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COMPUTER NETWORKS:
Understanding Fundamentals
1. Define basic networking concepts: Understand terms like network, node,
topology, and protocol.
2. Identify types of networks: Familiarize yourself with LAN, WAN, MAN,
PAN and WLAN.
Network Topologies and Architectures
1. Describe network topologies: Understand bus, star, ring, and mesh
topologies.
2. Explain network architecture: Learn about client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture.
Network Devices and Components
1. Identify network devices: Understand the roles of routers, switches, hubs, and
bridges.
2. Explain network interface cards (NICs): Learn about NICs and their
functions.
Network Protocols and Standards
1. Understand TCP/IP model: Familiarize yourself with the TCP/IP protocol
suite.
2. Explain common network protocols: Learn about HTTP, FTP, and DNS.
Network Security and Safety
1. Understand network security threats: Learn about common threats like
malware, viruses, and hacking.
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2. Explain network security measures: Understand firewalls, encryption, and
access control.
Practical Skills
1. Configure basic network settings: Learn to configure IP addresses, subnet
masks, and default gateways.
2. Troubleshoot basic network issues: Understand how to identify and resolve
common network problems.
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1. Define basic networking concepts: Understand terms like network,
node, topology, and protocol.
NETWORK
In computer networking, a network is a collection of interconnected devices
(such as computers, servers, printers, and routers) that are connected with each
other to share resources, exchange data, and provide services.
Key Characteristics of a Network
1. Interconnected Devices: Devices are connected using physical(guided) or
wireless(unguided) links.
2. Communication: Devices can exchange data and messages.
3. Resource Sharing: Devices can share resources, such as files, printers, and
internet connections.
Importance of Networks
1. Communication: Networks enable devices to communicate and exchange
data.
2. Resource Sharing: Networks allow devices to share resources, reducing
costs and increasing efficiency.
3. Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaboration and teamwork.
#Networks play a vital role in modern computing, enabling devices to
communicate, share resources, and provide services.
Nodes
In computer networking, a node refers to any device that is connected to a
network and can communicate with other devices.
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Types of Nodes
1. Computers: Desktops, laptops, and servers can all be nodes on a network.
2. Network Devices: Routers, switches, hubs, and bridges are all types of nodes
that help manage and direct network traffic.
3. Peripherals: Printers, scanners, and other devices can be nodes on a network
if they are connected and can communicate with other devices.
4. Mobile Devices: Smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices can be
nodes on a network if they have network connectivity.
Characteristics of Nodes
1. Unique Address: Each node on a network has a unique address, such as an
IP address, that allows it to be identified and communicated with.
2. Data Transmission: Nodes can send and receive data to and from other
nodes on the network.
3. Network Participation: Nodes can participate in network activities, such as
file sharing, communication, and data exchange.
NB\*Nodes are the building blocks of a network, and understanding how they
work is essential for designing, implementing, and managing computer
networks.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
In computer networking, a topology refers to the physical or logical
arrangement of devices (nodes) and connections (links) within a network. It
describes how devices are connected and how data is transmitted between them.
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It defines how we arrange computers in a network.
Types of Topologies
1. Physical Topology: Refers to the physical layout of devices and cables.
2. Logical Topology: Refers to the way data is transmitted and routed through
the network.
Importance of Topology
1. Network Performance: Topology affects network speed, reliability, and
scalability.
2. Network Design: Topology influences network design, including device
placement and cable arrangement.
3. Troubleshooting: Understanding topology helps with identifying and
resolving network issues.
NB*/Topology plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency, reliability, and
scalability of a network.
NETWORKING PROTOCOL
In computer networking, a network protocol is a set of rules, conventions, and
standards that govern how devices communicate and exchange data over a
network. Protocols ensure that devices can understand each other's messages
and communicate effectively.
Key Characteristics of Network Protocols
1. Standardization: Protocols follow standardized rules and formats.
2. Communication: Protocols enable devices to exchange data and messages.
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3. Error Handling: Protocols often include mechanisms for error detection and
correction.
Examples of Network Protocols
1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A suite of
protocols used for communication over the internet.
2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages and
data over the internet.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between devices over
a network.
4. DNS (Domain Name System): Used for translating domain names to IP
addresses.[DNS query, DNS resolution, IP address, Connection]
Importance of Network Protocols
1. Interoperability: Protocols enable devices from different manufacturers to
communicate.
2. Reliability: Protocols ensure that data is transmitted accurately and
efficiently.
3. Scalability: Protocols allow networks to grow and adapt to changing needs.
NB/*Network protocols play a vital role in enabling devices to communicate
and exchange data over networks, including the internet.
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2. Identify types of networks: Familiarize yourself with LAN, WAN, MAN, and
WLAN.
Types of Networks
1.Local Area Network (LAN)
2.Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3.Wide Area Network (WAN) }all are diff by range
4.Personal Area Network (PAN)
5.Campus Area Network (CAN)
1.Local Area Network (LAN):
-A network that spans a small geographic area, such as a home, office, or
campus.
-Computers will be connected in a limited range.
-meant to share resources eg. printer, software application, data, server etc.
-it has high security due to the limited number of devices connected.
-less costly to install and maintain due to limited nodes.
-however; there’s lack of privacy and security as data is accessed by all users of
LAN.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
- A network that spans a metropolitan area, such as a city or town.
-it is a connection of different LANS.eg a bank connecting all branches in a city.
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-meant to share data, server etc
-multiple LANS can relate to the help of cables, fiber optic.
-however, it is less secure as multiple users can access the data. It is also more
costly as more cables are required to install and maintain.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
-A network that spans a larger geographic area, such as a city or country.
-connect computers across the whole world.
-it is a collection of MANS.
-transmission media will be satellite/telephone cables
-meant to share data
-Data is shared with the help of routers
-an example is the INTERNET (www)
-these types of networks are less secure without firewalls& are more costly to
maintain.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
-collection of nearby devices connected together in a very small area (around an
individual) e.g connecting a phone to a laptop, via Bluetooth, earphones ,or to
share data/network resource.
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Network Topologies and Architectures
1. Describe network topologies: Understand bus, star, ring, and mesh
topologies.
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices in a
network. It is the arrangement of computers in a network-defines how we
arrange computers.
Types of Network Topologies
1. Bus Topology:
Diagram of a bus topology:
All devices are connected to a single/main cable called the bus.
Communication with all other devices/nodes will be done through the bus.
When a message is sent to any node, it will go to the bus and be transmitted to
all nodes connected to the bus, but only the intended destination node will
accept and respond to the message.
Advantages of bus topology
-One cable is used hence less expensive/costly.
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-Installation and maintenance are very easy.
-Easy to reconfigure.
Disadvantages of bus topology
-If the main cable fails, the complete network will fail.
-no security-as every node will receive the message
-if there are more computers, signal strengths will be reduced.
-collision-assuming two devices are sending data at the same time; chances of
collision will be very high.
2. Star Topology:
Diagram of a Star topology
All devices are connected to a central device (hub or switch). If the central
device is a hub, messages transmitted will be broadcasted to all other nodes
connected to a network. However, the intended destination address will respond
to the message sent. If the central device is a switch, message sent will be routed
only to the intended destination address i.e. transmission will be unicast.
Advantages of a Star Topology
-multiple communication is possible.
-if using a switch, communication is secure
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-less expensive to install and maintain.
Disadvantages of a Star topology
-if centralized device fails, the whole network fails.
-if centralized device is a hub; there’s less security.
2. Ring Topology:
Diagram of a Ring topology
Devices are connected in a circular configuration. Each node is connected to
its adjacent node forming a closed loop. Data will be transmitted in
unidirectional i.e. in a circular fashion.
Advantages of a ring topology
-fault tolerance-easy to identify faults.
-no collision since data will be travelling in the same direction.
Disadvantages
-it’s expensive since more cables are needed.
-difficult to reconfigure.
-if any node fails, transmission will also fail.
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-less security since data will be transmitted to all other nodes.
3. Mesh Topology:
Diagram of a Mesh Topology
Each device is connected to every other device. If n-nodes, links to each node
will be n-1: total links n(n-1)/2 ie if bi-directional. For uni-directional total
links will be n(n-1).
Advantages of Mesh topology
-more robust i.e. failure of one link will not affect communication
Disadvantages of mesh topology:
-expensive as more cables are needed.
-difficult to reconfigure
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4. Hybrid Topology:
5. Diagram of a hybrid topology:
Combination of two or more topologies. A bus topology, star topology
and ring topology can be combined to form a hybrid topology.
Such a topology is very expensive and difficult to reconfigure, but they
are robust.
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2. Explain network architecture: Learn about client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture.
1.Client-Server architecture
Diagram of a client-server architecture:
- Central server manages resources.
-clients communicate through the server, share files and applications through
the server.
-backup can be done centrally through the server.
-applications and files can be controlled centrally on the server
-security is easy to do centrally.
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2.Peer-to-Peer:
Diagram of peer-to-peer architecture.
- Devices act as both clients and servers.
-security varies from device to device
-no central control of resources/data/files
Importance of understanding network topology:
1. Scalability: Topology affects network growth.
2. Reliability: Topology impacts fault tolerance.
3. Performance: Topology influences data transfer speed.
4. Security: Topology can affect vulnerability to attacks.
5. Cost: Topology impacts installation and maintenance costs.
NB/ *Understanding network topology helps design efficient, scalable, and
reliable networks.
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Network Devices and Components
1.Identify network devices:
Understand the roles of routers, switches, hubs, and bridges.
Networking devices are hardware components that enable communication
between devices on a network. Some common examples include:
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1. Router:
Diagram of a router:
Routers are used in both WAN and LAN environments.
LAN Routers
*Local Network connectivity-connects devices within a local network e.g
home, offices.
*Device Interconnectivity-They enable devices on the same network to
communicate with each other.
*Network segmentation-LAN router can segment a network into smaller
subnetworks, improving security and performance.
WAN Routers:
*Wide Area Network Connectivity- WAN routers connect multiple LANs or
sites over a large geographic area.
*Internet Connectivity-They often provide internet connectivity to the LANs
they serve.
*Secure VPN connections-WAN routers can establish secure VPN connections
between sites.
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General functions of Routers
Packet forwarding-routers forward packets of data between networks, ensuring
data reaches its destination.
Network connectivity-Routers connect multiple networks together, enabling
communication between them.
Routing-Routers determine the best path for data to travel between networks
(dynamic routing).
Network security-Routers can provide network security features such as
firewalls, to protect against unauthorized access and malicious activity.
-Done at Network layer.
Benefits of using routers.
*Improved network performance: routers improve network performance by
forwarding packets to respective destinations.
*Enhanced network security: by providing features such as firewalls.
*Increased flexibility: enable communication between devices on different
networks, making it possible to connect multiple networks together.
2. Switch:
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*Perform error checking on packets send & routes data packets.
*Connect devices within a network and forwards data
*Packet switching forwards packets of data between devices on the network
*Packets with errors will not be sent.
*Filtering and forwarding filtering incoming packets based on their destination
MAC address and forwarding them to intended destination.
-collision domain reduction
-network segmentation
3.Hub:
-Send data packets to all connected devices.
-Connects devices, but doesn't manage traffic
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4.Bridge
-Used to interconnect two different LANS working on the same protocol
-Done at Data link layer.
5.Repeater:
-Regenerate the signal to maintain signal strength (weak/corrupted).
-Done at physical layer.
6.Gateway: Responsible for passing data to the network of different networking
models/protocols
-Often referred to as Protocol converters.
7. Modem: Connect to the internet via ISP
8. Firewall: Secures network by controlling incoming/outgoing traffic
9. Wireless Access Point (WAP): provides wireless connectivity
10. Network Interface Card (NIC): connects devices to a network
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#*These devices help establish, manage, and secure computer networks.
2. Explain network interface cards (NICs): Learn about NICs and their
functions:
A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that connects a
computer to a network. Its primary function is to transmit and receive
data over a network.
Key Functions of a NIC
1. Data Transmission: NICs transmit data from the computer to the
network.
2. Data Reception: NICs receive data from the network and pass it to the
computer.
3. Network Connectivity: NICs provide a physical or wireless
connection to the network.
4. MAC Address: NICs have a unique MAC (Media Access Control)
address that identifies the device on the network.
Types of NICs
1. Wired NICs: Use Ethernet cables to connect to the network.
2. Wireless NICs: Use wireless technologies (such as Wi-Fi) to connect
to the network.
3. Fiber Optic NICs: Use fiber optic cables to connect to the network.
Importance of NICs
1. Network Connectivity: NICs enable devices to connect to networks.
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2. Data Communication: NICs facilitate data transmission and reception
over the network.
3. Device Identification: NICs provide a unique identifier (MAC
address) for the device on the network.
NICs play a crucial role in enabling devices to connect to networks and
communicate with other devices.
Network Protocols and Standards
1.Understand TCP/IP model: Familiarize yourself with the TCP/IP protocol
suite.
Network protocols are a set of rules and standards that govern data
communication over a network. They ensure that devices on a network can
communicate with each other efficiently and accurately.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
-A connection-oriented protocol that guarantees reliable data transfer between
devices.
-Ensure sender and receiver are connected first before transmitting, this
guarantees delivery of data packets.
-Error detection and correction: detect corrupted or lost data packets and
retransmit them.
-Ensure reliable transmission of data packets.
-Mostly used where data delivery and reliability is to be guaranteed e.g sending
an email, browsing over the internet, making a telephone call etc.
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-Packets are sent and received in their correct order.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
A connectionless protocol that prioritizes speed over reliability.
-Does not guarantee delivery of data packets,
-Do not provide mechanisms of error detection and correction hence some
packets may be lost/corrupted.
-No sequencing data packets are sent; thus, packets may be received in a
haphazard manner.
-Mainly used in livestreaming,
3. IP (Internet Protocol): A protocol that provides logical addressing and
routing for data packets.
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2. Explain common network protocols: Learn about HTTP, FTP, and DNS.
Application Layer Protocols
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for transferring data
over the web.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for transferring files over a
network.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for sending and
receiving email.
4. DNS (Domain Name System): A protocol that translates domain names into
IP addresses.
Internet Layer Protocols
1. IP: Provides logical addressing and routing for data packets.
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): A protocol used for error-
reporting and diagnostic functions.
Network Access Layer Protocols
1. Ethernet: A protocol that defines how data is transmitted over a local area
network (LAN).
2. Wi-Fi: A protocol that defines how data is transmitted over a wireless
network.
Other Protocols
1. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A protocol that assigns IP
addresses and other network settings to devices on a network.
2. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): A protocol used for
managing and monitoring network devices.
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Network protocols play a crucial role in enabling devices to communicate with
each other and exchange data efficiently and accurately.
Network Security and Safety
1. Understand network security threats: Learn about common threats like
malware, viruses, and hacking.
Network Security Threats
1. Malware: Software that harms or exploits a network, such as viruses,
worms, and trojans.
Virus
Worms
Trojan horse
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2. Phishing: Attacks that trick users into revealing sensitive information,
such as passwords or credit card numbers.
3. DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service): Attacks that overwhelm a
network with traffic, making it unavailable to users.
4. Unauthorized Access: Attacks that gain access to a network without
permission, often through stolen credentials or exploits.
5. Data Breaches: Incidents that compromise sensitive data, such as
financial information or personal identifiable information.
2. Explain network security measures: Understand firewalls, encryption,
and access control.
Network Security Measures
1. Firewalls: Network devices that control incoming and outgoing traffic based
on predetermined security rules.
2. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS): Systems that detect
and prevent intrusion attempts.
3. Encryption: Techniques that protect data in transit or at rest by converting it
into an unreadable format.
4. Access Control: Measures that restrict access to network resources based on
user identity, role, or privileges (passwords, authentication, authorization).
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5. Antivirus Software: Software that detects and removes malware from a
network.
6. Regular Updates and Patching: Keeping software and systems up to date
with the latest security patches.
7. Network Segmentation: Dividing a network into smaller segments to limit
the spread of malware and unauthorized access.
8. Security Awareness Training: Educating users about network security best
practices and threats.
Importance of Network Security
1. Protect Sensitive Data: Network security measures protect sensitive data
from unauthorized access.
2. Prevent Financial Loss: Network security measures prevent financial loss
due to cyber-attacks.
3. Maintain Business Continuity: Network security measures ensure business
continuity by preventing network downtime.
4. Protect Reputation: Network security measures protect an organization's
reputation by preventing security incidents.
Network security is crucial for protecting sensitive data, preventing financial
loss, and maintaining business continuity.
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1. OSI Model: A 7-layered model that describes how data is transmitted over a
network
2. TCP/IP Model: A 4-layered model that describes how data is transmitted over
the internet
3. Network Protocols: Protocols that govern data communication, such as TCP,
UDP, HTTP, FTP
Questions and Answers:
1. Q: What is the difference between TCP and UDP?
A: TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that guarantees reliable data transfer,
while UDP is a connectionless protocol that prioritizes speed over reliability.
2. Q: What is the purpose of the OSI model?
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A: The OSI model provides a standardized framework for understanding how
data is transmitted over a network, allowing different systems to communicate
with each other.
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1. LAN, WAN, MAN: Different types of networks, including local area
networks, wide area networks, and metropolitan area networks
2. Network Topologies: Different network topologies, including bus, star, ring,
and mesh
3. Network Devices: Devices that connect and manage networks, including
routers, switches, and firewalls
Questions and Answers:
1. Q: What is the difference between a LAN and a WAN?
A: A LAN is a local area network that spans a small geographic area, while a
WAN is a wide area network that spans a larger geographic area.
2. Q: What is the purpose of a router?
A: A router connects multiple networks together and routes traffic between
them, allowing devices on different networks to communicate with each other.
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Network Security
Notes:
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1. Security Threats: Types of security threats, including malware, phishing,
and denial-of-service attacks
2. Security Measures: Measures to protect networks, including firewalls,
intrusion detection systems, and encryption
3. Secure Communication: Methods for secure communication, including
SSL/TLS and VPNs
Questions and Answers:
1. Q: What is a denial-of-service attack?
A: A denial-of-service attack is a type of attack that overwhelms a network or
system with traffic, making it unavailable to users.
2. Q: What is the purpose of a firewall?
A: A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic, blocking unauthorized access to a network.
Advanced Networking Topics
Notes:
1. Software-Defined Networking: A approach to networking that allows for
programmable networks
2. Network Function Virtualization: A approach to networking that allows for
virtualized network functions
3. Internet of Things: The network of physical devices, vehicles, and other items
that are embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity
Questions and Answers:
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1. Q: What is software-defined networking?
A: Software-defined networking is an approach to networking that allows for
programmable networks, enabling administrators to manage and configure
networks dynamically.
2. Q: What is the Internet of Things?
A: The Internet of Things is the network of physical devices, vehicles, and other
items that are embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity, allowing them
to collect and exchange data.
