Universit at Duisburg-Essen

Lehrstuhl f ur Mechanik und Robotik

MECHANICS III
Lecture Notes
Prof. Dr. Wojciech Kowalczyk
Prof. Dr. Andr es Kecskem ethy
2011
c Lehrstuhl f ur Mechanik und Robotik
Table of Contents
0 Review of Vector Notation 1
1 Basic Elastostatics 9
1.1 The Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 The Planar Stress Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 The Planar Deformation State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4 Basic Strain-Stress Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.1 Uniaxial Stress Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4.2 Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.3 POISSONs Coefcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.4 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.5 Beam Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2 Vibrations 41
2.1 Structure of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Free, Undamped Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Free (Weakly) Damped Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 Strongly Damped Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Forced Vibrations (Weakly Damped Case) . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
0 Review of Vector Notation
Recapitulation and Application of Matrix Notation.
Vector:
Physical quantity a described by
a) Magnitude a (scalar + physical unit)
e.g.[a] = 100
km
h
or 20N
b) Direction e
a
(unit vector)
: elevation
: azimuth
a

z
x
y
Description of vectors by

Cartesian Coordinates:
K
1
K
2
b
b
b
x
1
y
1
z
1
x
2
y
2
z
2
1
b
x
1
b
y
1
b
z
1
e
x
1
e
y
1
e
z
2
b
x
2
b
y
2
b
z
2
e
x
2
e
y
2
e
z
same physical vector b decomposed in two different coordinate frames
1
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
b
..
physical
vector
=
1
b
x
1
e
x
+
1
b
y
1
e
y
+
1
b
z
1
e
z
. .
sum of coordinates times
unit direction vectors
along axis
=
..
same
physical
vector
2
b
x
2
e
x
+
2
b
y
2
e
y
+
2
b
z
2
e
z
()
2 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
Relationship between
1
b =
_

_
1
b
x
1
b
y
1
b
z
_

_
. .
cartesian coordinates of b in
coordinate frame K
1
and
2
b =
_

_
2
b
x
2
b
y
2
b
z
_

_
. .
cartesian coordinates of b in
coordinate frame K
2
Multiply () by e
x
:
1
b
x
(
1
e
x
1
e
x
)
. .
=1
+
1
b
y
(
1
e
y
1
e
x
)
. .
=0
+
1
b
z
(
1
e
z
1
e
x
)
. .
=0
=
2
b
x
(
2
e
x
1
e
x
)+
2
b
y
(
2
e
y
1
e
x
)+
2
b
z
(
2
e
z
1
e
x
)
coefcients relative orientation of frame K
2
w.r.t. K
1

1
b
x
..
= (
..
2
e
x
1
e
x
)
2
b
x
..
+ (
..
2
e
y
1
e
x
)
2
b
y
..
+ (
..
2
e
z
1
e
x
)
2
b
z
..
coordinate in frame K
1
linear combination of coordinates in frame K
2
multiplying () analogously by
1
e
y
and
1
e
z
yields:
1
b
y
= (
2
e
x
1
e
y
)
2
b
x
+ (
2
e
y
1
e
y
)
2
b
y
+ (
2
e
z
1
e
y
)
2
b
z
1
b
z
= (
2
e
x
1
e
z
)
2
b
x
+ (
2
e
y
1
e
z
)
2
b
y
+ (
2
e
z
1
e
z
)
2
b
z
in matrix form
_

_
1
b
x
1
b
y
1
b
z
_

_
. .
1
b
=
_

_
(
2
e
x
1
e
x
) (
2
e
y
1
e
x
) (
2
e
z
1
e
x
)
(
2
e
x
1
e
y
) (
2
e
y
1
e
y
) (
2
e
z
1
e
y
)
(
2
e
x
1
e
z
) (
2
e
y
1
e
z
) (
2
e
z
1
e
z
)
_

_
. .
1
R
2
_

_
2
b
x
2
b
y
2
b
z
_

_
. .
2
b
1
b =
1
R
2
2
b
Transformation of
coordinates from
K
2
to K
1
1
R
2
. . .
transformation matrix
or direction-cosine matrix
or Rotation Matrix

a
b
ab = ab cos
Chair of Mechanics 3
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
e.g. elementary rotations
- Rot[ z, ]

x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
1
e
x
1
e
y
2
e
x
2
e
y
2
e
x
1
e
x
= cos
2
e
z
1
e
x
=
2
e
z
1
e
y
= 0
2
e
y
1
e
x
= sin
2
e
x
1
e
z
=
2
e
y
1
e
z
= 0
2
e
x
1
e
y
= sin
2
e
y
1
e
y
= cos
2
e
z
1
e
z
= 1
Rot[ z, ] =
_

_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_

_
- Rot[ x, ]

y
1
z
1
y
2
z
2
1
e
y
1
e
z
2
e
y
2
e
z Rot[ x, ] =
_

_
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
_

_
- Rot[ y, ]

x
1
z
1
x
2
z
2
1
e
x
1
e
z
2
e
x
2
e
z
Rot[ y, ] =
_

_
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
_

_
4 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
Transformation matrix for vector coordinates
2
nd
column of
1
R
2
: coord of rotated y
2
-axis in
unrotated coord frame K
1

to
..
1
R
2
..

from
=
_

_
2
e
x
1
e
x
..
2
e
y
1
e
x
2
e
z
1
e
x
2
e
x
1
e
y
2
e
y
1
e
y
2
e
z
1
e
y
2
e
x
1
e
z
. .
2
e
y
1
e
z
2
e
z
1
e
z
. .
_

_
1
st
column of
1
R
2
:
coord of rotated
x
2
-axis in unrotated
coord frame K
1
( exactly: its unit
direction vector )
3
rd
column of
1
R
2
:
coord of rotated
z
2
-axis in unrotated
coord frame K
1
Beispiel:
y
1
= z
2
y
2
x
2
z
1
x
1

a) Rotation (Transformation) matrix from K

2
and K
1
1
R
2
=
_

_
sin cos 0
0 0 1
cos sin 0
_

_
view in direction of y
1
-axis
y
1
= z
2
y
2
x
2
z
1
x
1

sin
cos 2
e
x
2
e
y
b) Rotation (transformation) matrix from K
1
to K
2
.
2
R
1
=
_

_
2
e
x
1
e
x
2
e
x
1
e
y
2
e
x
1
e
z
2
e
y
1
e
x
2
e
y
1
e
y
2
e
y
1
e
z
2
e
z
1
e
x
2
e
z
1
e
y
2
e
z
1
e
z
_

_
Transformation matrix
2
R
1
;
same as
1
R
2
with switched
indices 1 2
Chair of Mechanics 5
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
- Note for any vector b. . .
_

_
1
b
x
1
b
y
1
b
z
_

_
=
_

_
1
e
x
b
1
e
y
b
1
e
z
b
_

_
_

_
coord. of vector b in coord. system K
1
scalar product b = |e
x
|
..
=1
|b|cos

x
b
b
x
e
x
By inspection:
Rows of
2
R
1
are the same as columns of
1
R
2
.
Thus, the inverse
2
R
1
of a transformation matrix
1
R
2
is just the transpose
(
1
R
2
)
inverse of ...
..
1
(=
2
R
1
) = (
1
R
2
)
transpose of ...
..
T
orthogonality condition of a
transformation matrix: any
transformation matrix is an

orthogonal matrix
Orthogonal Matrices:
Let A be an orthogonal matrix
1.) Inverse A
1
AA
1
= A
1
A = I
..
identity matrix
I
A
A
1
2.) Transpose A
T
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_

_
A
T
=
_

_
a
11
a
21
a
31
a
12
a
22
a
32
a
13
a
23
a
33
_

_
Transposed: reection of elements on the diagonal or interchange of co-
lumns and rows
3.) For orthogonal matrices
A
1
= A
T
thus
AA
1
= A
T
A = I orthogonality condition of A
6 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
(analogously: e
T
e = 1 . . . unit vector )
In summary: all transformation matrices are orthogonal and
vice versa (any orthogonal 3 3 matrix is a rotation)
Beispiel:
2
R
1
=
_

_
sin 0 cos
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
_

_
check orthogonality (for double-check of result)
_

_
sin cos 0
0 0 1
cos sin 0
_

_
. .
1
R
2
_

_
sin 0 cos
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
_

_
. .
2
R
1
=
_

_
=1
..
sin
2
+ cos
2
0
=0
..
sin cos cos sin
0 1 0
cos sin sin cos
. .
=0
0 cos
2
+ sin
2

. .
=1
_

_
=
_

_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_

_
transformation of a vector for special case

x
1
z
1
x
2
y
2
z
2
= y
1
b
1
b
x 1
b
z
1
1
= 30
2
b =
_

_
1
1
0
_

_
sin 30

=
1
2
cos 30

=
1
2

3 0.9
Transformation K
2
K
1
_

_
1
b
x
1
b
y
1
b
z
_

_
=
_

_
0.5 0.9 0
0 0 1
0.9 0.5 0
_

_
_

_
1
1
0
_

_
=
_

_
1.4
0
0.4
_

_
Chair of Mechanics 7
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Transformation K
1
K
2
_

_
2
b
x
2
b
y
2
b
z
_

_
=
_

_
0.5 0 0.9
0.9 0 0.5
0 1 0
_

_
_

_
1.4
0
0.4
_

_
=
_

_
0.5 1.4 + 0.9 0.4
0.9 1.4 0.5 0.4
0
_

_
=
_

_
1.06
1.06
0
_

_
one digit precision ;OK
not exactly
_
1 1 0
_
T
because we computed to one digit precision
8 Chair of Mechanics
1 Basic Elastostatics
Up to now:
Bodies were treated as rigid; i.e. deformations were ignored.
Now:
We regard the deformations inside the body due to external forces.
Beispiel: cantilever beam
a) Rigid
F
F

free-body-diagramm
M = F
A = F
Applications
- required design parameters for con-
struction (M, A)
- distribution of external loads
- distribution of traversal force and
moment
M = F M(x)
x
x
x
Q(x)
F
F
Q
M

F
M(x) = F( x)
b) Elastic
f(x)
f()
f
x

deformation eld: ; which

will be the deformation eld
within the body
f(x): deformation eld = continuous function
Applications
- determination of deformation wi-
thin a body
- determination of stiffness problems
(force deection relationship)
- vibration of structures (Betriebsfe-
stigkeit)
9
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Exception:
For statically overdetermined systems
(more constraints than degrees of free-
dom), elastostatics is required to solve
constraint equations.
Example:
> 0
< 0
additional constraint
Forces and moments depend on small per-
turbations of geometrical values ( 0,
0) ; deformations must be consi-
dered (however, statically overdetermined
systems are seldom, as they have very bad
mechanical properties).
- Solutions of overconstrained or ge-
neral systems, e.g
deformations =
overconstrained
system
Force-Deformation Relationship:
For the determination of the force (or

stress = Spannung) distribution within

an overconstrained or general body one requires two things:
1.) the deformation eld (geometrical problems)
2.) the material law (material properties)
1.1 The Stress Distribution
For analyzing the properties within a body, we require quantities that changes
from point to point.
for force
F
innitesimal particle
dF
x
dF
x
dF
y
dF
y
dx
dy
dF
x
, dF
y
innitesimal Why? dm y =

dF
y
10 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
as dm 0
y =

dF
y
dm

_
for

dF
y
nite
finite for

dF
y
innitesimal
In order not to have to deal with innitesimal quantities one introduces the con-
cept of a stress (Spannung).
dA
dF

n
d
x
d
y
stress vector
=
dF
dA
stress = force divided by area
Note:
1.) The unit of stress in the kg ms system is
[] =
N
mm
2
another unit for stress is the Pascal
1Pa =
N
m
2
= 10
6
N
mm
2
2.) Stress is a vector !
with in general 3 components
3.) The components of the stress vector can be decomposed in two basic ef-
fects
(a) Normal Stress
n
: component of stress vector normal to the innite-
simal area ( one component)

n
n
. . . complete stress vector
shear stress
(Schubspannung)
normal stress (Normalspannung)
(b) Shear Stress : components of the stress vector tangential to the in-
nitesimal area ( two components)

y
x
y
Chair of Mechanics 11
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
For a general innitesimal volume one has six possible surfaces which are pair-
wise similar, thus one needs 3 3 = 9 stress components.
volume element

yx

yz

xy

xz

zx

zy
x
y
z
d
x
dy
dz
stress =
force
surface area
; describes

loa-
ding of material
By convention:
1.)
x
,
y
,
z
. . . normal stress in direction of coordinate axis.
2.)
yx
- index y: plane index direction to which the plane is normal to
- index x: direction of the component of shear stress
3.) Positive shear components are oriented in direction of coordinate axes for

left cutting faces normal direction dened by the corresponding coor-

dinate axis comes from the material to the empty-space.
Notation:
-
x
,
y
,
z
. . . normal stress ;

push-pull
changes lengths
-

xy
,
xz

yx
,
yz

zx
,
zy
_

_
shear stress ;shear loading
changes angles
Example:
small area
large area
;big stress
;might break
;small stress
;will hold
G G
12 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
Basic Linear-Elastic Theory
Fundamental assumptions:
1.) At the innitesimal element, only volume forces are applied (no surface
forces or moments at innitesimal element).
Exceptions:

Cosserat continua
e.g. liquid chrystals (magnetic eld ed-
dies), molecular material properties
magnetic eld eddies
small particle

rotate under magne-

tic eld
2.) Only linear terms are considered
;higher order terms are neglected, OK for small deformations
Limits of Linear Theory:
2a) Geometric nonlinearity
large deformations
2b) Material nonlinearity
linear ma-
terial pro-
perties
stress
plastic deformation
yield (

Dehnung )
nonlinear material area
unloading
loading
elastic deformation
1.2 The Planar Stress Case
Planar Stress Case: Forces are applied only in one plane and the material is free
to move in normal direction to this plane.
F F
original
F F
plane of stress
deformed
normal direction free to
move ;no stress
Chair of Mechanics 13
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Applications
Simple objects, e.g. hook
F
planar stress case on a general cross section
Analysis of stress state at wedge element
x
x
y
y
z
dx
dy
dz
ds
P P

A()

xy

yx
Note: If one cuts appart an innitesimal volume element along an inclined
surface dA(), there will arise a normal stress

and a shear stress

along this surface, which depend on the inclination angle .

Problem now: Determine the dependency of

on
x
,
y
,
xy
,
yx
and
.
a) Symmetry of Shear Loading (Cauchy condition)
As a consequence of the assumption that no moments can be applied
to the innitesimal element, we have, by balance of moments in z-
direction w.r.t. point P.
P
M
z
stress
..

xy
area
..
(dydz)
. .
innitesimal force
dx
2
..
lever

yx
(dxdz)
dy
2
= 0
factoring out (
xy

yx
)
. .
must be zero
dxdydz
2
. .
volume = 0
= 0
Thus, it must hold

xy
=
yx
=
symmetry condition of planar shear
stress
Note: The symmetry condition
xy
=
yx
= is equivalent to the
condition, that no moment can be applied to the innitesimal volume
element.
14 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
Hence, for the general loading of a planar element we can simplify
the situation to:
x
y
dx
dy

b) By balance of (innitesimal) forces in x- and y-direction

F
x
:

dA()sin +

dA()cos
+
x
dydz dxdz = 0 ()

F
y
:

dA()cos +

dA()sin

y
dxdz + dydz = 0
elimination of cross-section area
dA = dsdz
dx = ds cos
dy = ds sin
in ():

(dsdz)sin +

(dsdz)cos
+
x
(dssin )dz (dscos )dz = 0

(dsdz)cos +

(dsdz)sin

x
(dscos )dz + (dssin )dz = 0

sin +

cos +
x
sin cos = 0

cos +

sin
y
cos + sin = 0
Two equations for determination of

as a function of
x
,
y
,
and .
By equilibrium condition. . .

sin +

cos +
x
sin cos = 0 (1.1)

cos +

sin
y
cos + sin = 0 (1.2)
Chair of Mechanics 15
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
(1.1)(sin ) + (1.2)cos :

=1
..
(sin
2
+ cos
2
) +

=0
..
(sin cos + sin cos )

x
sin
2
+ sin cos
y
cos
2
+ sin cos = 0
(1.1)(cos ) + (1.2)sin :

=0
..
(sin cos + sin cos ) +

=1
..
(sin
2
+ cos
2
)
+
x
sin cos
y
sin cos (cos
2
sin
2
) = 0

=
x
sin
2
+
y
cos
2
2(cos sin )

= (
x

y
)sin cos + (cos
2
sin
2
)
after inserting goniometric formulas
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos
2
sin
2

. .
1cos
2

cos
2
=
1
2
(1 + cos 2)
sin
2
=
1
2
(1 cos 2)
One obtains:

() =
1
2

x
(1 cos 2) +
1
2

y
(1 + cos 2) sin 2

() =
1
2
(
y

x
)sin 2 + cos 2

() =
1
2
(
x
+
y
) +
1
2
(
y

x
)cos 2 sin 2

() =
1
2
(
y

x
)sin 2 + cos 2
putting together the components into vectors

=
_

_
=
_
1
2
(
y

x
)

_
. .
vector of antisymmetric
components
=
_
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
0
_
. .
vector of mean value of
normal stresses

() = +
_
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2
_
. .
R(2)

yields the following structure for the equation derived above

= + R(2)
16 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
Remember: For the transformation of vector coordinates due to a rotation we
had:
y
y

x
x

_
b
x
b
y
_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
__
b

x
b

x
_
Thus we obtain the following result:
the stress components

=
_

_
at a general inclined plane with inclination angle are equal to the mean value
of normal stresses
=
_
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
0
_
of normal stresses plus the vector
=
_
1
2
(
y

x
)

_
of asymmetric loading rotated by twice the inclination angle .

2
O

x
2

x
+
y
2
circular arc
Chair of Mechanics 17
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Letting the inclination angle vary from 0

to 180

180

one obtain as geometric locus ( geometrischer Ort) of the resulting

stresses

(),

()
a circle with center
=
_
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
0
_
and radius
r =
_
1
4
(
y

x
)
2
+
2
.
This circle is called (after its discoverer) MOHRs Stress Circle
(MOHRscher Spannungskreis).

max

x
+
y
2
2
2

x
2
P

From MOHRs Stress Circle, one recognises that:

1.) For any general loading
x
,
y
, there will exist two angles:
tan 2

1/2
=

1
2
(
y

x
)
for which there will be only normal stress.
These directions are called the principal directions (Hauptachsenrichtun-
gen) and the corresponding stresses:

1/2
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) +
_
1
4
(
y

x
)
2
+
2
18 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
called the principal stresses (Hauptspannungen).
Here:
y
>
x

x
> 0
x
> 0

y
> 0

y
> 0

Principal direction: only normal stress

2
, no shearing.
2.) By the denition of

1/2
one can see that two principal directions are rota-
ted by 90

.
tan 2

1
2
(
y

x
)
2

2
90

2(

2
) = 180

1
=

2
+ 90

Moreover, there will be two directions (rotated by 90

) in which there will

arise the maximal shear stresses:

max
=
_
1
4
(
y

x
)
2
+
2
.
And these directions are inclined w.r.t. the principal directions by 45

.
Beispiel:
Uniaxial loading

x

x
= 0

= 45

max
Chair of Mechanics 19
Space for notes
Mechanics 3

= 90

x
2
= 90

Beispiel: Uniaxial loading:

x
y

x

x

dx
dy
x
y
F
F

y
here: const. stress
Free-body-diagramm.
x
y
dx
dy

Steps for building MOHRs Stress Circle

1.) Determine position of circles center.
x
e
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) . . . average of normal stresses
2.) Compute characteristic point on circle from x
e
.
=
_
1
2
(
y

x
)

_
20 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3
Space for notes
3.) Draw the circle.
4.) Apply analysis e.g.
(a) Determine stress at general direction.
rotate with angle 2 from reference direction and read

.
(b) Principal stresses.
Principal directions:

1
,

2
in which there exists only normal stress,
no shear stress.
From circle:
Principal directions:
tan 2

1/2
=

1
2
(
y

x
)
=
2

y
Principal stresses:

1/2
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
_
1
4
(
y

x
)
2
+
2
Note again that principal directions (in the material) rotate with half
the angle of the rotations in MOHRs Stress Circle.
From the circle:
2

1
2

2
= 180

Thus in material:

2
= 90

Principal directions are always orthogonal.

( General property of eigenvectors of symmetric matrices
Ax
i
= x
i
A = A
T
x
i
x
j
=
_
1 i = j
0 i = j
)
Inuence of normal and shear stress on material damage:
1.) ductile (z ah) [steel, plasteline]
45

F F

Chair of Mechanics 21
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Material starts sliding in direction of maximal shear stress ;45

typically. . .
45

2.) brittle (spr ode) [sandstone, iron (Gueisen)]

Material breaks to normal stress.
F F

y

y

Breaking surface normal to load with an angle of 90

.
1.3 The Planar Deformation State
We consider the deformation of an innitesimal element of area. Thereby the
x
y
initial position
streched
element of area
dy
dx
dr
d
P
1
P
2
P

1
P

2
following basic assumptions will be made:
1) Point P
i
on the element of area will be transformed to P

i
. The displace-
ment of point P with the coordinates x, y is given by , .
s

y
y
x
x

after extension
P
P
before extension
22 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
2) The displacements of the deformed point , are functions of the coordi-
nates of the undeformed point x und y, that is to say
= (x, y), = (x, y).
3) The connecting passage
dr =
_
dx
dy
_
(original length)
transforms after the deformation over the connecting passage
d =
_
d
d
_
(length after deformation)
In order to clear up the question regarding the dependence of d and d
on dx und dy, one considers the dependence of the coordinate (x, y) on
x und y. For an increment resulting from the derivation function
d =
gradient of in
xdirection (y const)
..

x
dx
..
increment in
xdirection
+
gradient of in
ydirection (x const)
..

y
dy
..
increment in
ydirection
Remarks:
One denotes

x
,

y
also as partial derivatives of funktion (x, y). In the following gure the
correlation is illustrated.

x
y
dx
dy

y
dy

x
dx
d =

x
dx +

y
dy
Example:
a) For the function
(x, y) = x
2
+ y
2
Chair of Mechanics 23
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
it holds

x
..
y=const.
= 2x,

y
..
x=const.
= 2y.
b) One considers
(x, y) = x
2
y,
so one obtains

x
= 2xy,

y
= x
2
.
Analogously the original function (x, y) results in
d =

x
dx +

y
dy
as increment of the deformation. In sum it leads to the length variation of
an innitesimal passage in point x, y
d =

x
dx +

y
dy,
d =

x
dx +

y
dy.
Types of deformations:
I) (Axial) Strain ( Dehnung)
;Quotient of length change in one direction divided by the undeformed
length:
undeformed probe deformed probe

F
F
strain =

Note: [] = 1
For the case of planar deformation one has:

x
=
d
dx
|
dy=0
=

x
strain in x-direction
24 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes

y
=
d
dy
|
dx=0
=

y
strain in y-direction
II) Shear Strain ( Gleitung)
;Change of angles between edges of innitesimal square.
P
1

2

xy

x
dx

y
dy

x
dx

y
dy
x
dx
y
dy

x
dx change of displacement in y-direction (

x
) when moving to a
neighbouring particle in x-direction ( dx).
angle decrement
xy
of orthogonal side:

2

xy
=

2

xy
= +
Hereby:
tan
. .

x
dx
dx +

x
dx
=

x
dx
(1 +

x
..
or linear ela-
sticity theory

x
1
)dx
=

x


x
analogously


y
.
Thus:
=

y
+

x
shear angle sum of mixed derivatives
Chair of Mechanics 25
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Note that, for pure rigid-body rotation one has:

x
=

x
= 0

y
=

y
= 0

xy
=

y
+

x
= 0

y
=

x
d = d dr
=
_

_
0
0
d
_

_
dx
dy
0
_

_
=
_

_
ddy
ddx
0
_

_
pure rotation displacements
d
dx
d
dy
As shear strain (Gleitdehnung) one denes half the shear angle.

xy
..
shear strain
=
1
2

xy
..
shear angle
III) Shear Tensor
As in the case of the stress distribution, one can introduce the strain tensor:
strain tensor =
_

x

xy

xy

y
_
.
Note that the strain tensor realizes the mapping:
_
dx
dy
_
. .
change of
particles

_
d
d
_
. .
change of
displace-
ment
=
_

x

xy

xy

y
__
dx
dy
_
.
Because the strain tensor is symmetric (and positive denite), for it one
can also draw a MOHRs Circle.
26 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes

replacements

xy
max

xy

xy

x
+
y
2
2
2

x
2
P

xy
Deformation for generally oriented edge

OP:
O
P

y
In particular, there exist again two principal directions

1
,

2
in which the-
re exist no shear deformation, i.e. edges remain parallel.

2
Moreover, one recognises that -as in the planar stress case- the directions
of maximum shear strain ( direction of maximal angle change) are ori-
ented in 45

degrees with respect to the principal directions.

1.4 Basic Strain-Stress Relationship
Up to this point, stress and strain were analyzed separately.
a) Stress (tensor) : Equilibrium conditions for innitesimal element.
(;statics)
b) Strain (tensor) : Deformation eld for innitesimal element.
(;geometry)
Chair of Mechanics 27
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Now: Relationship between strain and stress ( relationship between forces and
deformation).

material law(das Stoffgesetz)

As in the case of stress and strain relationship, also for the material law a linear
relationship is regarded here (;HOOKEs Law).
This linear material law can be constructed from elementary test:
a) Axial stress test.
b) Shear stress test (or equivalently, POISSONs Number Querkontrakti-
onszahl ).
Note: From these two measurements the complete linear-elastic behaviour (rela-
tionship between stress and strain tensors) can be inferred!(see below).
1.4.1 Uniaxial Stress Test
undeformed
A
deformed
probe
F
F
F
F

Measurement:
1.) Force stress
N
=
F
A
2.) Deformation strain =

0
Experiment result:
. . . measurement

approximately straight line

line HOOKs Law

N
= E
E: YOUNGs Modulus (Elastizit atsmodul)
typical value for steel E = 210, 000
N
mm
2
.
28 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
1.4.2 Shear Stress
A
F
F
F
F

Measurement:
1.) Tangential force shear stress =
F
A
.
2.) Shear strain angle .
Experiment result:
. . . measurement

approximately straight line

linear material law
= G
G: Shear Modulus (Schubmodul)
1.4.3 POISSONs Coefcient
(;volume change)
Regard again uniaxial stress test:
x
y
F
F

y
By experiment:
As material deforms (is extended) in one direction, the transverse direction also
deforms ( contracts). By experiment, one observes that the relationship bet-
ween these two deformations (strains) is constant for one material

y
=
x
,
Chair of Mechanics 29
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
whereby:
x
: Principal (deformation) strain ( deformation in direction
of uniaxial load)

x
: Transverse strain (Querdehnung) ( deformation in
orthogonal direction to direction of load)
: POISSONs Number (Querkontraktionszahl)
typical values:
steel
= 0.3 ,
rubber
= 0.5
Physical nature of :
Regard multiaxial loading

z
Loading: only normal stress in x, y, z direction (no shear stress).
Resulting strains:

x
=
1
E
[
x
(
y
+
z
)]

y
=
1
E
[
y
(
x
+
z
)]

z
=
1
E
[
z
(
x
+
y
)]
Regard volume change ratio:

V
=
extended volume original volume
original volume
=
(1 +
x
)(1 +
y
)(1 +
z
)dxdydz dxdydz
dxdydz
whereby (1 +
x
)dx new length of edge in x direction.
=
1 +
x
+
y
+
z
+ [. . .] 1
1

V
=
x
+
y
+
z
Volume change ratio sum of uniaxial strains!
30 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
dx
dy
dz
(1 +
x
)dx
(1 +
y
)dy
(1 +
z
)dz
Inserting the stress-strain relationships:

V
=
1
E
[
x
+
y
+
z
2(
x
+
y
+
z
)]

V
=
1
E
(1 2)(
x
+
y
+
z
)
Regard simplest case:

x
=
y
=
z
= p
. .

hydrostatic loading
( pressure)
p
p
p
p
p
p
Then

V
=
3
E
(1 2)p
From here one can recognize that for:
= 0.5
V
= 0 no volume change incompressible case
Thus: < 0.5 Compressible.
= 0.5 Incompressible material (rubber, oil).
> 0.5 Material expands under pressure needs energy
e.g. some kinds of liquid chrystals.
1.4.4 Torsion
We consider a straight rod with following characteristics:
1) there exists a circular, closed cross section,
2) only small distortions appear,
3) the HOOKEs Law (material property) is valid,
4) the cross sectional areas remain constant,
5) the rod is loaded with a pure moment to the axis of symmetry collinearly,
6) the diameter is small relative to the length.
Chair of Mechanics 31
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
M
M
load
directrix
shear strain
angle of twist
distortion
M
M
original directrix
contorted directrix

arc
L
radius R
The correlation between the moment and the twisting (torsion) by a straight rod
with circular cross section is in demand.
The angle of torsion with given moment M and given geometry is sought after.
We consider the shear stresses which result from the twisting and appear in the
inner cross section as an approach to resolution.
As the twisting induces the constant shear strain everywhere, a certain distance
from O holds true
= const.
The contribution of an element of area to the total moment yields
dM = dA
..
dF
r. (1)
32 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes

dF = dA
dA
cross sectional area
r
0
The material law holds between shear stress and shear strain
= G,
in addition
L = R =
R
L

applies and consequently the shear strain can be denoted as a function of .

Hence for a general radius r one obtains
(r) =
r
L
,
where the angle of glide describes for inner points. Inserting to the material law
leads to
(r) = G(r) =
G
L
r. (2)
Inserting of (2) into (1) yields
dM =
_
G
L
r
2
dA
_
.
Then the total moment is obtained
M =
_
A
dM =
G
L

_
A
r
2
dA.
At this
I

:=
_
A
r
2
dA
is the polar area moment of inertia. Consider the following gure at rst for the
calculation of I

.
Chair of Mechanics 33
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
r
R
dr
Add (integrate) of innite slim ring leads to the polar area moment of inertia
of a circular cross-section. Thereby the thickness dr applies to a ring:
(I

)
ring
= r
2
circumference
..
(2r)
thickness
..
dr
. .
area of the ring
.
Hence one obtains the total area moment of inertia
I

= 2
R
_
0
r
3
dr = 2
1
4
R
4
=

2
R
4
.
Notice: a duplication of R results in a sixteen-fold increase of the area moment
of inertia.
One combines, it leads to
M =
G
L
I

..
torsional stiness
k

a linear dependency between moment und twisting. The correspondent torsion-

spring law is
M() = k

.
Remark:
These derivations are only valid for circular cross-section. The derivations by
general cross section are more complex (the warpings of the cross section must
be taken into account).
Notice: Coil springs are loaded by torsion.
34 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
torsion F
F
1.5 Beam Deformation
Regard the following experiment:
Slim beam (schlanker Balken) loaded by pure moment pair.
M
M
M
undeformed beam
M
R
dx
d
x
z
deformation is everywhere
equal ; deformed state
circle Radius R
Distribution of stress/strain along cross section:
O
M
M
neutral line
z
z
h
1
dA
h
2
(z)

0
h
1
z
S
O
Bernoulli Beam Theory: Cross section areas remain planar stress distribution
linear.
Linear stress distribution:
(z) =

0
(h
1
z
s
)
(z z
S
)
Chair of Mechanics 35
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Accordingly for strain:
(z) =

0
(h
1
z
S
)
(z z
S
)
linear strain distributions (pla-
nar cross section).
M
z
z
z
S
z
0
(z)
h
2
h
1
dA
C
neutral line
dF
Force at cutting plane in differential area strip dA.
dF = (z)dA
36 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
Equilibium conditions:
(1) Axial force:
: F =
_
h
1
0
(z)dA
. .
dF(z)
= h
2
_
h
1
0
(z)dz
= h
2

0
(h
1
z
S
)
_
h
1
0
(z z
S
)dz
= h
2

0
(h
1
z
S
)
(
_
h
1
0
zdz
. .
center of area
z
S
h
1
)
As no normal force exists, i.e. F = 0, it must hold:
_
zdz
. .
z
C
h
1
= z
S
h
1
z
C
= z
S
Neutral line passes through center of cross section area z
C
(Fl achenschwer-
punkt) (independent of loading! depends only on geometry).
Beispiel:
h
h/3
Neutral line passes through center of cross-sectional area.
(2) Moment w.r.t. C :

M
C
= M +
_
(z z
C
) dF
..
(z) dA
M =

0
h
1
z
C
_
A
(z z
C
)
2
dA
. .
I
y
()
substitute z = z z
C
; z
0
= h
1
z
C
Then
M =
0
_
z
0
z
C
z
2
z
0
dA
Chair of Mechanics 37
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
M =

0
z
0
_
z
2
dA
. .
I
y
M =

0
z
0
I
y
()
whereby I
y
=
_
A
z
2
dA area moment of inertia.
The area moment of inertia I
y
depends only on geometry.
Note: The area moment of inertia is completely equivalent to the moment
of inertia discussed in dynamics!
Dynamics: I
y
=
_
z
2
dm ; Beam Theory: I
y
=
_
z
2
dA.
Due to the similarity with the mass moment of inertia, one can apply the
following rules:
cross section
Iy
1
a
P
rotation axis
C
1
y
I
y1
. . . area moment of inertia w.r.t. center C
1
I
yp
. . . area moment of inertia w.r.t. point P
I
yp
= I
y1
+ a
2
A Huygens-Steiner-Formula
Beispiel:
z
dz
a
dA
neutral
line
b
dA = adz
I
y
=
b
2
_

b
2
z
2
adz
=
1
3
az
3
|
b
2

b
2
=
1
3
a
_
b
3
8

_

b
3
8
__
I
y
=
1
12
ab
3
=
1
12
Ab
2
38 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
area moment of inertia increases with the third power of vertical dimension of
the cross-section!
I
y
large I
y
small
Resolving () for
0
we get:

0
=
max
=
M
I
y
z
0
=
M
W
y
W
y
=
I
y
z
0
. . . elastic section modulus (Widerstandsmoment)
For example: rectangle W
y
=
1
6
ab
2
Now regard bending of beam:
Regard cross-section rotation
Ez
neutral line
d
z
0
dx
d
2
1
2
dx
0
= z
0
d
2
1) Relationship between strain and stress
Hookes Law (z) = E(z) at any point,
in particular
0
= E
0
() at the border.
2) Relationship between deformation and radius of curvature R
dx
0
..
deformation at lower end
= (Rd)
0
(1)
3) Relation between deformation angle and strain
1
2
dx
0
= z
0
d
2
(2)
Thus
Rd
0
= z
0
d

0
=
z
0
R
(3)
Chair of Mechanics 39
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Inserting (3) in ():

0
=
Ez
0
R
=
M
W
y
=
M
I
y
z
0
M = EI
y
..
beamstiness
1
R
4) nally, relating the curvature R to the function of deection z = z(x)
1
R
=
z

_
1 + z
2
..
0
one obtains nally:
EI
y
z

= M(x)
deection is equal to the double integral of moment distribution divided
by E I
y
40 Chair of Mechanics
2 Vibrations

Vibrations: Special kind of motion in machines in which the behaviour of the

state variable is more or less periodic.
Periodic: A function x(t) is periodic of period T if
x(t + T) = x(t) .
Function starts repeating values after a period T.
T
T
t
x(t)
In mechanical systems, a special form of vibrations are those induced by linear
deformations. These are called linear vibrations. In this course only linear vi-
brations are investigated. Nonlinear vibrations (also of importance in machines
e.g. noise of rail vehicles) may lead to

chaotic motions (non-periodic motions

resulting from several periodic components).
2.1 Structure of Equations
For the behaviour of a linear system vibration, one degree of freedom, one can
regard a single mass attached to a spring and damper and subjected to a motion
of the suspension point.
motion of suspension point
linear damper
oscillation of mass
m
41
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Equation of Motion
A) free-body diagram
spring . . . F
F
F
D
. . . damper
deection of mass . . . x
G. . . weight

F = F
F
+ F
D

F = F
F
+ F
D
d
x(t)
k
y(t)

y(t) : prescribed motion of suspension point

x(t) : motion of mass

0
: length of undeformed spring
spring force : F
F
= k(
0
) = k(y(t) x(t)
0
)
damper force : F
D
= d

= d( y(t)
..
given
x(t))
x(t), x(t) : result of dynamic equilibrium.
B) equation of motion
Newtons Second Law: m x = F
F
+ F
D
G
; m x = k(y(t) x
0
) +d( y(t) x) mg
After rearranging x, x, x...
m x + d x + kx = ky(t) + d y(t) (mg + k
0
)
Linear differential equations : (2nd order) for the determination of the
unknown function x(t).
Solution x(t): From the theory of linear differential equations:
x(t) = X
h
(t) + X
p
(t)
X
h
(t): homogeneous solution:
m x + d x + kx = 0
X
p
(t): particular solution
;one function that veries:
m x + d x + kx = ky(t) + d y(t) (mg + k
0
)
42 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
Mathematically, these solution components lead to the following types of
oscillation:
I) free guided oscillators
right hand side =
_
0 free
f(t) guided
II) damped/undamped
d
_
= 0 undamped
= 0 damped
The mathematical theory for nding x(t) is well known and leads to a set
of

ansatz functions known for the different kind of equation structures.

ansatz function: function of known structure in which only constants

need to be determined.
2.2 Free, Undamped Oscillator
Structure of equation: m x + kx = 0 mechanical result
Standard form: x +
2
0
x = 0
mathematical standard
structure.
Note: The standard mathematical structure is that for which the general soluti-
on is developed. For a given mechanical system, the task to obtain the special
solution will be:
1. Generate the equation of motion (free-body diagram, Newtons Law).
2. Bring this info into standard form;relate mechanical constant to constant
of standard mathematical form.
3. Get the general mathematical solution.
4. Insert the mechanical constants according to step 2 into mathematical so-
lution.
5. Interpret of mechanical result.
Here:
Chair of Mechanics 43
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
To step 2

2
0
..
mathematical constant
=
k
m
..
mechanical constant
To step 3
Ansatz : x = Acos
0
t + Bsin
0
t
general
mathematical
solution
derivates: x(t) = A
0
sin
0
t + B
0
cos
0
t
x(t) = A
2
0
cos
0
t B
2
0
sin
0
t
insert in standard form for check:
A
2
0
cos
0
t B
2
0
sin
0
t +
2
0
(Acos
0
t +Bsin
0
t) = 0

OK
Thus, one recognize that: x = Acos
0
t + Bsin
0
t is the general so-
lution to:
x +
2
0
x = 0
Relation of A, B to mechanical problem:
Initial Conditions:
1) position at time zero x(0) = x
0
2) velocity at time zero x(0) = v
0
by comparision:
1) x(0) = A = x
0
2) x(0) = B
0
= v
0
B =
v
0

0
x(t) = x
0
cos
0
t +
v
0

0
sin
0
t T =
2

0
x
0
: initial deection
v
0
: initial velocity
Hence
x(t) = x
0
cos
0
t +
v
0

0
sin
0
t
general
solution
44 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
Alternative representation:
substitution
A = C cos
B = C sin
_
C, new constants.
Given A,B what are C,?
;A
2
+ B
2
= C
2
;C =

A
2
+ B
2
;tan =
B
A
Inserting substitutions into general solution:
x(t) = C cos cos
0
t +C sin sin
0
t
= C[cos cos
0
t +sin sin
0
t]
x(t) = C[cos(
0
t )]
sin( ) = sin cos cos sin
cos( ) = cos cos sin sin
General solution:
x(t) = C cos(
0
t )
alternative representation
of general solution.
;Single harmonic function with amplitude
C =

A
2
+ B
2
=

x
2
0
+
v
2
0

2
0
and phase shift tan =
B
A
=
v
0

0
x
0
Time history:
x(t)
C
x(t) = C cos(
0
t )
2 =
0
T

0
t
From the time history:

0
T = 2
Period of
cosine function.

0
: Number of rotations (2)
per unit time
divided by period T.
Hence:
T =
2

0
period of oscillation
Chair of Mechanics 45
Space for notes
Mechanics 3

0
=
2
T
natural circular frequency of oscillation
Other representations of frequency:
n =
1
T
. . . frequency: number of oscillations per second
Note the difference:
[
0
] =
rad
sec
[n] =
1
sec
= Hz
Relationships:
period : T
1
T
= n

0
=
2
T
natural
0
frequency

0
= 2n
n : frequency
2.3 Free (Weakly) Damped Oscillator
Consider an equation of motion of the form:
m x + d x + kx = 0
..
free oscillator
= no excitation
;divide by

m and introduce new constants : ,

o
x + 2 x +
2
o
x = 0
standard form of linear free damped
oscillator of second order.
where:
=
d
2m
. . . damping coefcient (Abklingkonstante)

0
=
_
k
m
. . . eigen frequency of undamped oscillator.
Ansatz:
x(t) = Ce
t
, C : complex
x(t) = Ce
t
x(t) = C
2
e
t
inserting in standard form:
C
2
e
t
+ 2Ce
t
+
2
o
Ce
t
= 0
C [
2
+ 2 +
2
0
]
. .
characteristic
equation
e
t
=
..

identically
zero for
all t.
0
Solution:
46 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
1) C = 0 trivial solution (no motion)
2)
2
+ 2 +
2
0
= 0 ;characteristic equation
=
2
_
4
2
4
2
o
2
=
_

2
0
Chair of Mechanics 47
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
Case: <
0
. . . weak damping

2
0
< 0
_

2
0
. . . imaginary
; =
_

2
0

2
damped frequency

1/2
= i
Then: x(t) = a e

1
t
+ b e

2
t
i : imaginary unit
=e
t
[a e
it
+ b e
it
]
Background:
Eulers formula e
i
= cos i sin
e
x
= 1 + x +
x
2
2
+
x
3
3!
+ . . .
cos x = 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
. . .
sin x = x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
. . .
e
ix
= 1 + ix +
(ix)
2
2
+
(ix)
3
3
+ ... = cos x i sin x
Hence:
x(t) = e
t
[(a + b) cos(t) + i(a b) sin(t)]
x(t) = e
t
[Acos(t) + Bsin(t)]
dene two constants C, such that:
C =

A
2
+ B
2
, tan =
B
A
=
_

2
o

2
; <
o
Then the general solution becomes:
x(t) = e
t
[Acos t + Bsin t]
. .
=C cos(t)
x(t) = Ce
t
cos(t )
General Solution of
weakly damped oscillator
with =
_

2
o

2
damped frequency.
48 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
x(t)

1
t
1

t
1
t

2
t
2

t
2
t

3
t
3

t
3
t
Envelope function : Ce
t
Curve discussion:
1) distance between roots:
x(

t
i
) = 0 ;root condition
cos(

t
i
) = 0

t
i
=

t
i1
+
C
C
2
x(t)
t
2) for t
i
= 0, , 2, . . .
x(t
i
) = Ce
t
i
curve x(t) touches Ce
t

periodic!
Chair of Mechanics 49
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
3) distance between maxima:
x(t

i
) = 0
x = C[e
t
cos(t ) e
t
sin(t )]
x(t

i
) = Ce
t

i
[ cos(t

i
) + sin(t

i
)]
x(t

i
) = C

cos(t

)
C

= C

2
+
2

= tan
1

zeroes of x(t

i
) = extrema of x(t)
t

=

2
,
3
2
, . . .
Maxima (or minima) are also separated by 2 (in the dimensionless time
t)
2

periodic
T = 2 . . . denes period T of damped vibration
=
2
T
. . . natural frequency of damped oscillator
Note that: =
_

2
0

2
<
o
damped vibrations
are always slower
than vibrations of
undamped systems.

2
0
;natural frequency of undamped system. maxima and minima are
separated by

substituting phase angle

=

2

tan

= tan(

) = arctan

= tan
1

<< 1 for << !

Then x(t) = C

e
t
sin(t

)
maxima and minima
t

i
= t
i

i
4) Logarithmic decrement
Change of amplitude from maximum to maximum.
50 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
x(t

i
)
x(t

i+2
)
=
C e
t

i
cos(t

i
)
Ce
t

i+2
cos(t

i+2
)
=
e
t

i
e
t

i
e

= e
2

x(t

i
)
x(t

i+2
)
= e
2

The ratio of two maxima (minima)
is constant!!

= ln
x(t

i
)
x(t

i+2
)
T =
2

Period of oscillation.
Note:
The factor = T
Logarithmic
Decrement
is called logarithmic decrement.
Thus we have
= T = ln
x(t

i
)
x(t

i+2
)
2.4 Strongly Damped Case
The case >
o
is the strongly damped case.
Then in x(t) = Ce
t
;
1,2
=
_

2
o
is real !
and x(t) = C
1
e

1
t
+ C
2
e

2
t
Note that for > 0
1
,
2
< 0 .
Solutions:
x(t)
up to one maximum(minimum)
t
Chair of Mechanics 51
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
For =
o
we have the aperiodic limit case
Then
1
=
2
=
and the general solution becomes:
x(t) = C
1
e
t
+ C
2
te
t
x(t)
t
2.5 Forced Vibrations (Weakly Damped Case)
Standard form of differential equation (harmonic case).
x + 2 x +
2
o
x = r cos t ()
: damping factor

o
: frequency of undamped system
r : amplitude of harmonic excitation
: frequency of harmonic excitation
Solution:
x(t) = x
H
(t)
. .
(1)
+x
p
(t)
. .
(2)
(1) 0 for t due to damping.
(2) remains for t stationary solution
x
H
(t) . . . homogeneous Solution
x
H
(t) = Ce
t
cos(t ) . . . weakly damped case.
x
p
(t) . . . particular solution = solution x(t) for t
52 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
Particular Solution:
x
p
(t) = Rcos(t )
R new amplitude
same frequency
phase shift
()
Solution has the same frequency as the excitation.
X
input
r r
t
T
T =
2

oscillator
X
response
R
:phase shift
Determination of R, :
Insert () into () and check conditions such that () is fullled identically, (i.e.)
for all time t.
x
p
(t) = Rsin(t )
x
p
(t) = R
2
cos(t )
R[
2
0

2
] cos(t )
. .
cos t cos +sin t sin
2R sin(t )
. .
sin t cos cos t cos
= r cos t
[R(
2
0

2
) cos + 2Rsin r] cos t
+[R(
2
0

2
) sin 2Rcos ] sin t =
..
must be zero
for all t.
0
Note:
Because sin t, cos t are independent functions this equations can only be ful-
lled for each [. . .]- bracket being equal to zero on its own.
Thus:
[. . . ] = 0 R(
2
0

2
) cos + 2Rsin r = 0 (1)
[. . . ] = 0 R(
2
0

2
) sin 2Rcos = 0 (2)
from (2) tan =
2

2
0

2
phase shift
Chair of Mechanics 53
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
(1) cos + (2) sin :
R(
2
0

2
) = r cos (3)
(1) sin (2) cos :
2R = r sin (4)
(3)
2
+ (4)
2
:
R
2
(
2
0

2
)
2
+ 4R
2

2
= r
2
(cos
2
+ sin
2

. .
=1
)
Finally one obtains:
R =
r
_
(
2
0

2
)
2
+ (2)
2
new amplitude
and tan =
2

2
0

2
phase shift
By introducing the following dimensionless constants
=

0
. . . related frequency
D =

0
. . . related damping factor (Lehrsches D amfungsma),
one obtains more compactly:
R
r
=
1

2
0
_
(1
2
)
2
+ (2D)
2

amplitude gain
(Amplitudenverst arkung)
tan =
2D
1
2
Discussion (depends on physics of excitation) physical meaning of r.
a) Excitation through suspension point
u
0 u(t)
k d
m
x(t)
x
0
x(t)
equilibrium
position
it was: m

x + d

x + k x = ku(t) + d u(t) k
0
mg
54 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
let u(t) = u
0
..
equilibrium
position
+Acos t
let x(t)
..
absolute
position
= x
0
..
position of
static equilibrium
+ x(t)
..
deection from
static equilibrium
Determination of x
0
:
x
0
must fulll static equilibrium conditions, i.e. it must fullled the diffe-
rential equation for x, x,
...
x,. . . =0 (no motion!)
t=const (no time change in exitation).
Thus: kx
0
= k
0
mg + ku
0
Inserting the substitution:
x(t) = x
0
+ x(t)
into the differential equation gives:
m x
..
m

x
+ d x
..
d

x
+kx
0
+ kx
. .
k x
= ku

+ d u

+ ku
0
+ k
0
mg
Thus one obtains:
m x + d x + kx = ku

+ d u

For deections from equilibrium position

all additive constants cancel!
(This is true for general linear oscillations.)
using:
u

(t) = Acos t
u

(t) = Asin t
one obtains for the right hand side:
A(k cos t dsin t) = A
_
k
2
+ (d)
2
cos(t

)
For long time excitation, time shift of excitation can be neglected.
Thus excitation function can be viewed as:
u

(t) =

Acos t
r =

A
m
=
A
m

k
2
+ d
2

2
Chair of Mechanics 55
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
b) Excitation only through spring
u
0 u(t)
k
d
m
x
0
x(t)
Similar to a) where:
x(t) deection with respect to equilibrium position
u(t) = u
0
+ Acos t
Equation of motion:
m x = k[u(t) u
0
x(t)] d x(t) mg
m x = ku(t) ku
0
kx(t) d x(t) mg
m x + d x(t) +kx(t) = ku(t) (ku
0
+ mg)
. .
additive constants
cancel
m x + d x(t) +kx(t) = kAcos t
After division by m and comparing to standard form...
m x +
d
m
..
=2
x(t) +
k
m
..
=
2
0
x(t) =
k
m
A
..
=r
cos t
Thus: x(t) = Rcos(t )
where tan =
d
m

k
m

2
=
2

2
and R =
A
2
0

2
0
_
(1
2
)
2
+ (2D)
2
and R =
A
2
0

2
0
_
(1
2
)
2
+ (2D)
2
new amplitude
56 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
Special case: no damping d,,D = 0
0
0
A
R
= 1
(resonance)
=

0
no amplitude
for =
R =
A
| (1
2
) |
tan =
0

2
tan =
0
(1
2
)


1
= 0 for < 1

2
= for > 1

mass oscillates in opossite

direction to exitation.
t

(1)
(1)
(2)
90

180

tan =
0

2
0

2
(1)Solution for + 0 = 0
(2)Solution for 0 =
Qualitative form of graphs
R
u
() . . . amplitude gain diagram.
() . . . phase shift.
Basic properties:
a) Behaviour for 0

R
u
|
0
= 1 ;
amplitude of response
= amplitude of excitation
for

slowexcitations
Chair of Mechanics 57
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
tan |
0
= 0 |
0
= 0 ;
no phase shift for

slow excitations
b) Behaviour for (

fast excitation)
R
u
|

=

2
0
_

4
+ (2)
2

2
0

2
(2)
2

2
neglectable for
tan |

0 180

t
90

180

for

fast excitation; response is always anti-syncronic to excitation.

x(t)
exitation
response
t
c) Behaviour for

in between
for
0
tan |
=
0
= = 90

Maximum of
R
u
()?
R
u
() =

2
0

2
0
_
(
2
0

2
)
2
+ (2)
2

2
0
R
u
() =
1
_
(1
2
)
2
+ (2D)
2
58 Chair of Mechanics
Mechanics 3 Abschnitt 1.3: The Planar Deformation State
Space for notes
=

. . . related (dimensionless) excitation frequency

D =

0
. . . Lehr damping factor.
Extrema:
d
d
(
R
u
) = 0

d
d
(
R
u
) =
1
2
2(1
2
)(2) + 8D
2

2
_
(1
2
)
2
+ (2D)
2
3
Operating one obtains:

d
d
= 0 . . . [2D
2
(1
2
)] = 0.
1) Solution 1:

1
= 0
amplitude diagram always starts
with horizontal tangent.
2) Solution 2:
2D
2
= (1
2
2
)
2
= +

1 2D
2
Analysis of second extremum.
a) D = 0 (undamped case)

2
= 1 =
0
then resonance
b) 0 < D <
1

2
extremum is to the left of =
0
c) D >
1

2
no additional extremum.
0
0
1
2
1
P
R
u
loud speaker
D = 0.7071
D = 0.5
D = 0.2
D = 0
D = 1
self centering
=

0
related
excitation frequency
resonance point for
undamped case ( =
0
)
Chair of Mechanics 59
Space for notes
Mechanics 3
1
D = 0
D = 0.2
D = 0.5
D = 0.7071
D = 1

180

90

0
60 Chair of Mechanics
Bibliography
See Lecture Notes Mechanics 1 and Mechanics 2
R.C. Hibbeler: Statics and Mechanics of Materials, edition 2, Pearson Prentice
Hall.
R.C. Hibbeler: Engineering Mechanics Dynamics, edition 3, SI Edition, Pear-
son Prentice Hall.
J.L. Merriam and L.G. Kraige: Engineering Mechanics Statics, edition 5, SI
Version, Wiley.
J.L. Merriam and L.G. Kraige: Engineering Mechanics Dynamics, edition 5,
SI Version, Wiley.
Magnus, M uller: Grundlagen der Technischen Mechanik, Teuber 1984. Conci-
se book covering all chapters of Mechanics which can be used for a later reference.
However, it may be a little

hard to be use for self-training.

61