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a) Chlorenchyma- Large parenchynma

Botany lecture cells with numerous chloroplasts
Chapter 5: Tissues and the Primary Growth
(leaves; some stems[photosynthetic
Evolution and Diversity of Plants
function])
Classification of Life
b) Storage Parenchyma- amyloplasts
Three Domains of Life:
(starch)
(LUCA)
c) Aerenchyma- air-spaced filled; allow gas
 Prokaryota
exchange between root and shoot;
 Archaea
usually in aquatic plants
 Eukaryota
d) Stellate parenchyma- internal
Plants and the Evolution of Life
circulation of air in plants (branched)
Endosymbiotic
2. Collenchyma- along sides of young
 Divergence of eukaryotes from
stems and in stalk or midrib of leaves;
prokaryotes
not as abundant as parenchyma and
 Mutualistic symbiosis of different
sclerenchyma in distribution within the
prokaryotes
plant
 Evolution and acquirement of
Function: Support, strength and
mitochondria and chloroplast
integrity for developing plant
Evolution of Plants
3. Sclerenchyma- thick cell walls; dies at
Chloroplasts: Photosynthetic organelle,
maturity; impregnated with lignin for
cyanobacterium-derived, Possess single
structural support
stranded circular DNA
Functions: Support; Transport
Characteristics of Plants: Photosynthetic
Types:
organisms, cell walls, sedentary, spores for
o Fibers- Long and narrow;
reproduction
mechanical support
Plants = Land Plants (Embryophytes): Does
o Sclereids/Stone Cells-
not include other eukaryotic photosynthetic
Isodiametric, may have
organism (algae) and fungi.
functions in support, deter
Includes the ff:
herbivory
1. Bryophytes- non-vascular plants
Plant Stem- together with the leaves = shoot
Liverworts (Hepatophyta), Mosses
system
(Bryophyta), Hornworts (Anthocerophyta)
o Supports the leaves, flowers and fruits
2. Ferns and Fern Allies- seedless vascular
o Conduction of water, minerals, and
plants
sugars.
Lycophytes (Lycophyta), Ferns (Pteridophyta)
External Morphology of Stems
3. Gymnosperm (naked seed; non-
o Node- site of leaf attachment
flowering plants)
o Internode- distance between node to
Cycads (cycadophyta), conifers
node
(coniferophyta), gingko (gingkophyta),
o Leaf Scar- A mark left by the leaf
welwitschia (gnetophyta)
after it falls off
4. Angiosperms-seeded flowering plants
o Lenticels- raise pores in woody plants
Basal angiosperms, eudicot, monocot
for gas exchange
Types of Plant Cells
o Buds (Terminal or Axillary)- undeveloped
1. Parenchyma- Most observed cell type;
embryonic shoot
thin cell walls and living protoplast
Phyllotaxy (Leaf Arrangement)
Characteristics: Elongate to isodiametric, live
o Alternate
at full maturity and mitotic
o Opposite
Functions: Respiration, Photosynthesis,
o Whorled
Transport, Storage, Regeneration/Wound
Modified Stems
healing.

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1. Stolon- horizontal plant stem, forms
new plants along its length (airplane
plant)
2. Corm- vertical thick stems with thin
papery leaves (gladioluses)
3. Bulb- condensed discoid stem with
fleshy scale leaves (onions, garlic)
Epidermis: Outermost layer
o Outermost surface of an herbaceous
stem
o Single living layer or parenchyma cells
o Function: Facilitates material xchange
between plant and the environment,
prevents loss of water, protects
internal tissues from mechanical
damage
1. Cuticle- waxy layer (cutin), retain
water, defense (spores and
herbivory)
2. Stomata- gas xchange,
comprised of guard cell and pore,
guard cells swell by absorbing
water, leading to the opening of
the pore, usually open during
daytime in most species
3. Trichomes- elongated-derivative
of epidermal cells, difficult for
animals to land on or feed on,
shade underlying tissues by
blocking sunlight, can be
secretory, producing substance
deterring herbivory.
Kinds of Trichomes
1. Simple
2. Branched
3. Glandular Scale
Cortex: interior of epidermis, homogenous-
looking cells, composed of photosynthetic
parenchyma and collenchyma, contains the
vascular bundles. Dicot- core of stem is pith
(ground tissue)
Vascular Bundles: (primary vascular tissues)
o Xylem- conducts water and minerals
o Phloem- conducts dissolved sugar
Covered by bundle sheathe composed of
sclerenchyma
Dicots- one ring
Monocots- scattered
Xylem: function in mineral and water
conduction (hollow).
Parenchyma cells dead at maturity, with
lignified secondary cell walls (impermeable to
water)
End-end, long tubes
Composed of
o Tracheary elements
 Tracheid- imperforate; most
gymnosperms
 Vessel- perforation plates; most
angiosperms
o Parenchyma
o Fibers
Phloem: sugar conduction; parenchyma cells
with primary cell walls only (alive at maturity)
Plasmodesmata (sieve pores): cell to cell
communication lined with callose
Cells are anucleated, activity is dependent on
closely associated cells.
Composed of:
o Sieve elements
 Sieve cells- only sieve areas, long
& narrow, all vascular plants
except angiosperms, albuminous
cells
 Sieve tube member- with sieve
plates, short and wide, unique to
angiosperms, companion cells
o Parenchyma
o Fibers
Secretory Tissues:
o Nectar in flower
o Oil in citrus
o Menthol in mint
Primary Growth: Vertical growth, elongation
of plant, elongation starts at apical
meristems (short or root), apical meristems
are actively dividing cells
o Leaf primordia- leaf in its initial growth
stage
o Apical Meristem- actively dividing for
plant elongation
o Subapical Meristem- produce cells in
region below. Visible differentiation of
specialized cells
o Protoderm/Epidermis- outermost layer
of shoot apical meristem
o Provascular tissues- darker, develops
into the xylem and phloem
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Rib Meristem: below the central zone, gives Leaves develop from primordia in terminal or
rise to the stem of the plant as the cell lateral buds.
divides and elongates. o Adaxial side: upper surface (ventral),
Intercalary Meristem: region of rapid cell captures sunlight
division at the base of nodes. (only found in o Abaxial side: lower surface (dorsal),
monocots); stems to elongate quickly and for studded with stomata
leaves to regrow quickly if damaged. o Petiolate Leaves: Having stalks
Layer Organization: attached to lamina, prevents shading of
1. Tunica- 1st & 2nd layer under the central other leaves, allows cooling of leaves
zone, perpendicular to the meristem o Sessile Leaves: leaf with no petiole,
surface blade directly attached to stem, helps
2. Corpus- 3rd layer under the central conserve water
zone, divides in all directions as it fills Basic Parts of Leaves:
the interior of the meristem o Leaf Sheathes: found on monocots,
Embryos Leaf Stem Roots Pollen leaf base wraps around the stem
Venation s s
Monocot 1 coty Parallel kalat Fibrous X3 o Abscission Zone: Found at the base of
Eudicot 2 coty Netlike ring taproot X4/x5 leaf and usually the petiole, it cells cut
Four Main types of Vascular Bundles off leaf when its useful life is finished
1. Collateral Bundles- Phloem is found on through enzymes, leaf scars are left,
the opposite side of the xylem. w/o abscission zones, leaves might tear
a) Close collateral bundle- w/o off irregularly, leaving it vulnerable to
cambium pathogen.
b) Open collateral bundle- w/ Leaf Venation: Parallel venation, reticulate
cambium venation
2. Bicollateral Bundles- contain one inner Types of Leaves: Simple, Compound: Pinnately
xylem and outer phloem. and Palmately
3. Cocentric bundles- one of the tissues Phyllotaxy (Leaf Arrangement): Alternate,
encircle the other opposite, whorled, alternate-distichous,
a) Amphivasal bundles- the xylem alternate-spiral, opposite decussate
encircles the phloem Internal Structures:
b) Amphicribral bundles- phloem o Cuticle: waxy covering of the leaf
encircles the xylem o Epidermis: covers the upper and lower
4. Radial Vascular Bundles- where the part of leaf, protects the inner
xylem and phloem aren’t separated by structure, contains the stomata and
a cambium. trichomes, transparent layer, where
Chapter 6: Leaves transpiration (loss of water) through
Leaves: comprises the shoot system together evaporation to the atmosphere
w/ the stem, main organ for photosynthesis o Mesophyll Layer: middle layer of the
and transpiration leaf; comprised of palisade and spongy
Function: concentrate solar energy for mesophyll
photosynthesis, collect carbion-dioxide, gas  Palisade Mesophyll- main
exchange in stomata, specialized functions for photosynthetic tissues of plants,
specialized species usually one layer thick
Basic Parts of Leaves: (somewhat organized), cells
Mature Leaves: slightly separated
o Blade- Lamina  Spongy Mesophyll- has lots of air
o Midrib- Midvein spaces, unorganized, sometimes
o Lateral veins lacking
o Petiole- Stalk o Veins- contains the vascular bundles
(xylem and phloem)

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Leaf Development:
o Initiated in the shoot apical meristem
as leaf primordia (buds)
o Cells are meristematic (actively
dividing), differentiation of cells into
different leaf parts depend on location,
o In dicots, buds are protected by
stipules
o In monocots, older leaf primordia
protect younger primordia.
Leaf Modification:
1. Reproductive Leaves: Seedlings can
develop on mature leaves (kataka-
taka)
2. Bracts- modified leaves that is usually
mistaken for petals by insects,
attracts pollinators (poinsettia,
bougainvillea)
3. Pitchers and Flytraps- carnivorous,
usually found in nutrient poor soils
(pictcher plants and venus fly trap)
4. Succulent Leaves- store large amounts
of water and other nutrients (aloe
vera)
5. Spines- lost its photosynthetic function
Chapter 7: Roots
Function:
o Solely comprises the root system of
the plant
o Main plant organ for anchorage and
absorption of nutrients
o Producing hormones in meristem areas
Other function:
o Storage of nutrients as carbohydrates
and/or lipids (fleshy taproots are main
site for carbohydrate storage)
o Production of secondary metabolites
(nicotine in marijuana)
Root System:
Most seed plants have:
Taproot: main axis/root that develops from
the radicle (embryonic root)
Lateral roots: secondary branches from
taproot and from other lateral roots
Types of Root Systems:
1. Taproot- primary root, large/ central
root from which lateral roots emerge.
 Secondary growth in dicots
(increase quality of healthy,
functional wood)
 Enlarged capacity permits
increased number of shoot and
root system
 Adapted for drought and
anchorage efficiency
(Tree taproot, beets, and carrots)
2. Lateral roots
 secondary roots that emerge
from taproot
 greatly increases surface
covered by the root
 can also be swollen or woody
(cassava)
3. Fibrous roots
 mass of numerous, similarly sized
roots
 radicle dies during or immediately
after germination
 first stage of the fibrous root
system arises from the root
primordia
 exhibited in most monocots
 no secondary growth; limited
conducting capacity
 lack of sugar to supple plant
system
 excellent for erosion control;
retains topsoil at heavy rains
 stolon and rhizomes (increase
ground area covered; allows
growth of new roots to supply
directly to new shoots
4. Adventitious roots
 Roots that do not arise from
preexisting roots
 Root primordia is initiated in
stem tissues
 Both dicots and monocots
 Asexual reproduction
Secondary Growth in Roots:
Many dicots undergo secondary growth:
increases the amount of wood in both the
trunks and roots; permits an increase in
number of leaves and roots
Most monocots cannot undergo secondary
growth: after stem is formed, conducting
capacity cannot be increased; formation of
more roots overcomes this limitation
Root Structure: root apical meristem gives
rise to diff. tissues
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o Protoderm- gives rise to epidermis
o Procambium- gives rise to vasculature
o Ground meristem- cortex, pith
Four distinct areas:
1. Root cap- protects the root apical
meristem; dictyosomes secrete mucigel
for lubrication
2. Meristematic area- region or rapidly
dividing cells
Quiescent center- central cells in cycle
arrest; reserve of healthy cells
3. Zone of elongation- elongated cells due
to internal pressure by vacuoles; nuclei
becomes less distinct; initiation of
different cells (protoderm, provascular
tissure, and ground tissue); tissues
capable of absorption; no cells are yet
to mature
4. Zone of maturation- enlarged and
specialized cells organized into the
vascular, dermal and ground tissues;
cortex cells transfer minerals from
epidermis to the vascular tissue;
primary absorption occurs via root
hairs
Parts:
 Epidermis- outermost layer; water
permeable
 Cortex- middle layer; contain starch
grains
 Pericycle- gives rise to lateral roots;
meristematic
 Stele- inner core of root
 Endodermis- once cell layer thick, has
**Casparian strips
 Pith- center of the root, made up of
parenchyma
**forces fluids from outside through the
membrane = selective absorption. Involved in
controlling minerals that enter the xylem
Lateral Roots: arises from the pericycle
(meristematic)
Root Modifications:
1. Storage Roots- stores water and
starch, found underground for
protection (carrots, turnips, beets)
2. Contractile roots- found in plants that
produce bulbs or corms (onions), pulls
the plant deeper in the ground, radially
expands.
3. Haustoria- attaches to other plants to
absorb water and nutrients (creeping
ivy, mistletoe) by heavily penetrating
the vasculature of plants (xylem)
4. Prop roots- adventitious roots that
grow extensively through the air;
allowing additional nutrient and water
uptake and stabilization
5. Aerial Roots- orchids have specialized
epidermis called velamen that prevent
water loss when air is dry.
Mycorrhizae
Symbiotic relationship between soil fungi and
plant roots
 Fungi gain carbohydrates from roots
 Fungal hyphae added in phosphorous
uptake
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (V.A.M.)
 Association between a zygomycete
(bread mold) and a plant
 Endomycorrhizal association, fungi
penetrates root cortex and cell wall
but never plasma membrane
Ectomycorrhizae
 Association between an ascomycete or
basidiomycete and a conifer or
angiosperm (usually larger trees)
 Fungi penetrates outermost root
Root Nodules and Nitrogen Fixation
 Relationship with Rhizobium bacteria
 Fix atmospheric nitrogen, N2 into usable
forms for growth of plant:
Infection thread; root nodules
Chapter 8: Structure of Woody Plants
Secondary plant body:
- Secondary xylem (Wood)
- Secondary phloem and cork (Bark)
*All woody trees and shrubs descende from
one group of ancestral woody plants that
arose~ 370 million years ago
True secondary growth occurs only in:
 Many eudicots
 Most basal angiosperms
 All gymnosperms
 Not in ferns or monocots
Vascular Cambium
Initiation of the Vascular Cambium
 Layers of cells between the metaxylem
and metaphloem of a vascular bundle
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 Herbs: cells stop dividing gets
differentiated
 Woody plants: continuously
Interfascicular cambium
 Mature parenchyma cells between the v
bundles in cell cycle arrest but resumes
mitosis
 Continued dividsion creates the
complete cylinder
 Extension happens every year
 Rarely found in the leaves; never in
reproductive parts
Two cell types
1. Fusiform Initials
 Long, tapered cells
 Divides longitudinally to produce 2
elongate cells
 Secondary xylem cells increase
greatly in diameter causing the
cambial cells to be pushed
outward.
 Occasional longitudinal division by
anticlinal walls (perpendicular to
cambium’s surface)
 Prevents cambial cells from
being stretched too wide thus
lessening its function
2. Ray Initials
 Short and cuboidal cells
 Forms xylem and phloem
parenchyma that function:
- In storage
- As albuminous cells
(gymnosperms)
Arrangement of Cambial Cells:
Ray initials are grouped together in short
vertical rows:
 Only one cell wide (uniseriate)
 2 cells wide (biseriate)
 Many cells wide (multiseriate)
Fusiform initials may occur:
 In regular horizontal rows (storied
cambium)
 Irregularly, without any horizontal
pattern (nonstoried cambium)
Secondary Xylem
Types of wood cells
 All cells interior to vascular cambium
 Difference from primary xylem: cell
origin and arrangement
 Axial system- fusiform initials
 Radial system- ray initials
Axial system:
 Contains tracheary elements = vertical
conduction of water through wood
 In wood angiosperms contains fibers
- Hardwood
- Softwood
 Axial xylem parenchyma = temporary
water reservoir
 Most gymnosperms only tracheids
Radial system:
 In woody angiosperms = only
parenchyma
- Uniseriate, biseriate or
multiseriate
 Ray parenchyma cells
- Store carbs and other
nutrients
- Conduct material over
short distances radially
 Xylem rays in gymnosperms almost
exclusively uniseriate
- Multiseriate only if with resin
canal
- May have ray tracheids
Growth Rings
 Appear due to the differential growth
of early (spring) wood versus late
(summer) wood
- Spring wood – high proportion of
wide vessels or tracheids
- Summer wood- fewer vessels or
narrower, thick-walled tracheids
 No growth in winter
 Wood with vessels found mostly in early
wood is called ring porous
 Wood with vessels found throughout is
diffuse porous
Hearwood and Sapwood
 Heartwood = central, almost always
darker, drier, and more fragrant;
trachaery elements (water elements)
no longer functions; sealed off to
prevent disease
 Sapwood = outerwood, lighter cells alive
 Tylosis = plug; formed when wood
parenchyma cells produce compounds
that inhibit growth of bacteria and
fungi; relatively dark and aromatic
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 Reaction word- response to lateral
stress
Tension in angiosperms
 Gelatinous fibers enriched with cellulose
Compression wood in gymnosperms
 Enriched with lignin on the underside of
the branch
 Axial system- responsible for
conduction up and down stem or root
- Angiosperm: sieve tube
members and companion cells
- Gymnosperms: sieve cells
- Both: fibers and non-conducting
parenchyma
 Phloem rays = consist of parenchyma
storage cells (albuminous cells in
gymnos)
 Sieve tuber member and sieve cells
usually conduct for less than 1 year
(inner most phloem: conduction)
Outer Bark
Cork and the cork cambium
 Phellogen (cork cambium)
Arises as:
- Circumferential stretching
increases
- Older sieve elements die
- Some storage parenchyma cells
undergo cell division
 After every division:
- 1 remains cork cambium
- Outer cell becomes cork
(phellem: dead&suberized) cell
Some species:
- Phelloderm
- Cork cells + phelloderm =
periderm
Lenticels and Oxygen diffusion
Impermeability of cork:
 Conserves water
 Increases pathogen/pest resistance
 Blocks the absorption of oxygen
Initiation of cork cambium
 Initiated depending on the need of the
plant species
 May arise in:
- Epidermis
- Cortex
- Primary phloem
- Secondary phloem
Secondary Growth in Roots
- Bark formation
- 1st cork cambium from pericycle:
endodermis, cortex and epidermis
are shed off.
Anomalous secondary growth = different
secondary bodies
Roots of sweet potatoes
 Storage parenchyma is increase as
cambia are produced around group of
vessels
 Rapid growth = need for more than 1
cambium
Anomalous 2ndary growth: included phloem
 Type of secondary phloem located
between 2 bands of xylem
- Cambium cells stop dividing and
differentiaties into xylem
 Selective advantage: protection of
phloem from damage
Anomalous 2ndary growth: unusual activity of
the vascular cambium
 Stem grows outward in 2 directions
 2 sectors very active, 2 most
completely inactive
 Selective disadvantage: flexibility
(ribbon-like form)
Anomalous 2ndary growth: 2ndary growth in
monocots
 Type of vascular cambium arises
outside the outermost vascular
bundles in the cortex
 Parenchymatous
Unusual primary growth
 “woody” appearance
- Vascular bundles enclosed in
sheath of fibers
- Adventitious roots add vascular
bundles to the plant body
- Establishment growth