Fungi- Definition, Examples, Structure, Classification &

Reproduction

What are fungi? How fungi differ from other plants?

Ø  Fungi (fungus) in Latin literally means mushrooms
Ø  Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with true nucleus and membrane bounded organelles
Ø  They are non-vascular Cryptogams included in Thallophyta along with algae due to
their undifferentiated plant body.
Ø  Study of fungi is called mycology and the one who study fungi is called Mycologist
Ø  The word in Latin ‘mykes’ means fungus
Ø  Kingdom fungi includes about 5100 genera and 50,000 species
Ø  Fungi are heterotrophs since they lack chlorophyll
Ø  Fungi cannot synthesize their own carbohydrates using, carbohydrates, water and
sunlight.

Fungal Mycelium (source wikipedia)

Ø  Plant body of fungi consists of thallus make up of hyphae which together constitute
the mycelium
Ø  Fungi show much diversity in form, structure of plant body and method of
reproduction
Ø  Fungi are cosmopolitan in distribution, occurs in any habitat where life is possible
Ø  Some fungi are aquatic, which may be fresh water or marine
Ø  Most of the fungi are terrestrial forms
Ø  Many species of fungi are parasite to plants, animals and human
Ø  Majority of the diseases of cultivated plants are caused by fungi and thereby they
have immense economic importance

What is mycelium and hyphae?

Ø  Plant body of fungi typically consists of branched and filamentous hyphae

Ø  Hyphae forms a net like structure called mycelium
Ø  Hyphae may be aseptate (without septa) or septate (with septa)
Ø  In aseptate forms, the hyphae will be coenocytic (multinucleate condition)
Ø  In septate forms, the hyphae may be uninucleate or binucleate or rarely
multinucleate
Ø  Septa usually have simple pore (hole) at the centre for the cell to cell communication
What is dolipore septum?
Ø  In Basidiomycetes (a division of fungi) the septa is highly advanced, here dolipore
septa occurs
Ø  On both sides of dolipore septum a double membrane structure called septal pore cap
or parenthosome occurs
Ø  Parenthosomes of dolipore septa act as valves which can regulate the passage of cell
contents between cells
How fungal cell wall is different from the cell wall of other plants?
Ø  Protoplast of fungi is surrounded by distinct cell wall
Ø  In slime molds (lower fungi, closely related to Protistis) the cell wall is absent
Ø  Main component of cell wall is chitin (a major difference of fungal cell wall from
plant cell wall)
Ø  Chitin is a polymer of an N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose
Ø  In some lower fungi (Oomycetes) cell wall is composed of cellulose and glucan
How mitosis in fungi is different from other eukaryotes?
Ø  The nucleus of fungi is very small
Ø  Fungi have special type of mitosis called nuclear mitosis
Ø  Mitosis in fungi is different from that in other eukaryotes
Ø  In fungi, during mitotic cell division, the nuclear envelope does not break down and
re-form. Instead, mitosis takes place within the nucleus
Ø  Spindle apparatus is formed within the nucleus, which drag the chromosomes to two
opposite poles of nucleus (not the cell as in most other eukaryotes)
What is meant by dikaryotization?
Ø  Fungal hyphae may be homo-karyotic (only one strain of nuclei) or hetero karyotic
(different strains of nuclei)
Ø  Hyphae may be haploid, diploid or dikaryotic
Ø  Dikaryotic condition is seed in higher fungi only (members of Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes)
Ø  In dikaryotic mycelium, two different strains of nuclei (+ and -) stay separately in the
cell and they simultaneously divide when the cell divides
Ø  The process of formation of dikaryotic mycelium is called dikaryotization
What are the hyphal modifications in fungi?
Ø  In majority of fungi, hyphae are simple
Ø  In some advanced fungi, hyphae may undergo certain modification in response to
functional needs
Ø  Important hyphal modifications in fungi are: Prosenchyma, Pseudoparenchyma,
Rhizomorphs, Sclerotia, Appressorium, Haustoria, Stroma and Hyphal traps (snares)

What is the type of nutrition in fungi?

Ø  Fungi are heterotrophic in nutrition (they do not manufacture food)
Ø  Fungi are entirely devoid of chlorophyll, however carotenoids and other colour
pigments are present
Ø  On the basis of made of nutrition, fungi are classified into three groups:
1. Parasites: grow and feed on other living plants or animals (hosts)
2. Saprophytes: grown and feed on dead organic matters
3. Symbionts: mutual association between algae or roots of higher plants (lichens
and mycorrhiza are examples)

Ø  Fungi digest food first and then ingest (absorb) the food into cells, to accomplish this
the fungi produce exoenzymes (enzymes which acts outside the cell)
Ø  The food reserve of fungi is glycogen (similar to animals cells)

How fungi reproduce?

Ø  Fungi reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods
Ø  Sexual state of fungi is called teleomorph
Ø  Asexual state of fungi is called anamorph
Ø  Vegetative reproduction in fungi takes place by Fragmentation (Eg. Rhizopus,
Aspergillus), Fission (Eg. Yeast) and Budding (Eg. Yeast)
Ø  About 20% fungi (mostly members of Deuteromycetes) propagate only by asexual
means, they completely lack sexual reproduction
Ø  Asexual reproduction takes place during favorable condition by the formation of a
variety of conidia or spores
Ø  Fungal spores may be unicellular (Aspergillus, Penicillium) or multicellular
(Alternaria, Cercospora)
Ø  Spores may be endogenous when  enveloped in pycnidia or sporangia (Mucor,
Rhizopus) or they may be exogenous when developed on sporophores or conidiophores
(Aspergillus, Penicillium)
Ø  Common asexual spores of fungi are: Zoospores, Conidiospores (conidia), 
Clamydospores and Oidia:

Ø  In lower fungi reproductive cells are flagellated and motile

Ø  Flagella are of two types in fungi

1. Whiplash (Acronematic): smooth flagella with 9+2 organization

2. Tinsel (Pantonematic): Flagella with numerous minute hair like projections
called mastigonemes, originate from the axial filament
Ø  Motile reproductive structures are completely absent in higher fungi (Ascomycets,
Basidiomycets and Deuteromyces)
Holocarpic vs Eucarpic fungi
Ø  In some unicellular forms the whole vegetative cell is transformed to a reproductive
unit and such a fungi is called holocarpic fungi
Ø  In most fungi only a part of the vegetative mycelium forms the reproductive unit and
the rest remain vegetative, such a fungi is called eukarpic fungi
How sexual reproduction occurs in fungi?
Ø  Sexual reproduction takes place in all group of fungi except Deuteromycetes (fungi
imperfectii)
Ø  Fungi may be monoecious (bisexual) or dioecious (unisexual)
Ø  Moneoecious species produce the two types of sex organs (male and female) in the
same thallus, and hence they are called homothallic forms
Ø  Dioecious forms produces male and female sex organs in separate thalli, hence called
heterothallic forms
Ø  The process of sexual reproduction is completed in three distinct phases
1. Plasmogamy: fusion of cytoplasm
2. Karyogamy: fusion of nucleus
3. Meiosis: reduction division
Ø  In higher groups of fungi, plasmogamy do not immediately follows kaaryogamy, the
cell will hold the two nuclei separately in order to establish dikaryotization
Ø  In sexual reproduction the two compatible nuclei (male and female) are brought
together by any of the following processes:
1. Planogametic copulation: fusion of two motile gametes by isogamy,
anisogamy or oogamy
2. Gametangial contact: male and female gametangia connect each other by
fertilization tube
3. Gametangial copulatin: entire content of two gametangia fuse together
4. Spermatization: fusion of minute spores called spermatia and specialized
receptive hyphate acting as male and female structures respectively
5. Somatogamy: sex organs not formed, two vegetative cells fuse together, highly
advanced type

Ø  Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation

Ø  Fungi have immense economic importance to man

Asexual Reproduction in Fungi

Ø  Fungi reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods
Ø  This post describes different types of ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION methods in
fungi
Ø  About 20% fungi propagate only by asexual means
Ø  Asexual reproduction take places during favorable condition by the formation of a
variety of spores
Ø  Such spores produced by asexual reproduction are called mitospores
Ø  Spores may be unicellular (Aspergillus, Penicillium) or Multicellular (Alternaria,
Cercospora)
Ø  Based on the number of cells in spores, asexual spores of fungi are classified into:
1. Amerospore: one celled spores
2. Didymospore: two celled spores
3. Phragmospore: spore with two or more transverse septa
4. Dictyospores: spores with one or more transverse and vertical septa
5. Scolecospores: vermiform or filiform (thread like) shaped spores
6. Staurospores: stellate or spores with radiating arms
7.  Helicospores: spirally coiled spores
Ø  The number of cells in spores have immense taxonomic importance for the
identification and classification of fungi
Ø  The spores may be endogenous when  enveloped in pycnidia or sporangia (Mucor,
Rhizopus) or they may be exogenous when developed on sporophores or
conidiophores (Aspergillus, Penicillium)
Ø  Spores produced in specialized sacks called sporangia are known as sporangiospores
Ø  Spores produced on the tip of hyphae either singly or in group, is called
conidiospores
Ø  Common asexual spores of fungi are:
(1).  Zoospores
(2).  Aplanospores
(3).  Conidiospores
(4).  Chlamydospores
(5).  Pycnidiospores
(6).  Oidia
 Sporangia with Zoospore (source wikipedia)

(1). Zoospores
Ø  Zoospores are a type of sporangiospores (endospore)
Ø  They are motile spores with flagella
Ø  Zoospores are usually produced by lower groups of fungi
Ø  Example: Phythium, Phytopthora
Ø  Based on the number and position of flagella, there are three types of zoospores in
fungi
(1). Posteriorly uni-flagellated zoospores: zoospores with posteriorly placed
whiplash type of flagella (example: Chytridiomycetes)
(2). Anteriorly uni-flagellated zoospore: zoospores with anteriorly placed tinsel
type of flagella (Example: Hypochytridiomycetes)
(3). Biflagellated zoospores: zoospores with two anteriorly or laterally attached
flagella, one is whiplash and the other is tinsel type (Example: Oomycetes)
(2). Aplanosores
Ø  Aplanospores  are non-motile spores, produced in sporangia (endospores)
Ø  Usually they are round in shape with one or many nucleus
Ø  Most of the cases, aplanospores are produced in large numbers
Ø  They can germinate by the formation of germ tube in the favourable conditions
(3). Conidia or conidiospores
Ø  Conidia are non-motile spores
Ø  They are produced in single or in chain on special type of hyphae called conidiophore
Ø  Conidia are exospores since they are produced exogenously
(4). Pycnidiospores:
Ø  They are very small spores produced in special structures called Pycnidia
Ø  Pycnidiospors are usually produced by members of fungi
imperfectii(Deuteromycetes) and many lichens
Ø  They are usually single celled, thin walled, however multicellular pycnidiospres are
also found
(5). Chlamydospores
Ø  Chlamydospores are thick walled resting spores
Ø  They store food materials (Eg. Ustilago)
(6). Oidia:
Ø  Hyphae breaks up to small pieces each develops into single called oidia
Ø  Oidia are generally thin walled and small
Ø  They do not store food material
Ø  Oidia germinate immediately after liberation (Eg. Coprinus)
Ø  Fungal component in some lichen can reproduce by the formation of oidia

Sexual Reproduction in Fungi

Ø  Fungi reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods
Ø  This post describes the Sexual Reproduction methods in fungi
Ø  Sexual reproduction takes place in all groups of fungi except Deuteromycetes
Ø  Fungi may be monoecious (bisexual) or dioecious (unisexual)
Ø  Moneoecious species produce two sex organs (male and female) in the same thallus,
thus they are called homothallic
Ø  Dioecious forms produces sex organs in separate thalli, hence called heterothallic
Ø  Based on the complexity of sexual reproduction, fungi can be grouped into two
categories:
(1). Eukarpic fungi
(2). Holocarpic fungi
Ø  Eukarpic fungi: In most fungi only a part of the vegetative mycelium forms the
reproductive unit and the rest remain vegetative, such a fungi is called eukarpic fungi
(advanced type)
Ø  Holocarpic fungi: in some unicellular forms the whole vegetative cell is
transformed to a reproductive unit at the time of maturation (primitive type)
Ø  The process of sexual reproduction in fungi is completed in three distinct phases.

(A). Plasmogamy: fusion of cytoplasm

(B). Karyogamy: fusion of nuclei
(C). Meiosis: reduction division
(A). Plasmogamy
Ø  Plasmogamy is the first phase of sexual reproduction in fungi
Ø  It is the fusion of protoplasts of two compatible gametes or sex cells or hyphae
Ø  As a result of plasmogamy, two compatible nuclei are come close to each other
(B). Karyogamy
Ø  Fusion of two nuclei to form a diploid nucleus
Ø  In some fungi (Phycomycetes) karyogamy occurs immediately after plasmogamy
Ø  In some other fungi (Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) karyogamy is much delayed
Ø  In the latter case (delayed karyogamy) two opposite strains of nucleoli get themselves
arranged in pairs (dikaryon) in a single cell
Ø  This dikaryon divide mitotically as usual along with the simultaneous division of
cytoplasm
Ø  This results in the establishment of a separate karyotic phase in the life cycle of fungi
Ø  This phase of life cycle is called dikaryotic phase
Ø  The process by which the dikaryotic phase is accomplished is
called dikaryotization
Ø  After the establishment of dikaryotic phase, the two nuclei of a dikaryon fuse to form
the diploid zygote
Ø  Zygote is the only diploid phase in the life cycle of fungi
(C) Meiosis
Ø  Zygote immediately undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce meiospores
Ø  After karyogamy reduction division takes places in the diploid nucleus and thus
haploid stage is established

Ø  In sexual reproduction of fungi, the two compatible nuclei (male and female) are
brought together by the following processes.

(1). Planogametic copulation

(2). Gametangial contact
(3). Gametangial copulatin
(4). Spermatization
(5). Somatogamy
(1). Planogametic copulation
Ø  Planogametic copulation involves the fusion of two naked motile gametes
(planogametes)
Ø  Based on the structure and size of fusing gametes, three types of planogamy is can
occur in fungi
(a). Isogamy
(b). Anisogamy
(c). Oogamy
(a). Isogamy: 
Ø  Fusing gametes are morphologically similar but physiologically they are two strains
(+ and -)
Ø  The gametes are formed on different thalli
Ø  Primitive type of reproduction
(b). Anisogamy:
Ø  Fusing gametes are both morphologically and physiologically different
Ø  Male gamete is smaller and active than female gametes
Ø  Female gametes are larger and less active than male gametes
(c). Oogamy:
Ø  Female gamete is large and non-motile
Ø  Male game is smaller and motile (flagellated)
Ø  Male gametes are called antherozoids
Ø  They are formed on specialized reproductive structures called antheridium
Ø  Female gamete is called oogonium
Ø  Oogamy is an advanced type of sexual reproduction
(2). Gametangial contact
Ø  Here gametes are not released from gametangia
Ø  Instead male and female gametangia come in close contact with help of fertilization
tube
Ø  Then one or more male nuclei migrate in to the female gametangium
Ø  The gametangia never fuse or lose their identity during the sexual act
Ø  Male and female gametangia are called antheridia and oogonia (Ascogonium in
Ascomycetes) respectively
Ø  Example: Albugo, Aspergillus, Pythium
(3). Gametangial copulation
Ø  Here the entire content of two compatible gametangia fuse each other
Ø  The gametangia come in close contact, wall at the point of contact dissolves and their
contents mix each other
Ø  Then karyogamy is established
(4). Spermatization
Ø  In some advanced fungi sex organs are completely absent
Ø  Here sexual process is accomplished by minute spore like spermatia and specialized
(receptive) hyphae acting as male and female structures respectively
Ø  Spermatia is carried by air, water or insect to the receptive hyphae
Ø  Spermatia attached to the trichogyne of receptive hyphae and migrate in to the
cytoplasm
(5). Somatogamy
Ø  Here sex organs are not formed
Ø  Occurs in advanced fungal groups such as Basidiomycetes
Ø  Two vegetative cells or vegetative hyphae take over the sexual function and fuse
together
Ø  Eg. Morchella, Peziza, Agaricus

Sexual spores in Fungi

Ø  Important sexual spores in fungi are
(1). Zygospores
(2). Ascospores
(3). Basidiospores
(1). Zygospore:
Ø  Zygospores are formed by the fusion of male and female structures during sexual
reproduction
Ø  They are diploid spores
Ø  They are thick walled resting spores of some fungi
Ø  Usually produced by lower groups of fungi
Ø  Fungal species which produce zygospores are grouped in the class
Zygomycete (Rhizopus)

Ascus with Ascospores (source wikipedia)

(2). Ascospores
Ø  Sexual spores produced in the class Ascomycetes
Ø  Ascospores are endospores
Ø  Ascospores are produced in specialized sac like structure called ascus
Ø  Ascospores are haploid spores
Ø  Typically a single ascus contain eight ascospores
Ø  The eight ascospores are produced after a meiosis, immediately followed by a mitosis

Basidiospores (source wikipedia)

(3). Basidiospores
Ø  Sexual spores produced in the class Basidiomycetes
Ø  Basidiospores are exospores
Ø  Basidiospores are produced on specialized structure called basidium
Ø  Basidiospores are also haploid spores
Ø  Typically single basidium produce four basidiospores
Ø  The four basidiospores are produced after the meiosis of a diploid zygote

Vegetative Reproduction in Fungi

Ø  Fungi reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods
Ø  This post describes different types of Vegetative reproduction methods in fungi
Ø  Vegetative reproduction helps to increase the number of individuals in the
population
Ø  Vegetative reproduction in fungi occurs by:
(1). Fragmentation
(2). Fission
(3). Bud fission
(4). Budding
(5). Gemmae
(6). Sclerotia
(7). Rhizomorphs
(8). Mycelial cords
(1). Fragmentation:
Ø  Mycelium gets fragmented into small fragments, each of which is able to develop into
new individual
Ø  Fragmentation is common in filamentous fungi such as Rhizopus and Aspergillus
(2). Fission
Ø  Fission occurs in unicellular fungi such as Yeasts
Ø  Mature cells divided mitotically into two and the two daughter cells separates and
give rise to two individuals
(3). Bud fission
Ø  It is a modified type of fission
Ø  In bud fission cross wall are developed near the base of the bud to separate bud from
mother cell
Ø  Here only the buds undergo fission not the mother cell
(4). Budding
Ø  Bud like growth emerges out from the mature cells
Ø  Budding is commonly occurs in unicellular forms such as Yeast
Ø  Budding of Yeast may be of different types:
(a). Multilateral budding: buds arise at any point on the mother cell, but never again at
the same site
(b). Uni-polar budding: budding repeated at same site on mother cell surface
(c). Bi-polar budding: budding restricted to both poles of the cell
(d). Monopolar budding: buds originate at only one pole of the mother cell
(5). Formation of Gemmae:
Ø  Gemmae are specialized thick walled aggregation of chlamydospres like structures
Ø  They are formed in un-favourable conditions (Example: Saprolegnia)
(6). Sclerotia:
Ø  Sclerotia (sclerotium) are pseudo-parencymatous mycelial aggregations
Ø  Sclerotia can also overcome unfavourable conditions
Ø  Sclerotia can survive in the substratum (Eg. soil) for many years
Ø  Sclerotia are commonly produced by plant pathogenic fungi
Ø  The size and shape of sclerotia varies in different fungal groups
(7). Rhizomorphs:
Ø  They are root like mycelial aggregations found in some fungi
Ø  They are pseudo-parenchymatous hyphal modifications
Ø  They can also overcome unfavourable conditions
Ø  Rhizomorphs have high penetration capacity than individual hyphae and hence they
have more pathogenic potential
Ø  Bits of rhizomorps that survive in the soil, can act as inoculum for the next round of
infection during the onset of favourable conditions
(8). Mycelial cords
Ø  They are also thread like mycelial aggregations
Ø  Formed by the more or less parallel aggregation of hyphal strand in some fungi
Ø  Mycelial cords can also acts as bidirectional transport channels for nutrients
Ø  Mycelial cords also helps the fungi to establish and colonize new areas from a food
rich area

Algae vs Fungi
Similarities and Difference between Algae and Fungi
Algae and fungi are thallophytic cryptogams of plant Kingdom. Both algae and fungi
share many common characteristics and thus they are treated in the same
division Thallophyta of Cryptogams according to Eichler’s Classification. Even though
they are in same class, thallophyta, they also show some distinct differences particularly
in their mode of nutrition, physiology and reproduction. This post describes what are
the Similarities and Difference between Algae and Fungi.

Similarities between Algae and Fungi

Ø  Both algae and fungi are thallophytes (plant body not differentiated into root, stem
and leaves)
Ø  Both algae and fungi are placed together in the division thallophyta of cryptogams
Ø  With the exception of blue green algae, majority of algae and fungi are eukaryotic
Ø  Vascular tissue system is absent in both groups
Ø  Both algae and fungi processes cell wall made of polysaccharides, chemical nature of
cell wall varies in algae and fungi
Ø  Symbiotic members are present in both groups (algae with animals, fungi with roots
of higher plants, between algae and fungi as in lichens)
Ø  Both groups can reproduce by vegetative reproduction by fragmentation
Ø  Both algae and fungi can reproduce asexually by the production of various motile and
non-motile spores
Ø  Sex organs are naked in both groups, no protective covering for sex organs in both
groups
Difference between Algae and Fungi

Sl.
Algae Fungi
No.

1 Example: Oscillatoria (BGA), Oedogonium, Examples: Pythium, Phytopthora, Rhizopus, Aspergillus,

Chara, Diatoms, Sargassum, Polysiphonia Puccinia, Agaricus (mushrooms)

2 Mostly aquatic Mostly terrestrial

3 Chlorophyll present Chlorophyll absent

4 Autotrophic nutrition Heterotropic nutrition

5 Light is necessary for the survival Light is not necessary for the survival

6 Few algae are prokaryotic (Blue Green All fungi are eukaryotic

Algae) Majority are eukaryotic

7 Usually Green coloured Usually colourless (hyaline) sometimes bright coloured, never

will be green

8 Plant body filamentous or parenchymatous Plant body filamentous or pseudo-parenchymatous

9 Cell wall composed of cellulose Cell wall composed of chitin

1 Cells usually uninucleate Cells usually bi-nucleate or multinucleate

1 Reserve food material is starch Reserve food material is glycogen

1 Spore are always endospores in algae Spore are always endospores in algae (endospore = spores

(endospore = spores produced inside the produced inside the sporangium)

Sl.
Algae Fungi
No.

2 sporangium)

1 Shows progressive complexity in sexual Shows progressive simplicity in sexual reproduction

reproduction
3

1 Sexual reproduction is simple in lower Sexual reproduction is complex in lower forms of fungi and it is

forms of algae and it is complex in advanced simple in advanced forms

4
forms

1 Mitosis is usual type, nuclear membrane Mitosis is special type called endo mitosis, nuclear membrane do

disorganize during mitosis not disorganize during mitosis

5

1 Parasitic members are very uncommon Parasitic members of very common

1 Zoospores, aplanospores, Chlamydospores Conidiospores, zoospores and aplanospores are important spores

etc. are important spores

7

1 Sexual reproduction occurs by isogamy, Sexual reproduction occurs by isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy,

anisogamy or oogamy gametangial contact, gametangial copulation, spermatization and

8
somatic hybridization

1 During union of games, plasmogamy In higher fungi delayed karyogamy occurs

immediately follows karyogamy

9

2 Dikaryotic phase is completely absent Distinct dikaryotic phase is present in some higher fungi like

members of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes

0

2 Clamp connection and crozier formation are Clamp connection and crozier formation are present in higher

completely absent in algae fungi for the establishment of dikaryotic phase

1

2 Para-sexual cycle is not reported in algae Para-sexual cycle is reported in many fungi

2
 General Characteristics of Lichen
What are lichens?
Lichens are structurally organized permanent symbiotic association between fungi
and algae. The fungal component of lichen is called mycobiont and the algal
component of lichen is called phycobiont. Theophrastus (371 – 284 BC), who is known
as the ‘Father of Botany’, for the first time used the term lichen to denote the superficial
growth on tree barks. The branch of biology which deals with the study of lichen is called
Lichenology and the one who studies is known as lichenologist. Acharius is known
as the ‘Father of lichenology’.
Lichens are symbionts:
Lichens are symbiotic association between algae and fungi. The term Symbiosis
(introduced by De-Bary, a mycologist) is used to specify the association or interaction of
organisms where both partners are mutually benefitted. The fungus absorbs water and
protects algae from unfavorable conditions such as drought and extreme temperature.
The algal components, since they are autotrophs, in turn supplies organic food to
fungus. This type of symbiosis is known as heliotism, a ‘master’ and ‘slave’ relationship.
Lichens do not show the morphology of fungi and algae:
Even though lichens are symbiotic association between algae and fungi, the vegetative
morphology (plant body) of lichen neither resembles algal or fungal morphology. Fungal
component is prominent vegetative part in lichen than algal component. Almost 90% of
the plant body of lichen composed of fungal component. Due to the ill differentiated
plant body, lichens are included in Thallophyta of Cryptogams along with algae and
fungi.
Lichens are indicators of air pollution and pioneers of ecological
succession:
Lichens are very slow growing plants and they can survive on extreme environmental
conditions such as high temperature and can bury in snow for long years. Lichen
produce a special acid known as lichen acid, which helps to weather rocks and assist in
soil formation. Because of these two reasons, lichens form the pioneer community (first
community) in xerarch plant succession on rock surface. Lichens do not grow near air
polluted industrial areas and thus they are considered as indicators of air pollution.
Example, absence of Lobaria (an asco-lichen) in the area indicates the high degree of
industrial air pollution in the area.
Lichens are of word wide distribution
Even though the group lichens contains limited number species, they are distributed all
over the world including tropical, temperate and Polar Regions. About 500 genera and
approximately 13,500 species of lichens are recorded till date.
Lichens have a variety of habitats:
Mostly lichens are found on tree barks, decaying wood and rock surfaces. Based on the
substratum on which the lichens are growing, lichens are of different types:
Ø  Xaxicolous lichens: Lichens growing on the surface of rocks.
Example: Caloplecta, Aspicilia
Ø  Corticolous lichens: lichens growing on the surface of barks of trees.
Example: Evernia, Parmeliaand Usnea
Ø  Follicolous lichens: lichens growing on the surface of leaves. Example:
Calicium, Cyphelium and Strigula
Ø  Terricolous lichens: lichens growing on the surface of soil.
Ø  Muscicolous lichens: lichens growing along with mosses. Example: Cladonia
Very few species of lichens are aquatic.  Peltigera is one of the marine aquatic lichen.
Cladonia rangiferina (reindeer moss) grows luxuriously in Tundra. In India, lichens are
luxuriously found in Himalayas and higher hills of South India.
Lichens are highly pigmented plants:
Lichen has various colors such as green, bluish, yellow, orange, reddish etc. and they are
highly pigmented organisms. Some lichens are white in colour. The colouration is due to
the pigmentation of algal component in the lichens. In some lichens, a special pigment
called usnic acid is present which give lichens a variety of colors, including red, orange,
yellow, and brown, especially when exposed to dry habitats. When high moisture is
there in the surrounding, lichens appears as greener. This is because the water absorbed
fungal mater become more transparent and as a result of this the green colour algal
pigments get exposed.
Composition of lichen plant body (mycobiont and phycobiont)
The fungal component or mycobiont of all lichens belong to either Ascomycotina or
Basidiomycotina or Deuteromycotina. Lichen with fungal component belonging to
Ascomycotina is called Ascolichens. Similarly, those with Basidiomycotina and
Deuteromycotina are called as Basidiolichen and Deuterolichens respectively. 
Deuterolichens are also known as lichen imperfectii. Majority of the lichens are
Ascolichens. Only four genera of Basidiolichens are so far reported. Deuterolichens are
also very rare in nature.
The algal component or phycobiont may belong to Cyanophyceae (blue green algae),
Chlorophyceae (green algae), Xanthophyceae or Phaeophyceae. Algal component from
Cyanophyceae and Chlorophyceae are most common phycobionts in lichens. Among
Cyanophyceae, 8 genera including Gloeocapsa, Nostoc and Rivularia are reported.
Similarly among Chlorophyceae, 18 genera including Trebouxia, Trentipohlia and
Cladophora are reported. Single genera from both Xanthophyceae and Phaeophyceae
are also reported to from lichens with some fungi.
Classification and Naming of Lichens is Based on its Fungal Component:
According to International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) classification and
naming of lichen should be on the basis of the fungal component. Based on the nature of
fungal components, lichens are divided lichens to 3 classes
(1). Asco-lichen
(2). Basidio-lichen
(3). Lichen-imperfectii (deuterolichens)
(1). Ascolichen: The mycobiont belongs to Ascomycotina division of fungi. Sexual
reproduction of Ascolichens is similar to those of Ascomycotina. They produce Ascus
with Ascospores after sexual reproduction. Majority of lichens are Ascolichens.
(2). Basidiolichens: The mycobionts belong to the Basidiomycotina division of
fungi. Sexual reproduction is similar to those of Basidiomycotina. They produce Basidia
and Basidiospores during sexual reproduction. Only very few lichen (4 genera reported
so far) belongs to Basidiolichen.
(3). Lichen Imperfecti: They are also called as Deuterolichens. The fungal partners
belong to Deuteromycotina division of fungi. These lichens lack sexual reproduction,
since Deuteromycotina members do not show sexual reproduction.
Thallus organization in lichens:
Thallus organization shows the diversity of morphology of lichens. They are also the
different growth forms of lichens. Based on thallus morphology, lichens are divided into
three major groups.
(1). Crustose (Crustaceous) lichen
(2). Foliose lichen
(3). Fruticose lichen
(1). Crustose (Crustaceous) lichen:
Crustose lichens do not have well organized thallus. They have flattened thallus, closely
attached to substratum such as rocks, soil or bark of other trees as crusts. Thallus may
be partially or completely embedded in the substratum. The attachment of thallus to the
substratum is very firm so that it is very difficult to separate crustose lichen from the
substratum without disturbing the thallus. Crustose lichens are considered as the most
primitive type of thallus organization in lichens.
Examples of crustose lichens: Graphis, Lecanora, Lecidia

(2). Foliose Lichen:

Foliose lichens have flat dorsi-ventral, leaf like lobed thallus and they look like the
thallus of liverworts (bryophytes). They are attached to substratum with the help of
rhizoid like structures called Rhizines. Foliose lichens are more advanced than crustose
lichens.
Examples of foliose lichens: Parmelia, Peltigera, Collema, Heterodermia,
Physcia, Xanthoria, Cetraria
(3). Fruticose lichen:
Fructicose lichens have well developed shrub-like, cylindrical and branched thallus.
They grow or hang from the substratum such as tree trunk or rock surface. Plants
attached to the substratum with the help of a mucilaginous disc. Fructose lichens have
well organized internal structures and they are considered as the most advanced thallus
organization in lichens.
Example of fruticose lichen: Cladonia, Usnea

Reproduction of lichens:
Lichens reproduce by asexual (vegetative) and sexual methods. Asexual reproduction
takes place by specialized types of diaspores such as soredia and isidia. Diaspores are
vegetative or asexual reproductive lichenized structures in which algal and fungal
components together act as separable autonomous subunits of the thallus. Only the
fungal component of lichens reproduce sexually. Female sex organ is called
carpogonium. Carpogonium is differentiated into a basal ascogonium and an elongated
trichogyne. Male reproductive organ is called spermagonia which produce spermatia.
Appothecia and Perithecia are the Fruiting bodies in Lichens:
Fruiting bodies (fructifications) of lichen are disc shaped appothecium (appothecia) and
flask shaped perithecium (perithecia).
Economic importance of lichen:
Ø  Lichens are the pioneers of rock vegetation
Ø  Lichens initiates xerarch type of  plant succession on rock
Ø  Lichen acid cause weathering of rock into soil particles
Ø  Some lichens are ecological indicators, they acts as indicators of pollution
Ø  Cladonia rangiferina, which is luxuriously grows in polar region act as the food
source for some animals such as reindeers
Ø  Lecanora is consumed as food by human
Ø  Peltigera canina and Lobaria pulmonaria are medicinal
Ø  Prmelia is used as a spice or condiment in some parts of India
Ø  Rocella and Lecanora yield dye called orchil or orecin or Cudbear which are used
for colouring woolen and silk fabrics
Ø  Orecin is an excessively used chromosomal stain, it is used for the ‘O’ banding of
chromosomes
Ø  Lobaria pulmonaria is used in tanning, perfumery industry. It is also used as ‘hope’
in brewing industry.

Key questions:
1.  What are lichens?
2.  What is symbiosis?
3.  What is the morphology of lichens?
4.  What is the ecological significance of lichens?
5.  What are Corticolous, Follicolous and Xaxicolous lichens?
6.  What are the pigments in lichens?
7.  What are the components of Lichens?
8.  How lichens are classified?
9.  What are Ascolichens, Basidiolichens and Deuterolichens?
10.  How the thallus is organized in lichens?
11.  How reproduction occurs in lichens?
12. What are the economic importance of lichens?