PLANT ORGANS

PLANT TISSUES
Meristematic tissue is made of cells that keep dividing to
produce new cells, helping plants grow. There are three types of
meristematic tissue. Apical meristems are found at the tips of
roots and shoots, and they make the plant grow longer. Lateral
meristems are found along the sides of stems and roots, and
they make the plant grow thicker or wider. They are found in
between xylem and phloem in the vascular bundles of stems.

Permanent tissues come from meristematic tissues after the

cells stop dividing and specialize for certain jobs. Parenchyma
cells are usually found all over the plant in leaves, stems, roots,
and fruits. They do storage, photosynthesis, and support. Their
cells are roughly round or oval, with thin walls, and have large
spaces between them called intercellular spaces. Inside, each
parenchyma cell has a large central vacuole and a thin
cytoplasm layer. Some parenchyma found in leaves, called
chlorenchyma, contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
Chlorenchyma cells have the same round or oval shape as
parenchyma and the same intercellular spaces but their special
feature is that they are filled with green chloroplasts.
Collenchyma cells are mainly found in stems and leaf stalks, just
under the epidermis. They provide flexible support to the plant.
Their cells are unevenly thickened at the corners, which gives
strength without stopping growth. Collenchyma cells are
elongated and tightly packed without intercellular spaces.
Inside, they have a small lumen (the inner cavity), and the thick
walls are made mainly of cellulose and pectin.

Sclerenchyma cells are found in stems, bark, seeds, and around

vascular tissues. They give the plant very strong support and
protection. Sclerenchyma cells are dead at maturity, and they
are long, narrow, and have thick, evenly thickened, and lignified
(hardened) cell walls. Their special feature is lignification, which
makes them very tough. Inside, they have a small lumen
surrounded by the thick wall, leaving little space inside.

The epidermis is found as the outermost layer of cells covering

leaves, stems, roots, and flowers. It protects the plant against
water loss, injury, and infection. Epidermal cells are usually
tightly packed and brick-shaped to form a continuous protective
layer. They have a thin cell wall and no intercellular spaces. A
special feature is that they can secrete a waxy cuticle on the
outside to prevent water loss. Inside, epidermal cells have a
large central vacuole and a thin layer of cytoplasm along the
edges.

Xylem is a vascular tissue that transports water and minerals

from the roots to the rest of the plant. Xylem tissue looks like
long, continuous tubes made up of different types of cells such
as vessels, tracheids, xylem parenchyma, and xylem fibers.
Xylem vessels are wide, hollow tubes without cross walls,
making them look like long, open pipes for water flow. Their
walls are thickened with lignin, which sometimes forms spiral or
ring patterns, giving strength and preventing collapse. Tracheids
are narrower than vessels and have tapered ends, with pits on
the side walls to allow water movement from cell to cell. Xylem
fibers provide extra support and are long and thick-walled,
while xylem parenchyma stores food.

Phloem is a vascular tissue that transports sugars and other

organic substances made during photosynthesis from leaves to
other parts of the plant. Phloem looks like a network of narrow
tubes made up of sieve tube elements, companion cells,
phloem fibers, and phloem parenchyma. Sieve tube elements
are long, cylindrical cells placed end-to-end with perforated
plates between them called sieve plates, allowing food to pass
through. Sieve tubes have no nucleus, so companion cells sit
next to them and control their activities. Phloem fibers are
strong and give mechanical support, while phloem parenchyma
helps store food. Phloem appears more delicate and softer than
xylem, without thick lignified walls.
Guard cells are found on the lower surface of leaves,
surrounding small pores called stomata. Their function is to
open and close the stomata to control the exchange of gases
and the loss of water through transpiration. Guard cells are
kidney-shaped in dicot plants and more dumbbell-shaped in
monocot plants. Their walls are unevenly thickened, with the
inner wall (near the stoma) being thicker and the outer wall
thinner. A special feature of guard cells is that they contain
chloroplasts, unlike most epidermal cells, allowing them to
produce energy for active transport. Inside, guard cells have a
central vacuole that fills with water to make the cell swell and
open the stomata, or lose water to shrink and close the
stomata.

Root hairs are found on the roots of a plant, specifically coming

off the epidermal cells in the root hair zone just behind the root
tip. Their function is to increase the surface area for absorbing
water and mineral salts from the soil. Root hair cells are long
and thin, shaped like tiny tubes or fingers extending from the
root. Their walls are thin to allow easy movement of water into
the cell. A special feature of root hairs is their large surface area
compared to volume, which makes absorption very efficient.
Inside, the root hair cell has a large central vacuole to store
absorbed water and minerals, and a thin layer of cytoplasm
lining the cell wall.
A leaf is an organ of a plant mainly responsible for
photosynthesis, gas exchange, and sometimes storage. A
dicotyledonous leaf, which comes from dicot plants, has a
broad and flat structure and shows clear divisions in its parts.

The external structure of a dicot leaf includes the lamina, the

petiole, and sometimes small structures like stipules. The
lamina is the wide, flat part of the leaf that captures sunlight for
photosynthesis. It is made up of several tissues: the epidermis
on the upper and lower surfaces, a layer of mesophyll cells
inside for photosynthesis and gas exchange, and veins made of
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) for transport. The veins
form a net-like pattern across the lamina, called reticulate
venation.

The petiole is the stalk that attaches the lamina to the stem. It
holds the leaf in a position to catch sunlight and can sometimes
help in moving the leaf to reduce water loss or overheating. At
the point where the petiole joins the stem, there is often a
small structure called the axillary bud. The axillary bud can grow
into a new branch or flower and is found between the stem and
the petiole, in the axil.

The dorsal side of the leaf is the upper side, which usually faces
the sun. It is generally darker green and thicker because it has
more chlorophyll and a stronger protective layer. The ventral
side is the lower side of the leaf, which is lighter in color and
often has more stomata for gas exchange.

There are clear differences between monocot and dicot leaves.

Monocot leaves, found in plants like maize or grass, are usually
long, narrow, and have parallel veins running from the base to
the tip. Their petiole is either very short or absent, and the leaf
blade wraps around the stem. Dicot leaves, found in plants like
beans or roses, are broader, have a clear petiole, and show a
net-like venation pattern with veins branching out from a main
midrib.
The internal structure of a dicotyledonous leaf is organized to
help the leaf perform photosynthesis, gas exchange, and water
control effectively. Two major types of cells in the leaf are
epidermal cells and mesophyll cells.

The epidermal cells form the upper and lower outermost layers
of the leaf. Their main function is to protect the inner tissues
from injury, drying out, and infection. They also help to control
water loss by secreting a waxy cuticle. The epidermal cells are
tightly packed and brick-shaped, forming a continuous layer
without gaps. They are usually transparent so that sunlight can
pass through to the photosynthetic cells underneath. On the
lower epidermis, some of the cells are modified into guard cells,
which control the opening and closing of the stomata.

The mesophyll cells are found between the upper and lower
epidermis and are the main site of photosynthesis. The
mesophyll is divided into two types: palisade mesophyll and
spongy mesophyll. Palisade mesophyll cells are located just
below the upper epidermis. They are tightly packed, long, and
column-shaped to absorb as much light as possible. These cells
contain many chloroplasts, making them very efficient at
photosynthesis. Spongy mesophyll cells are found below the
palisade layer. They are rounder and loosely arranged with large
air spaces between them. Their main function is gas exchange;
the air spaces allow carbon dioxide to move easily to the
photosynthesizing cells and oxygen to move out. Spongy
mesophyll cells also have fewer chloroplasts than palisade cells.
The vascular bundles in a dicotyledonous leaf are groups of
xylem and phloem tissues found inside the veins and midrib of
the leaf. Their main function is to transport substances around
the leaf and to support the leaf structure.

The xylem is the tissue that transports water and minerals from
the roots up to the leaves. In the vascular bundle, the xylem is
usually positioned on the upper side, closer to the upper
epidermis. The xylem vessels are thick-walled, hollow, and
strong to withstand the pressure of water moving upward and
to help support the leaf.

The phloem is the tissue that transports sugars and other

organic substances made during photosynthesis from the leaves
to the rest of the plant. In the vascular bundle, the phloem lies
below the xylem, closer to the lower epidermis. Phloem cells
are smaller and thinner-walled compared to xylem cells. They
include sieve tubes and companion cells that work together to
move food substances.

The vascular bundles are often surrounded by a layer of cells

called the bundle sheath. The bundle sheath cells protect the
vascular tissues and sometimes help regulate the movement of
substances into and out of the xylem and phloem. The
arrangement of vascular bundles also provides mechanical
strength to the leaf, helping it stay flat and firm to absorb
sunlight effectively.
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down
food molecules, like glucose, to release energy. This energy is
used by the plant for all its activities like growth, repair, and
transport of substances. Cellular respiration happens inside the
mitochondria of cells. In plants, the general word equation for
cellular respiration is:

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy

Plants make glucose during photosynthesis, and then during

respiration, they use that glucose to release energy. Even
though plants make oxygen during photosynthesis, they also
need oxygen for cellular respiration, especially at night when
photosynthesis stops.

Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from

the surface of a plant, mainly through small openings in the
leaves called stomata. When water evaporates from the leaf
surface, it pulls more water up through the plant from the
roots, like sucking water through a straw. Transpiration helps in
cooling the plant, moving minerals from the soil into the plant,
and maintaining the flow of water for photosynthesis and other
cell functions. Transpiration mainly happens through the
stomata but can also happen through the cuticle and lenticels
(small openings in stems).