Chapter 2: Xylem and phloem

Plants have branching shapes. This gives them a large surface area in relation to their volume.
It means that most cells are close to the surface.

leaves are adapted to ensure that no cell is far away from the air, so carbon dioxide
can simply diffuse in through the stomata and air spaces,
easily reaching the photosynthesis mesophyll cells.

Water comes from further away. Plants absorb water through their roots,
and this water must be transported up to the leaves.
Xylem
Plants have transport system that transport water & mineral ions from roots up to the leaves, made up of a tissue
called xylem.

Phloem
Plants also have a second transport system, made up of a tissue called phloem.
Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from the leaves where they are made, to other parts of the plant such as its
roots and flowers.

Vascular bundle
Xylem vessels and phloem tubes are usually found close together,
a group of xylem vessels and phloem tubes is called a vascular bundle.
They help to support the leaves, holding them out flat to capture sunlight.
Xylem vessel properties

• A xylem vessel is like a long drainpipe It's made of many hollow dead cells,
joined end to end, the end walls of the cells have disappeared,
So, a long open tube is formed.

• Xylem vessels run from the roots of the plant right up through the stem,
they branch out into every leaf.

• Xylem vessels contain no cytoplasm or nuclei, their walls are made of cellulose and lignin, lignin is very strong, so
xylem vessels help to keep plants upright.

wood is made almost entirely of lignified xylem vessels.

Xylem vessel properties
Water uptake

Plants take in water from the soil, through their roof hairs, at the very tip is a protective cap to protect the root as it
grows through the soil the rest of the root is covered by a layer of cells called the epidermis.

Each root hair is a long epidermal cell. Root hairs do not live for very long. As the root grows, they get damaged by the
soil particles and are replaced by new ones.

The function of root hairs is to absorb water and mineral ions from the soil. We have seen that water moves into a root
hair by osmosis. The cytoplasm and cell sap inside the root hair are quite concentrated solutions, the water in the soil is
normally a more dilute solution. water therefore diffuses into the root hair down its concentration gradient, through
the partially permeable all surface membrane.

The long thin root hairs & branching shape give a large surface area to the roots, which increases the uptake of water
and mineral ions.
The pathway of water through a plant
The root hairs are on the edge of the root the xylem vessels are in the centre.
The water travels by osmosis through the cortex, from cell to cell it reaches the xylem vessels in the middle of the root.
These transport it all the way up through the stem and into the leaves.
The pressure at the top of the vessels is lowered, while the pressure at the bottom stays high. Water therefore flows
up the xylem vessels.

Root → cortex → xylem vessel → stem and leaves.

Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from a plant most of this loss takes place from the leaves through the
openings on the underside surface of the leaf called stomata.

Steps of transpiration:
1- water enters root hair cells by osmosis
2- water & mineral move up by xylem vessels to stem and leaves
3- water moves from xylem vessel to mesophyll cells by osmosis
4- water evaporates from the surface of mesophyll cell wall to air spaces
5- water vapour diffuse out through stomata

Water → Roots→ Xylem vessel→ stem & leaves → Mesophyll cells→ Air space→ Stomata

Mesophyll cells:
Mesophyll cells are the primary site of photosynthesis in plant leaves, some are found in spongy layer
These cells are covered with a thin film of moisture
Transpiration pull

The rate at which this water vapour diffuses out of the leaf is generally greater in leaves where there are many open
stomata

the pressure at the top of the xylem vessels is therefore less than the pressure at the bottom, in the roots
this pressure difference causes water to flow upwards, from higher pressure at the bottom to the lower
pressure at the top the pressure differences called transpiration pull, because it is caused by the loss of
water vapour by transpiration

Low pressure

High pressure
Translocation of sucrose and amino acids

What is translocation?
It’s a movement of sucrose and amino acids from leaves to other parts of plant such as the roots and flowers, through
the phloem tubes during photosynthesis.

Leaves make carbohydrates by photosynthesis.

They also use some of these carbohydrates to make amino acids, proteins, fats and oils and other organic substances
and especially sucrose and amino acids
Sources and sinks

•The source is the part of the plant where these substances are produced, mainly the leaves,
as they create sucrose & amino acids during photosynthesis.

•The sink is the part of the plant where these substances are transported to be stored or used, such
as roots, flowers, or developing fruits.
The source
When a plant is actively photosynthesising and growing, the leaves are generally the major sources
of translocated-material, they are constantly producing sucrose, which is carried in the phloem to all
other parts of the plant.

"Receiving parts - the sinks –

include the roots and flowers.
• The roots may change some of the sucrose to starch and store it.
• the flowers use the sucrose to make fructose (an especially sweet-lasting sugar found in nectar).
• Later, when the fruits are developing, sucrose maybe used to produce sweet, juicy fruits ready to
attract animals.
During harsh conditions, such as winter or extreme drought

a plant does not photosynthesize because it lacks the necessary resources like sunlight or water.
Instead, it relies on its stored reserves—starch, oils, and other materials—primarily found in its roots.

These stored materials are converted into sucrose and transported to different parts of the plant
through the phloem.

• Normally, the leaves act as the source of sucrose, supplying it to the rest of the plant.
• During difficult times, the roots become the new source
• The direction of movement in the phloem reverses—instead of transporting nutrients downward,
it now moves them upward to sustain the plant.
This reversal does not affect the xylem, which continues to transport water and minerals only
upwards. The reason for this is transpiration, which occurs at the leaf surface and creates a
pulling force that draws water up from the roots.