DNA as genetic
material.
26. Diseases caused by Virus – common cold, fever, covid19, mumps, small pox, herpes,
influenza , AIDS etc.
27. Plant diseases – Tobacco mosaic disease , Leaf rolling and curling , Yellowing and vein
clearing, Dwarfing and stunted growth etc.
28. Viroids :-
T.O. Diener discovered in 1971.
Smaller than virus.
Cause potato spindle tuber disease.
Lack protein coat.
Found to be a free RNA
RNA was of low molecular weight
29. Prions :-
Similar in size to virus
Consist of abnormally folded protein which can cause infectious neurological diseases.
Disease caused by prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) ,commonly
called mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in
humans.
30. Lichens :-
Symbiotic association between algae & fungi.
Algal component is phycobiont & fungal component is Mycobiont
Algae prepare food for fungus and fungus give shelter & absorb water & minerals for
algae.
Economic importance :- Lichens are Pollution indicators . They do not grow in polluted
areas.
PLANT KINGDOM
1. Artificial system of classification :- Gave equal weightage to vegetative & sexual
characters.
2. Natural system of classification :- Consider both external & internal characters like ultra
structure, anatomy, embryology, and phytochemistry. eg., Benthem & Hooker
classification
Agar obtained from Gelidium & Gracillaria – Used to grow microbes & in the
preparation of ice-creams and jellies.
Chlorella, Unicellular green algae rich in proteins - Used as food supplements by
Space travellers.
9. Divisions of algae & their main characteristics:-
Chlorophyceae :-
Common name – Green algae
Unicellular, colonial or filamentous plant body
Major pigments – Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b. So grass green in colour.
chloroplast may be discoid, cup shaped, plate like, reticulate, spiral /
ribbon shaped in different species.
Pyrenoids – Storage bodies located in the chloroplast. Contain proteins
besides starch.
Reserve food material –Starch.
Some algae store food in the form of oil droplets.
Rigid cell wall – Inner layer of cellulose & outer layer of pectose.
Zoospores have 2-8 equal ,Apical flagella
eg., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Chara
Phaeophyceae :-
Common name :- Brown algae
They range from simple, branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to
profusely branched forms as Kelps (reach a height of 100m).
Major pigments :- Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll c, Fucoxanthine.
Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending
upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment.
Reserve food material :- Laminarin or Mannitol
Cellulosic cell wall covered by gelatinous coating called algin.
In addition to plastids, protoplast contain centrally located vacuole &
nucleus.
Plant body contain root like holdfast, stem like stipe & leaf like frond
Gametes & zoospores are pear shaped & bear 2 unequal , laterally
attached flagella.
eg., Ectocarpus, Kelps, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus
Rhodophyceae :-
Common name – Red algae.
Most of them are multicellular. Some of them have complex body
organisations
Major pigments – Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll d, Phycoerythrin
12. Bryophytes are called Amphibians of plant kingdom Why ? :- They live in soil but water
is essential for sexual reproduction .
13. Economic importance of Bryophytes / Uses of Bryophytes :-
Food for herbaceous mammals, birds & other animals.
Sphagnum provide peat – Used as fuel.
As packing material for trans - shipment of living material (because of their
capacity to hold water)
Pioneer community in xerarch succession along with lichen (first organism which
colonise on rock)
Prevent soil erosion.
14. Classification of bryophytes :-
Liverworts :-eg., Marchantia, Riccia
Thallus is dorsiventral & closely appressed to the substrate.
Leafy members have tiny leaf like structures in 2 rows on the stem like
structure.
Asexual reproduction :-
By fragmentation of thallus
By the formation of gemmae ( green multicellular asexual buds).
Gemmae develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located
on the thalli.
Sexual reproduction :-
Sex organs are produced either on same thalli (homothallic) or
on different thalli (heterothallic)
Sporophyte is differentiated into foot seta & capsule
After meiosis, spores are produced within the capsule.
Spores germinate to form gametophyte
Mosses :- eg., Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum.
Gametophyte consists of 2 stages.
Protonema stage (first stage) – Develops directly from a spore.
Creeping, green, branched & filamentous stage.
Leafy stage (second stage) :-
Develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud.
Fusion of male gamete & female gamete (egg) leades to the formation of diploid
zygote
Zygote develops into multicellular, sporophyte.
17. Economic importance / uses of pteridophytes :-
Used for medicinal purposes
Used as soil-binders
Grown as ornamentals.
18. Homospory :- Production of morphologically similar spores . Such plants are called
homosporous. eg., Psilotum
19. Heterospory :- Production of 2 types of spores , large spores
(macrospores/megaspores) and smallspores (microspores). Such plants are
heterosporous. Megaspores germinate & give rise to female gametophyte .
Microspores germinate & give rise to male gametophyte eg., Selaginella, Salvinia.
20. Precursor of seed habit :-
Female gametophytes are retained on parent sporophyte for variable periods.
Development of zygotes into young embryos takes place within the female
gametophytes.
This event is an important step in evolution.
21. Which pteridophytes show precursor of seed habit? :- Heterosporous pteridophytes like
Selaginella & Salvinia.
22. Classification of pteridophytes :- 4 classes. Psilopsida (eg., Psilotum), Lycopsida ( eg.,
Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum) and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris,
Adiantum)
23. General characters of Gymnosperms :-
Plants with naked seeds/ Seeds are not covered (Ovules are not enclosed by any
ovary wall & remain exposed, both before & after fertilisation).
Include medium sized trees or tall trees and shrubs .One of the tallest tree :-
giant red wood tree (sequoia)
Roots :- generally tap root.
Mycorrhiza – Symbiotic association of fungus & roots of pinus
Coralloid root :- Association between roots of cycas & nitrogen fixing
cyanobacteria.
Stem:- Unbranched in cycas. Branched in Pinus & Cedrus
Leaves :- Simple / compound.
In cycas , pinnate leaves persist for a few years.
In conifers, needle like leaves reduce the surface area
Leaves are well adapted to withstand extremes of temperature,
humidity & wind.
Thick cuticle & sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
Main plant body is diploid sporophyte.
Cone :- reproductive structure.
Gymnosperms are heterosporous (produce microspores & megaspores)
Male & female cone may be borne on same tree (in pinus) or on different trees
(in cycas)
Male & female gametophytes do not have an independent free living existence
existenc
7. Stem :- Aerial , green part which bear branches, leaves, flowers & fruits. Stem bears
Buds, Axillary /Terminal
8. Nodes – Region where leaves are born
Diadelphous ::- Stamens are united to form 2 bundles eg., Pea, Crotalaria
Polyadelphous
yadelphous ::- Stamens are united to form more than 2 bundles eg., Citrus
Staminode :- Sterile stamen
Epipetalous :-- Stamens are attached to petals eg., Brinjal
Epiphyllous :-- Stamens are attached to perianth eg., Lilly
b) Gynoecium :-Female
Female reproductive org
organ. Basic unit is carpel. Carpel consists of 3
parts (Ovary (enlarged basal part), Style (elongated tube) & Stigma (Receptive
surface for pollen grain). Ovary bear ovules. Ovules are attached to flattened,
cushion like Placenta
Placenta.
Monocarpellary ovary :- one carpel present
Multicarpellary ovary :- Presence of more than 1 carpel.
Apocarpous ovary ::- Ovary with free carpels eg., lotus, rose
Syncarpous ovary ::- ovary with united carpels eg., Mustard & tomato).
34. Aestivation :- Arrangement of sepal / petals in floral bud with respect to other members
of same whorl.
(1) Valvate aestivation ::- Sepals /Petals in a whorl just touch one another
without overlapping eg.,Calotropis.
(2) Twisted aestivation ::- Regular overlapping eg., Shoe flower, ladies finger,
fin
cotton etc
(3) Imbricate aestivation ::- Irregular overlapping eg., cassia, gulmohur etc
(4) Vexillary aestivation ::- 5 petals. 1 large standard petal overlap 2 wing petals
which in turn overlap 2 unite keel petals. eg., Pea, Beans
35. Placentation :- Arrangement of ovules within the ovary
Marginal placentation ::- Placenta forms a ridge along the ventral suture
of the ovary, ovules are borne on this ridge forming two rows eg., Pea
Basal placentation :- Single ovule at the base of the ovary eg., Sunflower,
Marigold
36. Hypogynous flower :- Gynoecium occupies the highest position, other parts are situated below
it. Ovary superior. eg.,Mustard, shoe flower, Brinjal etc.
37. Epigynous flower :- Margin of thalamus grows upward enclosing the ovary completely &
fused with ovary. other parts arise above the ovary . Inferior ovary. eg., Guava,
Cucumber, ray florets of sunflower, Ixora etc.
38. Perigynous flower :- Gynoecium situated in the centre. Other parts are located on the rim
of thalamus almost at the same level. Half inferior ovary eg., Pea, Plum, Rose,Peach ,
Clitorea, Crotalaria etc
39. Fruit :- Ripened ovary (Ovary is developed into fruit after fertilization)
Fruit wall:- Pericarp
Fleshy fruit :- Pericarp is thick & fleshy. Pericarp is differentiated into outer
Epicarp , middle Mesocarp and inner Endocarp. In mango, mesocarp is fleshy. In
coconut, mesocarp is fibrous.
Dry fruit :- Pericarp is dry. eg., Cashew Nuts , Dates, Raisins etc
In mango & coconut, fruit is known as Drupe
40. Seed :- Ovule developed into seed after fertilization
Seed coat - Outermost covering of seed. It has two layers, outer testa, & inner
tegmen.
Hilum :- Scar on the seed coat through which seeds were attached to fruits.
Micropyle :- Small pore just above the hilum.
Embryo – Zygote developed into embryo. Consists of embryonal axis & cotyledon.
Cotyledon :- first formed leaf. Fleshy & reserve food material ( give food to
developing seedling). Dicot seed contain 2 cotyledon & Monocot seed contain 1
cotyledon.
Radicle:- Part of embryo that develops into root
Plumule :- Part of embryo that develops into shoot
Endosperm :- Nutritive tissue for embryo.
Endospermous / Albuminous seed :- Seeds which store their food in endosperm. eg.,
castor, rice, coconut ,orchids etc.
Non-endospermous / Exalbuminous :- Endosperm is not present in mature seeds. Store
their food in cotyledons. eg., bean, pea, gram, etc
41. Structure of Monocot seed :-
a) Conjoint vascular bundle :- Xylem & Phloem are in the same bundle on the
same radius. Phloem located on the outer side of Xylem eg., Stem.
Open vascular bundle – Cambium present in between Xylem & Phloem (
So able to form secondary xylem & phloem) eg., Dicot stem.
b) Radial vascular bundle :- Xylem & Phloem occur in separate bundles on different
radius. eg., Root.
4. Dicot Root :-
Ouermost layer is Epiblema (Epidermis) Unicellular root hairs arise from epidermal
cells.
Cortex – Several layers of thin walled parenchymatous cells with intercellular space
below the epidermis.
Endodermis :-
Innermost layer of cortex. Single layer of barrel- shaped cells without
intercellular space.
Casparian thickening :- Waxy material Suberin is deposited on the walls
of endodermis .So endodermis is impermeable to water.
Pericycle – Few layers of thick walled parenchymatous cells , next to endodermis.
Initiation of lateral roots & vascular cambium takes place in these cells.
Pith – Small / inconspicuous
Conjunctive tissue – Parenchymatous cells between the xylem & phloem.
Radial vascular bundle – 2-4 xylem & phloem bundles. Exarch xylem.
Stele – All tissues on the innerside of the endodermis such as pericycle, vascular
bundles & pith.
5. Monocot Root :- It has outer Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Radial vascular
bundles , conjunctive tissue & pith similar to dicot root
6. Difference between Dicot & Monocot root
In the cortex Air cavity absent. Air cavity present in the cortex
2-4 Xylem & Phloem bundles More than six (polyarch) xylem & phloem bundles.
7. Dicot stem :-
Epidermis – Outermost protective layer ,covered with a thin layer of cuticle ,
may bear Trichomes & few stomata.
Cortex – Several layers between epidermis & pericycle. It consists of 3 sub-
zones.
Hypodermis – Few layers of collenchymatous cells just below the epidermis,
which provide mechanical strength to young stem.
Cortex -Rounded thin walled parenchymatous cells with intercellular space.
Endodermis – Innermost layer of cortex. Cells are rich in starch grains , So the
layer is Starch sheath.
Pericycle – Innerside of the endodermis and above the phloem in the form of
semi – lunar patches of sclerenchyma (Bundle cap).
Medullary ray – Few layers of radially placed parenchymatous cells in between
vascular bundles.
Vascular bundle - Conjoint, open with endarch xylem.
Pith – Large number of rounded parenchymatous cells with large intercellular
spaces, occupies the central portion of the stem.
8. Monocot Stem :-
It has Epidermis & Sclrenchymatous Hypodermis.
Numerous vascular bundles (Conjoint, closed, endarch xylem).
Peripheral vascular bundles are smaller than centrally located ones.
Phloem parenchyma absent.
Water containing cavities are present within the vascular bundle.
Open vascular bundle ( cambium present) Closed vascular bundles ( Cambium absent)
Stem Root
11. Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf :- 3 main parts. Epidermis, Mesophyll & Vascular
bundle.
Epidermis -Cover both upper ( adaxial) & lower ( abaxial) surface.
Cuticle – Covers the upper & lower epidermis.
Lower epidermis bears more stomata.
Mesophyll –Tissue ( parenchymatous cells) between the upper & lower
epidermis. It possess chloroplast & carry out photosynthesis. It has 2 types of
cells.
Palisade parenchyma – Elongated cells placed below the upper
epidermis, arranged vertically & parallel to each other.
Spongy parenchyma – Oval /round & loosely arranged parenchymatous
cells below the palisade parenchyma & extends to lower epidermis.
Intercellular spaces & air cavities are present.
Vascular bundles – Present in the veins & midrib. Vascular bundles are
surrounded by a layer of thick walled bundle sheath cells.
12. Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf :-
3 main parts. Epidermis, Mesophyll & Vascular bundle.
Stomata are equally distributed on both upper & lower epidermis
Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade & spongy parenchyma
Bulliform cells –Large, empty, colourless cells occur in the upper epidermis of
many grasses. When they absorb water & are turgid, leaf surface is exposed.
When they are flaccid due to water stress, they make the leaves curl inwards to
minimize water loss.
13. Anatomical difference between dicot & monocot leaf
Dicot leaf Monocot leaf
Guard cells of stomata are bean Guard cells are dumbbell shaped.
shaped
19. Eukaryotic Cell –well defined nucleus, nuclear membrane , cell organelles, cystoskeltal
structures are present. They include Protists, Fungi, Plants & Animals.
20. Difference between plant & animal cells :-
Plant cells possess cell wall, plastids & large central vacuole, which are absent in
animal cells.
Animal cells have centrioles, which are absent in plant cells.
21. Cell Membrane:-
Cell membrane is mainly composed of Lipids ( arranged in a bilayer) , Proteins
& Carbohydrates.
Lipids are arranged with the Polar head ( hydrophilic) towards the outerside &
non-polar tail /hydrophobic tail towards the inner part. Non-polar tail is thus
protected from aquous environment.
Algal cell wall is made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans & minerals like
calcium carbonate.
arbonate.
Primary wall (cell wall of young plant cell) is capable of growth. As the cell
matures,primary wall gradually diminishes & the secondary wall is formed on
the innerside of cell.
Middle lamella :- A layer which holds/ glue neighbouring cells together
toget
(Cementing material between two cells). Made up of Calcium pectate
Plasmodesmata ::- A channel across the cell wall , which connect the cytoplasm
of neighbouring cells.
Functions of cell wall :-
Give shape to the cell
Protects the cell from mechanical damage & infection.
Helps in cellcell-to-cell
cell interaction & provides barrier to undesirable
macromolecules
23. Endoplasmic reticulum :--
Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
Divides the intracellular space into two distinct ccompartments. Luminal (inside
ER) & Extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER (RER) :-
Endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their surface.
They are extensive & continuous with the outer membrane of the
nucleus.
Function – Protein synthesis & Secretion
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) :-
Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes.
Function ::- Synthesis of lipid (In animal cells, steroidal hormones are
synthesized in SER)
25. How the golgi apparatus remains in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum? :- :
Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with cis face
of golgi apparatus & move towards maturing face.
A number of proteins synthesized by RER are modified in the cisternae of the
golgi apparatus before they are released from its trans face
26. Lysosomes :-
Membrane ne bound vesicular structures
Formed by the process of packaging in golgi apparatus.
Suicidal bag :-Lysosomes
Lysosomes are rich in almost all hydrolytic enzymes (optimally
active at the acidic pH). These
hese enzymes can digest their own cell, causing the cell
to die.
27. Vacoules :-
Membrane bound space found in cytoplasm.
It contains water, sap, excretory products & other materials not useful for the
cell.
Vacoule is bounded by single membrane called tonoplast.
Tonoplast facilitate transport of ions against concentratio
concentration n gradient into the
vacuole (concentration is higher in vacuole than in the cytoplasm)
In plant cells, vacuole occupies 90% of the volume of cell.
Contractile le vacuole in amoeba- important for excretion.
Food vacuoles in protists – formed by engulfing the foodood materials.
28. Mitochondria / Power houses of cell
Double membrane bound cell organelle . Outer & Inner membrane divide its
lumen into outer and inner compartments.
Matrix ( Inner compartment) - Space enclosed by inner membrane . Matrix
possesses Single circular DNA , Few RNA molecules , Ribosomes (70S) &
components required for protein synthesis.
Peri mitochondrial space (Outer compartment) – Space between outer & inner
membrane.
Cristae – Infoldings of inner membrane towards matrix. It Increase the surface
area.
29. Plastids :-
Found in plants & in Euglenoids. Large organelle, so easily observed under the
microscope. Bear some specific pigments, which impart specific colours.
Chromoplast - Coloured plastids. Fat soluble Carotenoid pigments like Carotene,
Xanthophylls etc are present. They give Yellow, Orange / Red colour.
Leucoplast – Colourless plastid with stored nutrients. They are Amyloplast
(store carbohydrate / Starch eg., potato), Elaioplast ( Store oil & fat) ,
Aleuroplast ( store proteins .
Chloroplast :-
Green plastids which contain green pigment Chlorophyll.
Found in the mesophyll cells of leaf.
Lens shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or ribbon like organelles having
variable length.
Number varies from 1 per cell ( Chlamydomonas) to 20 -30 per cell in
mesophyll.
Function :- Photosynthesis.
30. Structure of chloroplast :-
Double membrane bound cell organelle. Smooth Outer & Inner membrane
Present.
Peri plastidal space – Space between Outer & inner membrane.
Stroma – Inner part of chloroplast. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis
& protein synthesis. It contain Small, double stranded circular DNAS &
Ribosomes (70S)
Thylakoids – Flattened membraneous sacs present in stroma. Thylakoid
membrane encloses a space called lumen. Chlorophyll pigments are present in
the thylakoids.
Grana – Group of thylakoids ( thylakoids are arranged in stacks like piles of coins)
Stroma lamella – Flat membraneous tubules connecting the thylakoids of grana.
31. Ribosomes
Granular structures.
Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) .
Not surrounded by any membrane.
Each ribosome has two subunits. ( Larger & Smaller).
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S . Here Larger subunit is 60S & smaller subunit 40S.
Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S. Here Larger subunit is 50S & smaller subunit 30S.
‘S’ ( Svedberg’s unit) – Sedimentation coefficient, a measure of density & size.
32. Cytoskelton :-
Elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the
cytoplasm. eg., Microtubules
Functions :- Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
33. Cilia & Flagella :-
Both are hair like outgrowths of the cell membrane . Help in locomotion.
They emerge from centriole-like structure called basal bodies
Cilia – small. More in number. Work like oars, causing the movement of either
the cell or surrounding fluid.
Flagella – Long. Less in number. Responsible for cell movement. Prokaryotic &
eukaryotic flagellas are structurally different.
Structure of cilia & flagella:-
Covered with plasma membrane
Has a central core called axoneme.
Axoneme possesses microtubules – 9 pair of doublets of peripheral
microtubules & a pair of centrally located microtubules
(9+2 arrangement)
Central tubules are connected by bridges & enclosed by central sheath
Central sheath is connected to each peripheral doublet by radial spoke (9
radial spokes present)
Peripheral doublets are interconnected by linkers
34. Centrosome :-
Organ which contain 2 cylindrical centrioles
Centrioles are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
materials
Centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.
35. Structure of centriole :-
Made up of 9 peripheral triplet tubulins. Adjascent triplets are linked.
Central part is proteinaceous hub.
Hub is connected with peripheral tubules by radial spoke.
Functions of centrioles ::- They form the basal body of cilia , flagella and spindle
fibres
36. Nucleus :-
Double membrane bound cell organelle
Outer membrane remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and also
bears ribosomes on it.
Nuclear pore – Minute pores present in nuclear envelope, formed by the fusion
of its two membrane. Through nuclear pores RNA & protein molecules move in
both directions between the nucleus & cytoplasm.
Peri nuclear space – Space between outer & inner nuclar membrane (10 -15nm).
It forms a barrier bet
between
ween the materials present inside the nucleus & that of
cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm – Nuclear matrix which contain Chromain & Nucleolus.
Nucleoli – Spherical structures . Not a membrane bound structure. Content is
continuous with the rest of nucleoplasm. SiSite for active ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis.
Chromatin – Highly extended & elaborate nucleo protein fibres present in the
interphase nucleus .
Chromatin contains DNA , histone proteins, nonnon-histone
histone proteins & RNA.
A single human cell has approximate
approximatelyly 2m long thread of DNA distributed
among its 46 chromosomes.
Chromosome – (visible only in dividing cells). It has a primary constriction
(Centromere) on the sides of which disc shaped structures called Kinetochores
are present.
37. Chromosomes :-
Metacentric :- Middle Centromere. 2 equal arms.
Sub-metacentric
metacentric ::- Centromere slightly away from the middle. one shorter arm &
one longer arm.
Acrocentric :- Centromere is close to its end . one extremely short & one very long
arm.
Telocentric :- Terminal centromere
38. Microbodies :- Membrane bound minute vesicles that contain various enzymes. They
are present in both plant & animal cells.
3. G0 (Quiscent stage) :-
Some cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase to G0 phase (inactive stage).
Cells remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do
so. eg., Heart cell in adult, Neurons etc.
4. Mitosis -:-
Seen in vegetative cells.
Parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
No change in chromosome number ( Equational division).
5. Significance of mitosis:-
Cell growth
Cell repair
Maintenance of nucleo- cytoplasmic ratio.
Regeneration
6. Stages of Mitosis :- Karyokinesis include 4 stages
Prophase :-
Chromatin reticulum condenses to form Chromosomes.
Nuclear membrane & Nucleolus disappear.
Metaphase :-
Chromosomes are arranged at equatorial plane.
Spindle fibres from opposite poles attach to the kinetochore of
centromere.
Anaphase :-
Centromere split.
Chromatids move towards opposite poles.
Telophase :-
Chromosomes decondenses to form chromatin reticulum.
7. Cytokinesis :-
Division of cytoplasm.
In animal cell, a furrow appeared in the plasma membrane gradually deepens
& joins in the centre
In plant cell, a cell-plate is formed at the centre & grows outward to meet the
existing lateral wall.
8. Meiosis :-
Seen in reproductive cells.
Parent cell divides into 4 daughter cells.
Chromosome number reduced to half.
Leads to the formation of haploid gametes.
Involves 2 sequential cycles of division, Meiosis Ι & Meiosis ΙΙ .
9. Significance of Meiosis :-
Maintain chromosome number
create variation.
Formation of gametes in sexually reproducing organisms.
10. Meiosis Ι (Reduction division) :-
Prophase Ι – Longer & more complex phase. Subdivided into 5 phases. First two
stages of prophase Ι are short lived.
Leptotene :- Chromosomes become visible under light microscope.
Zygotene :-
Homologous chromosomes starts pairing .
Synapsis / Synaptonemal complex formation.
Bivalent /Tetrad formation.
Pachytene :-
Appearance of recombination nodules.
Crossing over /Exchange of genetic material takes place between
non - sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Recombinase enzyme - mediated process.
Diplotene :-
Joseph priestley Plants restore to the air that was spoiled by breathing rat & burning candle
T.W.Engelmann Most of the photosynthesis takes place in the red & blue regions of spectrum
Cornelius Van Niel Plants release oxygen as a result of splitting of water molecules.
5. Site of photosynthesis ::- Chloroplast. There is a clear division of labour within the
chloroplast.
6. Site of light reaction :-- Thylakoid . Chlorophyll pigment present in thylakoid trap
light energy and produce ATP & NADPH.
7. Site of dark reaction :-- Stroma. Enzymatic reactions synthesize glucose which in turn
forms starch.
8. Pigments :- Substances that have an ability to absorb light, at specific wavelengths.
9. Leaf pigments can be separated by :- Paper Chromatography.
10. Pigments involved in Photosynthesis :- Colour in the
he leaves is due to 4 pigments.
Chlorophyll a (bright or blue green in the chromatogram) is the major pigment
responsible for trapping light .
Accessory pigments - Chlorophyll b (yellow green), Xanthophylls (yellow), and
Carotenoids (yellow to yellow
yellow-orange).
11. Role of accessory pigments ::-
They absorb light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a.
Protect chlorophyll a from photo - oxidation
12. Action spectrum indicates overall rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength of light
13. Absorption spectrum indicatess the wavelengths of light absorbed by each pigment.
21. Non-cyclic
cyclic photophosphorylation :-
In PSΙΙ , reaction
eaction centre absorb 680nm wavelength of red light.
Electrons become excited and jump into an orbit farther from the atomic
nucleus.
These electrons are picked up by an electron acceptor.
Down hill movement of electrons through an electron transport system
sys
consisting of cytochromes and reach PS Ι ( ATP is formed during this transport).
Electrons in the PS Ι are also excited when they receive red light of 700nm
wavelength and are transferred to another acceptor molecule.
Again downhill movement of electrons (results
esults in the synthesis of NADPH).
NADPH
Electrons
ctrons needed to replace those removed from PS Ι are provided by PS ΙΙ.
Electrons from PS Ι are cycled back Electrons are not cycled back
30. Calvin Cycle / Biosynthetic phase /Dark reaction :- Traced out by Melvin Calvin.
37. Basic pathway that results in the formation of sugar/ glucose :- C 3 cycle (common to
C3 & C4 plants)
38. Photo respiration /C2 Cycle :-
Metabolic pathway occurs in the presence of light.
During this process O2 is consumed & CO2 is released .
C3 cycle takes place in mesophyll cells C3 Cycle takes place in bundlesheath cells
Only mesophyll cells involved Both mesophyll cells & bundlesheath cells involved
Number of C in the primary CO2 acceptor -5 Number of C in the primary CO2 acceptor-3
Primary CO2 fixation product – PGA Primary CO2 fixation product – OAA
Number of C in the Primary CO2 fixation product Number of C in the Primary CO2 fixation product -4
–3
Carboxylase enzyme which catalyse first Carboxylase enzyme which catalyse first
carboxylation reaction – RuBisCO carboxylation reaction – PEP
18 ATPs are required for fixing 6 CO2 molecules 30 ATPs are required for fixing 6 CO2 molecules
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
1. Cellular Respiration – Metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to release energy /
Oxidative breakdown of glucose into CO2, water & energy.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
2. Stages of cellular respiration :- Glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and Electron transport system &
Oxidative decarboxylation
3. Respiratory substrate :- Compounds that are oxidised during the process of cellular
respiration. eg., Carbohydrates, proteins, fats & organic acids.
4. Energy currency of cell –ATP (utilised in various energy requiring processes of organism)
5. Difference between Aerobic & Anaerobic respiration:-
13. End product of krebs cycle ::- After link reaction and Kreb’s cycle , 6 molecules of CO2 , 8
NADH + H+ , 2 FADH2 and 2ATP molecules ar are formed.
14. Electron Transport System (ETS) :-
Metabolic pathway through which the electron passes from one carrier to
another.
Electrons are passed on to O2 resulting in the formation of H2O.
ETS occurs in the Inner mitochondrial membrane.
Process to release & utilise the energy stored in NADH + H+ and FADH2.
Electron carriers :- FMN (Flavin mono nucleotide) , Fe-S , Ubiquinone (UQ),
Cytochrome b, Cytochrome c1 , Cytochrome c , Cytochrome a , Cytochrome a 3
ETS –Mechanism has 5 complexes, located / embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Complex Ι - Made up of NADH dehydrogenase enzyme which oxidise
NADH , FMN & Fe-S,
Complex ΙΙ - Succinate dehydrogenase which oxidise FADH2 ,
Complex ΙΙΙ - cytochrome b- cytochrome c1 complex
Complex Ιᴠ - cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochrome a
,cytochrome a3 & two copper centres
Complex Ι , Complex ΙΙ , Complex ΙΙΙ & Complex Ιᴠ are part of Electron
transport chain .
Complex ᴠ (ATP Synthase) synthesize ATP through Oxidative
phosphorylation.
Ubiquinone is located within the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Cytochrome c is a small protein attached to the outer surface of the inner
mitochondrial membrane and act as a mobile carrier for transfer of electrons
between Complex ΙΙΙ & Complex Ιᴠ.
15. Electron transport from NADH+ H+ & FADH2 to O2 :-
Electrons from NADH , present in the mitochondrial matrix are transferred to
Ubiquinone through FMN & Fe-S (Complex Ι ). 4 H+ ions are moved from matrix
to inter-membrane space during this step
Ubiquinone also receive electrons from FADH2 (Complex ΙΙ)
Ubiquinone is oxidised with the transfer of electrons to Cytochrome c through
Complex ΙΙΙ . When electrons travel through cytochrome b & cytochrome c 1, 4
H+ ions are moved from matrix to inter-membrane space.
Complex Ιᴠ receive electron from cytochrome c and transferred to ½ O 2. Oxygen
accept 2 H+ from matrix to form H2 O. When electrons travelled through
Complex Ιᴠ , 2 H+ ions moved from matrix to inter-membrane space.
Glycolysis 2 2*3=6 2 8
Total ATP 30 4 4 38
6. Weedicide (2,4-D used to kill dicot weeds, & does not affect monocot plants)
used to prepare weed-free lawns by gardners.
7. Auxin control xylem differentiation & helps in cell division
25. Discovery of Giberellin :- E. Kurosawa reported the symptoms of the ‘ bakane’ (foolish
seedling) disease in uninfected rice seedling , when seedlings were treated with sterile
filtrates of Giberella. Fujikuroi ( a fungal pathogen) Active substance is later identified as
giberellic acid. More than 100 giberellins are reported from different organisms like
fungi & higher plants. All GAs are acid.
26. Physiological responses of giberellin :-
1. Promote Bolting (Internode elongation before flowering) in beet, cabbage etc.
2. Increase the length of stem & Increase the yield in sugarcane.
3. Speed up maturity period of juvenile conifers & leads to early seed production
4. Speed up malting process in brewing industry.
5. Delay senescence.
6. Increase the length of grapes stalks.
27. Discovery of Cytokinin:- Skoog & Miller identified and crystallized cytokinesis
promoting active substance ,kinetin
28. kinetin :- first cytokinin discovered from the autoclaved herring sperm DNA. Kinetin
does not occur naturally in plants.
29. Zeatin :- Natural cytokinin present in corn-kernels and coconut milk.
30. Physiological responses of cytokinin :-
1. Overcome apical dominance
2. Shoot initiation
3. Cell division & differentiation
4. Promote nutrient mobilisation.
5. Delay senescence.
6. Produce new leaves & chloroplasts in leaves
31. Ethylene :- Only gaseous hormone. Most widely used PGR in agriculture
32. Discovery of ethylene :- Cousins confirmed the release of volatile substance from
ripened organs.
33. Ethephon :- Aquous solution which is readily absorbed and transported within the plant
& release ethylene slowly
34. Physiological responses of ethylene :-
1. Fruit ripening .
2. Enhance Respiratory climactic (Rise in rate of respiration during ripening of
fruit ).
3. Breaks seed & bud dormancy (initiate germination in peanut seeds, sprouting
of potato tubers)
4.
Initiate flowering & synchronise fruit set in pineapple.
5.
Induce flowering in mango
6.
Promote female flowers in cucumbers & thus increase the yield.
7.
Promote senescence & abscission of leaves , flowers & fruits.
8.
Promote root &root hair formation, thus helping plants to increase
absorptive surface.
9. Promote rapid internode /petiole elongation in deep water rice plants (So
leaves & upper part of shoot remain above water)
35. Discovery of Abscisic acid (ABA) :- Three independent researches reported the
purification & chemical characterization of three different kinds of inhibitors , inhibitor-
B, abscission –ΙΙ & domain. Later all three were proved to be chemically identical,
named ABA
36. Physiological responses OF ABA :-
1. Stimulate the closure of stomata & increase the tolerance of plants to various
kinds of stresses. So ABA is called Stress hormone
2. Promote Abscission ( leaf fall).
3. Inhibit seed germination.
4. Induce dormancy (help seeds to withstand desiccation & other factors
unfavourable for growth)
5. ABA act as an Antagonist to giberellin (Action of ABA inhibit / limit the action
of giberellin)