Geometry Lib Notes

Geometry
Textbook written according to the latest

syllabus of autonomous Fergusson College,
Pune-411 004.
Dr. V. V. Acharya
Head, Department of Mathematics,
Fergusson College, Pune-411 004.
March 9, 2023
ii Dr. V. V. Acharya
Contents
1 Analytical Geometry of Two Dimensions 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Translation of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Elimination of Linear Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Rotation of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Removal of xy term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 General Equation of second degree in x and y : . . . . . . . 27
2 Analytical Geometry of three dimensions 33

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Rectangular Cartesian Co-ordinates of a point in Space . . 33
2.2.1 Orientation of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3 Co-ordinates of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.1 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Equations of a Line Passing Through Two Points . . . . . . 40
2.4.1 Symmetrical form of the Equations of a Line . . . . 41
2.5 Angle between two lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6 General Equation of First Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 Normal form of the equation of a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.8 Transform to the normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.9 Angle between two planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.10 Determination of a plane under given conditions . . . . . . 49
2.10.1 Intercept form of the equation of a plane . . . . . . . 49
2.11 Plane passing through a given point . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.12 Plane passing through three points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.13 Systems of Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.13.1 Two sides of a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.14 Length of the perpendicular from a point to a plane. . . . . 53
2.14.1 Bisectors of angles between two planes . . . . . . . . 54
2.15 Joint equation of two planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.16 Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.17 Equations of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.17.1 Transformation of the equations of a line from the
asymmetric form to the symmetric form. . . . . . . . 64
2.17.2 Angle between a line and a plane: . . . . . . . . . . 65
iii
Geometry 1
2.18 Coplanar Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2.18.1 Condition for a line to lie in a plane: . . . . . . . . . 70
2.18.2 Condition for two lines to be coplanar: . . . . . . . . 71
2.19 Sets of conditions which determine a line . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.19.1 Number of arbitrary constants in the equations of
a straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.19.2 Sets of conditions which determine a line: . . . . . . 73
2.20 Skew lines and shortest distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.20.1 To find the length and the equations of the line of
shortest distance between two lines . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.20.2 Length of the perpendicular from a point to a line . 77
2.21 Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3 The Sphere 85
3.1 Equation of a sphere: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.1 Sphere with a given diameter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.1.2 Intercept Form: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1.3 Equation of the sphere through four given points: . . 91
3.2 Plane section of a sphere: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3 Intersection of two spheres: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.1 Equations of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4 Sphere through a given Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4.1 Sphere passing through the circle of intersection of
the given sphere and plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4.2 Sphere passing through a circle, which is the inter-
section of two spheres: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5 Intersection of a sphere and a line: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6 Equation of Tangent Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6.1 Standard equation of sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6.2 Equation of Tangent Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6.3 The condition of tangency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.7 llustrative Examples: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2 Dr. V. V. Acharya
Chapter 1
Analytical Geometry of Two Dimensions
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we are interested to study the general second degree equa-
tion in two variables having real coefficients. Using translation of axes and
rotation of axes, we show that this equation represents a conic section.
1.1.1 Translation of Axes

Let OX and OY be the original rectangular frame of reference of axes. Let
O′ X ′ and O′ Y ′ be the new axes parallel to the original axes. Let O′ (α, β)
be the new origin. Let P be any point in the plane with co-ordinates (x, y)
and (x′ , y ′ ) with respect to original and new co-ordinate axes respectively.
From the new origin O′ , the perpendicular O′ M is drawn on OX. Also from
the point P, the perpendicular P N is drawn to OX. Then perpendicular
P N meets O′ X ′ in the point N ′ . Then, we get x = ON, y = P N, x′ =
O′ N ′ , y ′ = P N ′ . Hence, x = ON = OM + M N = OM + O′ N ′ = x′ + α.
Similarly y = P N = P N ′ +N ′ N = P N ′ +O′ M = y ′ +β. Figure 1 illustrates
the case when h > 0, k > 0. Thus
x = x′ + α, y = y′ + β (1.1)
Equations (1.1) are the relations between the co-ordinates of the same point
P referred to the two frames of reference of axes. These equations are called
the equations of translation.
Example 1.1 By a translation to the origin (1, 2) transform the equation
x2 + y 2 − 2x − 4y − 11 = 0.
Solution: The given equation may be rewritten as
(x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 16.
By the translation to the origin (1, 2), we get x = x′ + 1, y = y ′ + 2. The
given equation becomes x′2 + y ′2 = 16.
3
4 Dr. V. V. Acharya
L L′ P
B O′ H
O M A
Figure 1.1: Translation of axes
Example 1.2 By a translation to the origin (−2, 3) transform the equation

x2 + xy − y 2 + 2x − 4y = 0.
Solution: By a translation to the origin (−2, 3) we get x = x′ −2, y = y ′ +3.
The given equation becomes
(x′ − 2)2 + (x′ − 2)(y ′ + 3) − (y ′ + 3)2 + 2(x′ − 2) − 4(y ′ + 3) = 0,
i.e x′2 + x′ y ′ − y ′2 + x′ − 10y ′ − 14 = 0.
Example 1.3 By a translation to the origin (1, 2) transform the equation
15x2 + 14xy − 8y 2 − 58x + 18y + 11 = 0.
Interpret the result.
Solution: By a translation to the origin (1, 2), we get x = x′ + 1, y = y ′ + 2.
The given equation becomes
15(x′ + 1)2 + 14(x′ + 1)(y ′ + 2)
− 8(y ′ + 2)2 − 58(x′ + 1) + 18(y ′ + 2) + 11 = 0.
Geometry 5
On simplification, we get 15x′2 + 14x′ y ′ − 8y ′2 = (5x′ − 2y ′ )(3x′ + 4y ′ ) = 0.

Thus, we get a pair of straight lines.
Example 1.4 The origin is shifted to the point (h, 2), find the value of h so
that the transformed equation of locus given by the equation x2 +4x+3y = 5
will not contain the first degree term in x.
Solution: We have x2 + 4x + 3y − 5 = 0 (1)
Since origin is shifted to the point (h, k) = (h, 2). We know equations of
translations
x = x′ + h y = y′ + k = y′ + 2 (2)
Using (2) in (1), we get (x′ + h)2 + 4(x′ + h) + 3(y ′ + 2) − 5 = 0. Hence,

x′2 + (2h + 4)x′ + 3y ′ + h2 + 4h + 1 = 0. This equation will not contains
first degree term in x′ if 2h + 4 = 0. Therefore h = −2.
Example 1.5 Shift the origin to a suitable point so that the equation x2 −
6x − 4y − 1 = 0 will be in the form x2 = 4by state the value of b.
Solution: We have
x2 − 6x − 4y − 1 = 0 (1)
Shift the origin to point (h, k). The equations of translations are
x = x′ + h, y = y ′ + k (2)
Using (2) in (1)
(x′ + h)2 − 6(x′ + h) − 4(y ′ + k) − 1 = 0

′2 ′ ′ ′
x + 2hx + h − 6x − 6h − 4y − 4k − 1 =
2
0
x′2 = 4y ′ + (6 − 2h)x′ + 4k + 1 − h2 (3)

Equation (3) will become x′2 = 4by ′ if 6 − 2h = 0, and 4k + 1 − h2 = 0.
Hence, h = 3, and 4k = 8 i.e. k = 2. Thus (h, k) = (3, 2) and b = 1.
Example 1.6 Change the origin to point (α, β) and transform the equation
x2 − 2xy + 3y 2 − 10x + 22y + 30 = 0.
Find (α, β) if the transformed equation does not contain the first degree
terms in the new co-ordinates.
6 Dr. V. V. Acharya
Solution: We have
x2 − 2xy + 3y 2 − 10x + 22y + 30 = 0 (1)
Let (h, k) = (α, β). Shift the origin to the point (α, β).
x = x′ + α, y = y ′ + β (2)
Using (2) in (1), we get
(x′ + α)2 − 2(x′ + α)(y ′ + β) + 3(y ′ + β)2 − 10(x′ + α) + 22(y ′ + β) + 3 = 0
x′2 − 2x′ y ′ + y ′2 + (2α − 2β − 10)x′ + (−2α + 6β + 22)y ′
+ (α2 − 2αβ + 3β 2 − 10α + 22β + 3) = 0 (3)
Since the transformed equation (3) does not contains first degree terms in
x′ and y ′ . Therefore 2α − 2β − 10 = 0 and −2α + 6β + 22 = 0. Thus,
α−β−5 = 0 (4)
−α + 3β + 11 = 0 (5)
Solving equations (4) and (5) we get α = 2, β = −3. Thus (α, β) = (2, −3).
1.2 Elimination of Linear Terms

Consider the general second degree equation given by
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (1.2)
Suppose we shift the origin to the point (α, β). Then the equation of trans-
lations are
x = x′ + α, y = y ′ + β (1.3)
Using (1.3) in equation (1.2), we get
a(x′ + α)2 + 2h(x′ + α)(y ′ + α) + b(y ′ + β)2 + 2g(x′ + α) + 2f (y ′ + β) + c = 0.

Hence,
ax′2 + 2hx′ y ′ + by ′2 + 2g ′ x′ + 2f ′ y ′ + c′ = 0, (1.4)
where
c′ = aα2 + 2hαβ + by12 + 2gα + 2f β + c
= α(aα + hβ + g) + β(hα + bβ + f ) + c
g′ = aα + hβ + g
f′ = hα + bβ + f
Geometry 7
We note that the coefficients of x2 and x′2 , xy and x′ y ′ and y 2 and y ′2

are unchanged.
Consider
a h g′
∆1 = h b f′
g′ f′ c′
of (1.4).
If we do R3 − αR1 − βR2 , we get
a h aα + hβ + g
∆1 = h b hα + bβ + f
g f gα + f β + c
If we do C3 − αC1 − βC2 , we get
a h g
∆1 = h b f = ∆.
g f c
Thus, a, b, h and ∆ do not change. We say that they are invariant. We
state these observations, as follows:
Theorem 1.1 If by translation of axes i.e by shifting the origin to (α, β)
the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 is transformed into
a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ + by ′2 + 2g ′ x′ + 2f ′ y ′ + c′ = 0 then
(i) a + b = a′ + b′ , (ii) ab − h2 = a′ b′ − h′2 , and
a h g a ′ h′ g ′
(iii) h b f = h′ b′ f ′
g f c g ′ f ′ c′
Question. We noticed that during translation the coefficients of linear terms
change. Hence, the question that we would like to ask is the following: “Can
we make the coefficients of linear terms as zero? In other words, Can we
solve the system of equations given by
aα + hβ + g = 0 (1.5)
hα + bβ + f = 0 (1.6)
Solving equations (1.5) and (1.6) using Cramer’s rule, we get

α β 1
= = .
hf − bg gh − af ab − h2
8 Dr. V. V. Acharya
Thus, if ab − h2 ̸= 0, we get
hf − bg gh − af
α= , β= (1.7)
ab − h 2 ab − h2

hf − bg gh − af
(α, β) = ,
ab − h2 ab − h2
Shifting the origin to (α, β), we get
ax′2 + 2hx′ y ′ + by ′2 + c1 = 0
where
c1 = gα + f β + c
g(hf − bg) + f (gh − af ) + c(ab − h2 ) △
= =
ab − h2 ab − h2
△
Then equation (5) becomes ax′2 + 2hx′ y ′ + by ′2 + = 0.
ab − h
2

hf − bg gh − af
If ab − h2 ̸= 0, (α, β) = , is called as centre of the
ab − h2 ab − h2
conic.
Exercise Set 1.1
1. The origin is changed to the point (h, −1). Determine the value of h
so that the new equation of the locus given by 2x2 + 4x + 3y − 7 = 0
will not contain first degree term in x.
2. The origin is changed to the point (−2, k). Determine the value of k
so that the new equation of locus given by 2y 2 + 3x + 4y = 0 will not
contain first degree term in y.
3. Find the form of the equation 2x2 + 3xy − 4y 2 + x + 3 = 0 when origin
is shifted to the point (−2, 1).
4. Shift the origin to the point (−1, 2) and transform the equation x2 +
y 2 + 2x + 4y = 0.
5. Shift the origin to a suitable point so that x2 + 4x − 8y + 12 = 0 will
be in the form x2 = 4by. State the value of b.
6. Shift the origin to a suitable point so that the equation x2 − 6x − 4y +
1 = 0 will be in the form x2 = 4ay. State the value of a.
Geometry 9
7. Under the translation of axes, the equation 2x2 − 3y 2 + 4y + 5 = 0 is

transformed into 2x′2 − 3y ′2 + 4x′ − 8y ′ + 3 = 0. Find the coordinates
of new origin w.r.t. old origin.
8. The origin is shifted to the point (h, 2). Find the value of h so that the
transformed equation of locus given by the equation x2 +4x+3y −5 =
0 will not contain a first degree term in x.
1.3 Rotation of Axes

Let OX and OY be the original rectangular frame of reference of axes. Let
OX ′ and OY ′ be the new positions of axes obtained by rotating the original
rectangular axes OX and OY through an angle θ keeping origin fixed.
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of the point P w.r.t. the OXY coordinate
system and (x′ , y ′ ) be the coordinates of the point P w.r.t. the OX ′ Y ′
coordinate system. If OP makes an angle ϕ w.r.t. the positive direction of
x′ axis i.e w.r.t. OX ′ then OP makes an angle (ϕ + θ) w.r.t. the positive
direction of x axis i. e. w.r.t. OX. Hence, x′ = r cos ϕ, y ′ = r sin ϕ and
x = r cos(ϕ + θ), y = r sin(ϕ + θ). Thus,
x = r cos(ϕ + θ) = r(cos ϕ cos θ − sin ϕ sin θ)

= x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ (1.8)
y = r sin(ϕ + θ) = r(sin ϕ cos θ + cos ϕ sin θ)
= x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ. (1.9)
It is easy to see that
x′ = x cos θ + y sin θ (1.10)

′
y = −x sin θ + y cos θ. (1.11)
Example 1.7 Transform the equation xy = 8 by rotation of axes through

π
.
4
Solution: Note that x = x′ √12 − y ′ √12 , y = x′ √12 + y ′ √12 . Thus,

1 1 1 1
xy = x √ − y′ √
′
x √ + y′ √
′
= 8.
2 2 2 2
Hence, x′2 − y ′2 = 16.

10 Dr. V. V. Acharya
ϕ
O θ
Figure 1.2: Rotation of axes
Example 1.8 Transform the equation x2 + 2xy tan 2θ − y 2 = k 2 by rotation

of axes through angle θ.
Solution: Note that x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ, y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ. Thus,
(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ)2 + 2(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ)(x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ) tan 2θ
− (x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ)2 = k 2 . Thus,
x′2 (cos 2θ + 2 tan 2θ sin θ cos θ) + y ′2 (− cos 2θ − 2 tan 2θ sin θ cos θ)

− 2x′ y ′ (2 sin 2θ − 2 tan 2θ sin θ cos θ) = k 2 .
On simplification, we get x′2 − y ′2 = k 2 cos 2θ.
Example 1.9 By rotating the axes, origin being unchanged the expression
ux + vy becomes u′ x′ + v ′ y ′ , show that u2 + v 2 = u′2 + v ′2 .
Solution: Suppose axes are rotated through an angle θ. Then
x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ, y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ.

Geometry 11
Now the expression
ux + vy = u(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ) + v(x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ)

= (u cos θ + v sin θ)x′ + (−u sin θ + v cos θ)y ′
= u′ x′ + v ′ y ′
where u′ = u cos θ + v sin θ, v ′ = −u sin θ + v cos θ
u′2 + v ′2 = (u cos θ + v sin θ)2 + (−u sin θ + v cos θ)2
= u2 + v 2 .
Therefore u2 + v 2 is invariant.
Exercise 1.2
1. Transform the equation 3x2 +2xy+3y 2 +8x+3y+4
= 0 by rotating the
3 π
axes through an angle θ where θ = sin−1 , 0 < θ < , keeping
5 2
the origin same.
2. Find the transformed form of the equation x2 + 4xy + y 2 = 0 when

the axes are rotated through an angle θ = tan−1 (3) without changing
the origin.
3. Transform the equation 11x2 +24xy+4y 2 −20x−40y−5 = 0 by shifting

−4
the origin to the point (2, −1) inclined at an angle tan−1 to
3
the original axes.
4. If by rotation of axes without changing the origin the equation ax2 +

2hxy + by 2 = 0 becomes a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ + b′ y ′2 = 0, then show that
(a − b)2 + 4h2 = (a′ − b′ )2 + 4h′2 .
√
5. Transform the equation 4x2 + 2 3xy + 2y 2 − 1 = 0 by rotating the
axes through an angle of 30◦ .
6. If under rotation of axes, without shifting the origin, the expression

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c is transformed to a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ +
b′ y ′2 + 2g ′ x′ + 2f ′ y ′ + c′ then show that g 2 + f 2 = g ′2 + f ′2 .
7. What does the equation 3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 − 18x − 22y + 50 = 0 becomes

under shifting the origin to the point (2, 3) followed by rotation of the
π
axes through ?
4
8. Transform the equation x2 − 5xy + y 2 + 8x − 20y + 15 = 0 by shifting

the origin to the point (−4, 0) and then rotating the axes through an
angle 45◦ .
1.4 Removal of xy term

To determine the angle θ through which the axes should be rotated so that
the transformed form of the equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (1.12)
is free from product term. Suppose axes are rotated through an angle θ.
Then the equations of rotation are
x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ (1.13)
Using equations (1.13) in equation (1.12) we get

a(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ)2 + 2h(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ)(x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ)
+ b(x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ)2 + 2g(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ) + 2f (x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ) + c = 0.
(a cos2 θ + 2h sin θ cos θ + b sin2 θ)x′2
+ 2(−a sin θ cos θ + h cos2 θ − h sin2 θ + b sin θ cos θ)x′ y ′
+ (a sin2 θ − 2h sin θ cos θ + b cos2 θ)y ′2
+ 2(g cos θ + f sin θ)x′ + 2(−g sin θ + f cos θ)y ′ + c = 0 i. e.
a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ + b′ y ′2 + 2g ′ x′ + 2f ′ y ′ + c′ = 0 (1.14)
where
a′ = a cos2 θ + 2h sin θ cos θ + b sin2 θ (1.15)

′
b = a sin θ − 2h sin θ cos θ + b cos θ
2 2
(1.16)
h′ = −a sin θ cos θ + h(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + b sin θ cos θ (1.17)
′
g = g cos θ + f sin θ, (1.18)
′
f = −g sin θ + f cos θ (1.19)
and c′ = c. (1.20)
The transformed form of equation (1.12) is equation (1.14).
1. Note that (1.12) and (1.14) are both polynomials of degree 2.
2. The constant term is unchanged.

Geometry 13
3. It will not contain product term x′ y ′ if h′ = 0 i. e. if
−a sin θ cos θ + h(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + b sin θ cos θ = 0.
Multiplying by 2
2h(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 2(a − b) sin θ cos θ i.e. 2h cos 2θ = (a − b) sin 2θ.

2h 1 2h
Thus, tan 2θ = if a − b ̸= 0 i.e. θ = tan−1 .
a−b 2 a−b
On the other hand, if a = b then axes are rotated through an angle

π
θ = , so that h′ = 0. Thus, if if a = b then axes are rotated through
4
π
an angle θ = , and if a ̸= b axes are rotated through an angle
4
1 −1 2h
θ = tan , then the transformed form of equation (1) will
2 a−b
not contains the product term xy.
Invariants:-
The quantities which remain unchanged by change of axes are called in-
variants. Translation of axes or rotation of axes or both are called change
of axes.
Theorem 1.2 If by rotating the axes through an angle θ, without changing

the origin the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 is transformed
into a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ + by ′2 + 2g ′ x′ + 2f ′ y ′ + c′ = 0 then
(i) a + b = a′ + b′ , (ii) ab − h2 = a′ b′ − h′2 , and
a h g a ′ h′ g ′
(iii) h b f = h′ b′ f ′
g f c g ′ f ′ c′
Proof. We note that the relation between a, b, g, h, f, c and a′ , b′ , g ′ , h′ , f ′ , c′
are given by (1.15)-(1.20). Adding equations (1.15) and (1.16), we get
a′ + b′ = a + b.
Multiply equations (1.15), (1.16) and (1.17) by 2,1 we get
2a′ = 2a cos2 θ + 2h(2 sin θ cos θ) + 2b sin2 θ

= a(1 + cos 2θ) + 2h sin 2θ + b(1 − cos 2θ)
= (a + b) + [(a − b) cos 2θ + 2h sin 2θ]
2h′ = −2a sin θ cos θ + 2h(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + 2b sin θ cos θ
= 2h cos 2θ − (a − b) sin 2θ
′
2b = 2a sin2 θ − 2h(2 sin θ cos θ) + 2b cos2 θ
= a(1 − cos 2θ) − 2h sin 2θ + b(1 + cos 2θ)
= (a + b) − [(a − b) cos 2θ + 2h sin 2θ].
Now,
(2a′ )(2b′ ) − (2h′ )2

= (a + b)2 − [(a − b) cos 2θ + 2h sin 2θ]2 − [2h cos 2θ − (a − b) sin 2θ]2 .
Therefore,
4(a′ b′ − h′2 )
= (a + b)2 − [(a − b)2 cos2 2θ + 4h(a − b) sin 2θ cos 2θ + 4h2 sin2 2θ]
− [4h2 cos2 2θ − 4h(a − b) cos 2θ sin 2θ + (a − b)2 sin2 2θ]
= (a + b)2 − (a − b)2 [cos2 2θ + sin2 2θ] − 4h2 [sin2 2θ + cos2 2θ]
= (a + b)2 − (a − b)2 − 4h2 = 4(ab − h2 ).
Thus, a′ b′ − h′2 = ab − h2 . Therefore a + b and ab − h2 are invariant.

We want to show that ∆ = g(hf − bg) + f (hg − af ) + c(ab − h2 ) is
invariant under rotation of axes.
We have already proved that c and ab − h2 are invariant under rotation
of axes. Hence, it suffices to show that ∆1 = g(hf − bg) + f (hg − af ) is
We note that
2f ′2 = (g 2 + f 2 ) − (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ − 2f g sin 2θ
2g ′2 = (g 2 + f 2 ) − (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ − 2f g sin 2θ
2f ′ g ′ = −(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ + 2f g cos 2θ.
1 Note that sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ, 1 + cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ and
1 − cos 2θ = 2 sin2 θ.
Geometry 15
Consider 4∆′1 = 4g ′ (h′ f −b′ g ′ )+f ′ (h′ g−a′ f ′ ) = 4[2f ′ g ′ h′ −a′ f ′2 −b′ g ′2 ].
We have already proved that c and ab − h2 are invariant under rotation of
axes. Hence, it suffices to show that ∆1 = g(hf − bg) + f (hg − af ) is
We note that
2f ′2 = (g 2 + f 2 ) − (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ − 2f g sin 2θ
2g ′2 = (g 2 + f 2 ) − (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ − 2f g sin 2θ
2f ′ g ′ = −(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ + 2f g cos 2θ.
Consider 4∆′1 = 4g ′ (h′ f −b′ g ′ )+f ′ (h′ g−a′ f ′ ) = 4[2f ′ g ′ h′ −a′ f ′2 −b′ g ′2 ].
4∆′1 = 2(2f ′ g ′ )(2h′ ) − (2a′ )(2f ′2 ) − (2b′ )(2g ′2 )

= 2 −(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ + 2f g cos 2θ (2h cos 2θ − (a − b) sin 2θ)
− ((a + b) + [(a − b) cos 2θ + 2h sin 2θ])

× (g 2 + f 2 ) − (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ − 2f g sin 2θ
− ((a + b) − [(a − b) cos 2θ + 2h sin 2θ])

× (g 2 + f 2 ) + (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ + 2f g sin 2θ
Thus, using the fact that (A + B)(C − D) + (A − B)(C + D) = 2AC − 2BD,

we get
4∆′1 = −4h(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ cos 2θ + 8f gh cos2 2θ

+ 2(g 2 − f 2 )(a − b) sin2 2θ − 4f g(a − b) sin 2θ cos 2θ
− 2(a + b)(g 2 + f 2 )

+ 2 ((a − b) cos 2θ + 2h sin 2θ) (g 2 − f 2 ) cos 2θ + 2f g sin 2θ
= −4h(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ cos 2θ + 8f gh cos2 2θ
+ 2(g 2 − f 2 )(a − b) sin2 2θ − 4f g(a − b) sin 2θ cos 2θ
− 2(a + b)(g 2 + f 2 )
+ 2(a − b)(g 2 − f 2 ) cos2 2θ + 4(a − b)f g sin 2θ cos 2θ
+ 4h(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ cos 2θ + 8f gh sin2 2θ
= 8f gh + 2(g 2 − f 2 )(a − b) − 2(a + b)(g 2 + f 2 )
= 8f gh − 4af 2 − 4bg 2 = 4∆1 .
Hence, ∆1 = ∆′1 and we are done.

Example 1.10 Reduce the equation
5x2 + 6xy + 5y 2 − 10x − 6y − 3 = 0 (1)
to the standard form and name the conic.

Solution: We have a = 5, b = 5, h = 3, g = −5, f = −3, c = −3.
a h g
∆ = h b f
g f c
= −5(−9 + 25) − 3(−15 + 15) − 3(25 − 9) = −128 ̸= 0.
As ∆ ̸= 0 and ab − h2 = 25 − 9 = 16 > 0 equation

(1) represents ellipse.
hf − bg gh − af
The centre of the ellipse is , = (1, 0)
ab − h2 ab − h2
Shift the origin to the point (α, β) = (1, 0)
x = x′ + α = x′ + 1, y′ + β = y′
y = (2)
∆
Using (2) in (1) and observing that = 8, we get
ab − h2
5x′2 + 6x′ y ′ + 5y ′2 = 8 (3)
π
Rotate the co-ordinate axes through an angle θ = as a = b. Then the
4
equations of rotations becomes
π π x′′ − y ′′
x′ = x′′ cos θ − y ′′ sin θ = x′′ cos − y ′′ sin = √
4 4 2
′′
π π x + y ′′
y ′ = x′′ sin θ + y ′′ cos θ = x′′ sin + y ′′ cos = √ (4)
4 4 2
Using (4) in (3)
(x′′ − y ′′ )2 (x′′ − y ′′ )(x′′ + y ′′ ) (x′′ + y ′′ )2

5 +6 +5 =8
2 2 2
5 ′′2 6 5
(x − 2x′′ y ′′ + y ′′2 ) + (x′′2 − y ′′2 ) + (x′′2 + 2x′′ y ′′ + y ′′2 ) = 8
2 2 2
′′2
x y ′′2
8x′′2 + 2y ′′2 = 8 i.e. 2 + 2 = 1.
1 2
This is the equation of an ellipse. Note that the lengths of minor and
major axes are 2 and 4 resp. If the eccentricity is e, we have 1 = 4(1 − e2 ),
Geometry 17
√
3
which gives e = . Further, the equation of the minor axis is Y ′′ = 0, i.e.
2
y ′ − x′ = 0. Thus, y = 1(x − 1) i.e. x − y = 1 and the equation of the minor
axis is X ′′ = 0, i.e. y ′ + x′ = 0. Thus, y = −1(x − 1) i.e x + y = 1.
Example 1.11 Show that the equation 4x2 − 4xy + y 2 − 8x − 6y + 5 = 0

represents a parabola. Also show that

3 1 4 4 3
(i) vertex is , , (ii) Latus rectum is √ , (iii) Focus is , .
5 5 5 5 5
(iv) Axis of parabola is 2x − y − 1 = 0
(v) The equation of directrix is x + 2y = 0.
Solution: Note that
4 −2 −4
∆ = −2 1 −3 = −4(6 + 4) − 3(8 + 12) + 5(0) = −100 ̸= 0
−4 −3 5
and ab − h2 = 0.
The given equation can be rewritten as
(2x − y)2 = 8x + 6y − 5 (1.21)
We rewrite it as
(2x − y + λ)2 = 8x + 6y − 5 + 2λ(2x − y) + λ2

= (8 + 4λ)x + (6 − 2λ)y + λ2 − 5.
We choose λ such that the lines 2x − y + λ = 0 and (8 + 4λ)x + (6 − 2λ)y +

λ2 − 5 = 0 are perpendicular to each other. Hence, 2(8 + 4λ) − (6 − 2λ) = 0
i.e. λ = −1. Thus, we get
(2x − y − 1)2 = 4x + 8y − 5.
We rewrite this as
2
2x − y − 1 √ x + 2y − 1
5 √ = 4 5 √ .
5 5
x + 2y − 1 2x − y − 1
Let X = √ and Y = √ . Thus, we get the equation
√ 5 5
5Y 2 = 4 5X. Solving
x + 2y − 1 = 0,
2x − y − 1 = 0,

3 1
we get , as the vertex. Note that x + 2y = 1 is the equation of the
5 5
tangent at the vertex while x + 2y = 1 is the equation of axis of symmetry.
This method which we followed is called as λ method. We can also do
this problem using rotation of axes.
2h 4 2 tan θ 4
Note that tan 2θ = = − . Since tan 2θ = = − .
a−b 3 1 − tan2 θ 3
3 1
Thus,1 − tan θ = − tan θ. Hence, tan θ = 2 or − . Let tan θ = 2.
2
2 2
1
x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ = √ (x′ − 2y ′ ) ,
5
1
y = x sin θ + y cos θ = √ (2x′ + y ′ ) .
′ ′
5
2
Hence, the equation (1.21) becomes
√
′2 8 ′ ′ 6 ′ ′ 20x′ − 10y ′ − 5 5
5y = √ (x − 2y ) + √ (2x + y ) − 5 = √ .
5 5 5
On Simplification, we get

√ √ √ 1
5y ′2 + 2 5y ′ + 1 = 4 5x′ − 4 = 4 5 x′ − √
5
2
1 ′
√ ′ 1
5 y +√ = 4 5 x −√ ,
5 5
√
5Y 2 = 4 5X where
1 1
X = x′ − √ , Y = y ′ + √ .
5 5
2 We note that
x + 2y ′ −2x + y
x′ = √ ,y = √
5 5
Geometry 19
Example 1.12 Find the centre, axes and the eccentricity of the conic
133x2 + 24xy + 88y 2 − 194x + 504y + 173 = 0.
Solution: Here a = 133, b = 88, c = 173, f = 252, g = −97, h = 12. Hence,3
a h g 133 12 −97
∆ = h b f = 12 88 252
g f c −97 252 173
= −97(11560) + 252(−34680) + 173(11560)
= 11560(−97 + 252(−3) + 173) = 11560(−680).
Thus, ∆ ̸= 0 and ab − h2 = 11560 > 0. Hence the given equation represents
an ellipse. The centre of the ellipse is

hf − bg gh − af 11560 34680
, = ,− = (1, −3).
ab − h2 ab − h2 11560 11560
Shift the origin to the point (α, β) = (1, −3). Thus, x = x′ + 1, y = y ′ − 3
∆
and = −680. Hence, the given equation becomes
ab − h2
133x′2 + 24x′ y ′ + 88y ′2 − 680 = 0.
We now rotate the axes through angle θ so that
2h 24 24 8
tan 2θ = = = = .
a−b 133 − 88 45 15
2 tan θ 8 1 1
Hence, = . Thus, we get tan θ = −4 or . Suppose tan θ = .
1 − tan2 θ 15 4 4
1 4
Hence sin θ = √ and cos θ = √ . The equations of axes of rotation are
17 17
4X − Y X + 4Y
x′ = X cos θ − Y sin θ = √ and y ′ = X sin θ + Y cos θ = √ .
17 17
Substituting these values we get 136X 2 + 85y 2 = 680. On simplification,
we get
X2 Y2
+ = 1.
5 8
Thus, X = 0 and Y = 0 are the equations of major and minor axis.
3 We expand the determinant ∆ using the last row as ∆ = g(hf − bg) + f (hg − af ) +
c(ab − h2 ). This helps in later calculations.

Example 1.13 Reduce the following equation to its standard form
x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 6x − 2y + 4 = 0 (1)
Solution: Here a = 1, b = 1, c = 4, f = −1, g = −3, h = 1. Hence,
a h g 1 1 −3
∆= h b f = 1 1 −1 = −3(2) − 1(−2) + 4(0) = −4 ̸= 0.
g f c −3 −1 4
Since ab − h2 = 0, the equation (conic) represents a parabola. Since, a = b,

π
rotate the axes through angle θ = so that product term xy will be
4
eliminated from (1). The equations of transformations will be
x′ − y ′ x′ + y ′
x= √ , y= √ .
2 2
Equation (1) will be transformed to

√ √
(x′ − 2)2 = 2y ′ (2)
√
Shift
√ the origin to the point ( 2, 0). Then equation (2) becomes x′′2 =
− 2y ′ .
Example 1.14 Shift the origin to the centre of the conic and then remove
the product term xy from the equation x2 + 4xy + y 2 − 2x + 2y − 6 =
0 (1)
Solution: Here a = 1, b = 1, c = −6, h = 2, g = −1, f = 1. Hence,
a h g 1 2 −1 1 2 −1
∆= h b f = 2 1 1 = 0 −3 3 = 12 ̸= 0
g f c −1 1 −6 0 3 −7
and ab − h2 = 1 − 4 = −3 < 0. Therefore equation (1) represents

hy-
hf − bg gh − ab
perbola. The centre of the hyperbola is , = (−1, +1)
ab − h2 ab − h2
∆
and = 4. Shift the origin to the point (−1, 1). The equations of
ab − h2
transformation are
x = x′ − 1, y = y ′ + 1 (2)
Geometry 21
Using equations (2) in equation (1) we get
x′2 + 4x′ y ′ + y ′2 + 4 = 0 (3)
We rotate the co-ordinate axes through an angle θ so as to eliminate the

π
product term. Since, a = b we get θ = . Then the equations of rotations
4
are
π π
x′ = x′′ cos θ − y ′′ sin θ = x′′ cos
− y ′′ sin
4 4
π π
y′ = ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
x sin θ + y cos θ = x sin + y cos
4 4
x′′ − y ′′ x′′ + y ′′
x′ = √ , y= √ (4)
2 2
Using above equations (4) in equations (3)
2 2
x′′ − y ′′ x′′ − y ′′ x′′ + y ′′ x′′ + y ′′
√ +4 √ √ + √ +4=0
2 2 2 2
x′′2 y ′′2
Thus, 6x′′2 − 2y ′′2 + 8 = 0 i. e. − + 2 = 1.
2 2 2
(√ )
3
This is equation of the hyperbola with x′′ -axis as conjugate axis.
Example 1.15 Find the lengths and equations of the axes, centre, directrix,
latus rectum and the eccentricity of the conic given by
9x2 + 24xy + 2y 2 − 6x + 20y + 41 = 0.
Solution: Note that a = 9, h = 12, b = 2, g = −3, f = 10, c = 41. Hence,
a h g 9 12 −3
∆= h b f = 12 2 10 .
g f c −3 10 41
Thus, ∆ = −3(126) + 10(−126) + 41(−126) = 54(−126) = −6804. Note

that ab − h2 = −126 < 0 and ∆ ̸= 0. Hence, the given conic represents a
hyperbola. We note that the centre of the hyperbola is given by

hf − bg gh − af ∆
, = (−1, 1) and = 54.
ab − h 2 ab − h 2 ab − h2
By shifting the origin to the centre of the hyperbola, we get x = x′ − 1, y =

y ′ + 1 and the equation gets transformed to
9x′2 + 24x′ y ′ + 2y ′2 + 54 = 0.
We now remove the product term using rotation of axes. We rotate the
2h 24 2 tan θ 24
axes through angle θ, so that tan 2θ = = . Thus, = .
a−b 7 1 − tan2 θ 7
3 4 3
Thus, 12 tan2 θ + 7 tan θ − 12 = 0. Thus, tan θ = or − . Let tan θ = .
4 3 4
3 4
Hence, sin θ = and cos θ = . Now, x′ = x′′ cos θ−y ′′ sin θ, y ′′ = x′′ sin θ+
5 5
′′ ′ 4x′′ − 3y ′′ ′ 3x′′ + 4y ′′
y cos θ. Thus, x = ,y = . Hence,
5 5
′′ 2 ′′ ′′ ′′ 2
4x − 3y ′′ 4x − 3y ′′ 3x + 4y ′′ 3x + 4y ′′
9 +24 +2 = −54.
5 5 5 5
y ′′2 x′2
On simplification, we get 18x′′2 − 7y ′′2 = −54, i.e. − = 1, which
54/7 3
is the equation of hyperbola.
Example 1.16 Discuss the nature of the conic given by 9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 −
400x − 300y + 2500 = 0.
Solution. We note that
a h g 9 −12 −400
∆= h b f = −12 16 −300 = 500 ̸= 0
g f c −400 −300 2500
and ab − h2 = 0. Therefore the given equation represents parabola. We can

rewrite the given equation as
2
3x − 4y 4 3
25 = 500 x+ y−5
5 5 5
3x − 4y 4 3
Let Y = and X = x + y − 5. Hence, we get Y 2 = 20X, which
5 5 5
is in the standard form.
Exercise Set 1.3

Geometry 23
1. Show that, if ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 is a second

a h g
degree equation then ∆ = h b f is invariant for rotation as well
g f c
as translation of axes. Also, show that a + b and ab − h2 is invariant
under rotation as well as translation of axes.
2. Let ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 be a second degree equation.
Find a condition so that it represents
(a) a parabola,
(b) an ellipse,
(c) a hyperbola,
(d) a pair of intersecting lines,
(e) a pair of parallel lines,
(f) a circle.
3. Let ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 be a second degree equation.
(a) Describe the method so that the term xy can be eliminated.
(b) Describe the method so that the terms in x and y can be elimi-
nated.
4. Trace the following conics using invariants only. Also, find out the
lengths of major and minor axis and eccentricity (if applicable):
(a) 8x2 + 4xy + 5y 2 − 12 = 0.
(b) 12x2 − 4xy + 7y 2 − 20 = 0.
(c) 11x2 − 4xy + 14y 2 − 20 = 0.
(d) 5x2 − 2xy + 5y 2 − 12 = 0.
5. Find the lengths and equations of the axes, centre, directrix, latus
rectum and the eccentricity of the following conics (whichever appli-
cable):
(a) 11x2 + 24xy + 4y 2 = 5.
(b) 14x2 − 4xy + 11y 2 − 36x + 48y + 41 = 0.
(c) 6x2 + 24xy − y 2 − 1 = 0.
(d) 11x2 + 4xy + 14y 2 − 5 = 0.
(e) 9x2 + 24xy + 2y 2 − 6x + 20y + 4 = 0.

(f) 8x2 + 12xy − 8y 2 + 12x + 4y + 3 = 0.
(g) 2x2 + xy − 3y 2 − 6x + 11y − 8 = 0.
(h) x2 + 4xy + 4y 2 + 4x + 8y + 3 = 0.
(i) 3x2 + 3y 2 + 4x − 6y − 12 = 0.
(j) 5x2 − 6xy + 5y 2 + 18x − 14y + 9 = 0.
(k) x2 − 16xy − 11y 2 + 10x + 10y − 7 = 0.
(l) x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 2x − 1 = 0.
(m) x2 + xy + y 2 + x + y − 1 = 0.
(n) 4x2 − 4xy + y 2 + 3x − 14y − 16 = 0.
(o) 3x2 − 10xy + 3y 2 + 5x − 7y + 9 = 0.
6. When the axes are rotated about the origin through an angle θ, the
expression ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 , becomes a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ + b′ y ′2 , prove
that
(i) a + b = a′ + b′ (ii) ab − h2 = a′ b′ − h′2 .
7. Prove that the second degree equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
always represents a conic.
(a) Find the co-ordinates of the centre of the conic.

(b) Prove that the origin is the centre of the conicif and only if g = 0
and f = 0.
8. Determine the nature of the conic given by
(a) 11x2 − 6xy + 19y 2 + 6x + 2y − 1 = 0.

(b) x2 + 16xy − 11y 2 − 6x + 12y − 6 = 0.
(c) 9x2 − 12xy + 4y 2 + 4x − 7y + 1 = 0.
(d) 3x3 + 3y 2 + 4x − 2y − 1 = 0.
(e) 6x2 − xy − y 2 − x + 3y − 2 = 0.
(f) 9x2 − 12xy + 4y 2 − 3x + 2y − 2 = 0.
(g) 3x2 + 8xy − 3y 2 + 4x + 2y + 3 = 0.
Geometry 25
9. Find the centre of the given conic and also its equation referred to
parallel axes through its centre.
(a) x2 − 2xy + 3y 2 − 10x + 22y + 30 = 0.
(b) 3x2 + 2xy + 4y 2 − 10x − 18y + 28 = 0.
(c) 11x2 − 24xy + 4y 2 + 20 = 0.
(d) 11x2 + 4xy + 14y 2 − 4x − 28y − 16 = 0.
(e) x2 − 5xy + y 2 + 8x − 20y + 15 = 0.
(f) 4xy − 4(x + y) + 3 = 0.
(g) 8x2 + 12xy + 17y 2 − 40x − 80y + 96 = 0
(h) 10x2 − 16xy + 10y 2 + 4x + 4y − 32 = 0
(i) 5x2 − 26xy + 5y 2 − 16x − 16y − 52 = 0.
10. Reduce the equation of the given conic to standard form. Find its
centre, eccentricity and equations of principal axes:
(a) 8x2 − 4xy + 5y 2 − 8x − 16y − 16 = 0.

(b) 13x2 − 12xy + 4y 2 − 16x = 0.
(c) 9x2 − 4xy + 6y 2 − 14x − 8y + 1 = 0.
(d) x2 − 4xy + y 2 − 2x − 20y − 11 = 0.
(e) 8x2 + 12xy − 8y 2 + 6x + 2y − 9 = 0.
(f) 2x2 + 12xy − 7y 2 − 16x + 2y − 3 = 0.
(g) x2 − 16xy − 11y 2 + 10x + 10y − 7 = 0.
(h) 3x2 − 10xy + 3y 2 + 14x − 2y + 3 = 0.
(i) x2 − 4xy − 2y 2 + 6x + 12y − 21 = 0.
(j) x2 + xy + y 2 − 6x − 6y + 9 = 0.
(k) x2 + xy + y 2 + x + y − 1 = 0.
11. Reduce the equation of the given conic to standard form. Find the
vertex, latus rectum, equation of the axis and of the tangent at the
vertex:
(a) 9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 + 20x − 10y + 24 = 0
(b) 4x2 − 4xy + y 2 − 14x − 18y + 31 = 0
(c) 9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 − 2x − 39y − 11 = 0
(d) x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 6x + 10y + 25 = 0.

(e) x2 + y 2 = 2xy + 4x + 4y + 4
(f) 16x2 − 24xy + 9y 2 − 6x − 8y − 1 = 0.
(g) x2 − 4xy + 4y 2 + 10x − 8y + 13 = 0.
(h) x2 + 4xy + 4y 2 − 14x − 8y + 13 = 0.
(i) x2 − 4xy + 4y 2 − 6x − 8y + 5 = 0.
(j) 4x2 + 4xy + y 2 + 2x + 6y + 3 = 0.
Exercise 1.4
1. Reduce the following equations to its standard form.
(a) 5x2 + 6xy + 5y 2 − 4x + 4y − 4 = 0.
(b) 5x2 + 6xy + 5y 2 − 10x − 6y − 3 = 0.
(c) x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 2x − 1 = 0.
(d) 5x2 − 6xy + 5y 2 + 18x − 14y + 9 = 0.
(e) x2 + 4xy + y 2 − 2x + 2y − 6 = 0.
(f) 7x2 − 6xy + 7y 2 + 30x + 10y + 35 = 0.
(g) x2 − 2xy + y 2 − 6x − 2y + 4 = 0.
2. Find the centres of the following conics.
(a) x2 − 4xy − 2y 2 + 10x + 4y = 0.
(b) x2 − 5xy + y 2 + 8x − 20y + 15 = 0.
(c) 5x2 + 6xy + 5y 2 + 22x − 6y + 21 = 0.
3. Determine the nature of the following conics
(a) x2 − xy + 2y 2 − 2x − 6y + 7 = 0
(b) x2 + y 2 − 8x − 6y + 5 = 0.
(c) 3x2 − 8xy − 3y 2 − 10x − 4y + 2 = 0
(d) y 2 + 4x + 4y + 16 = 0.
4. Remove the product term from the following equations.
(a) 5x2 + 3xy + y 2 + x − y − 2 = 0.
(b) 4x2 + 6xy + 4y 2 − 2x + 2y + 3 = 0.
Geometry 27
5. Show that the equation 5x2 + 6xy + 5y 2 − 10x − 6y − 3 = 0, represents

the ellipse. Find its centre, lengths of axes, equations of axes and
length of latus rectum.
6. Show that the equation 9x2 − 6xy + y 2 − 14x − 2y + 12 = 0 represents
a parabola. Find its vertex and latus rectum.
7. Determine the nature of the conic x2 + 12xy − 4y 2 − 6x + 4y + 9 = 0.
8. Discuss the nature of the conic x2 − 4xy − 2y 2 + 10x + 4y = 0.
9. Find the angle θ through which the axes should be rotated to remove
the xy term in the following equations
(a) x2 − 4xy + 4y 2 − 2y + 2 = 0.
(b) 7x2 + 12xy − 5y 2 + 4x + 3y − 5 = 0.
(c) 4x2 + 12xy + 9y 2 + 2x + 2y + 7 = 0.
(d) 36x2 + 28xy + 29y 2 + 8x + 3y + 9 = 0.
(e) 8x2 − 12xy + 17y 2 + 4x + 6y − 2 = 0.
10. Remove the product term xy from the following
√ equations:
(i) 3x2 − 5xy + 3y 2 − 5 = 0 (ii) 4x2 + 2 3xy + 2y 2 − 7 = 0.
rectum and the eccentricity of the conic x2 + xy + y 2 + x + y − 1 = 0.
12. Show that 9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 − 400x − 300y + 2500 = 0 represents a
parabola. Find it’s vertex, equation of tangent at the vertex, equation
of axis of the parabola. Also find the length of the latus rectum.
rectum and the eccentricity of the conic x2 − 16xy − 11y 2 + 10x +
10y − 7 = 0.
1.5 General Equation of second degree in x and y :

Theorem 1.3 The necessary and sufficient condition that the general equa-
tion of second degree ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents two
straight lines is
a h g
h b f = 0.
g f c
Proof. Suppose u ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and v ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 are the

equations of two lines L1 and L2 respectively. Then the joint equation of
these lines is given by uv = 0, that is,
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 )(a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) = 0.
This equation may be rewritten as
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, (1.22)
where a = a1 a2 , 2h = a1 b2 + a2 b1 , b = b1 b2 ,
2g = a1 c2 + a2 c1 , 2f = b1 c2 + b2 c1 , c = c1 c2 .
Hence,
2a 2h 2g 2a1 a2 a 1 b2 + a 2 b1 a1 c 2 + a2 c1
2h 2b 2f = a 1 b2 + a 2 b1 2b1 b2 b1 c 2 + b2 c 1
2g 2f 2c a1 c 2 + a2 c1 b1 c 2 + b2 c 1 2c1 c2
a1 a2 0 a2 b2 c2
= b1 b2 0 a1 b1 c1 = 0.
c1 c2 0 0 0 0
Conversely, assume that the general second degree equation in x and y

given by
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (1.23)
such that
a h g
∆= h b f = 0.
g f c
Denote S = ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c. Assume that a ̸= 0.
Now regarding aS as a polynomial in x and going through the process of
completing the square, we get
aS = (ax + hy + g)2 + (ab − h2 )y 2 − 2(gh − af )y + (ac − g 2 )

= (ax + hy + g)2 + (Cy 2 − 2F y + B),
where C = ab − h2 , F = gh − af, B = ac − g 2 . Hence,

BC − F 2 = a(a(bc − f 2 ) + h(f g − ch) + g(hf − bg)) = a∆
As, ∆ = 0, we get BC − F 2 = 0.
Geometry 29
Hence for some r and t, Cy 2 − 2F y + B = ±(ry + t)2 .

If Cy 2 − 2F y + B = −(ry + t)2 , then aS can be expressed as a difference
of two squares and so has linear factors. Thus, if a ̸= 0 and if ∆ = 0, then
the given equation (1.23) represents pair of lines.
If Cy 2 − 2F y + B = (ry + t)2 , then aS can be expressed as sum of two
squares and represents pair of imaginary lines. If a = 0 but b ̸= 0 there is
a similar argument. If a = b = 0 then h ̸= 0 and 2f gh − hc = 0. Thus,
2f g = hc. this is sufficient for 2hxy + 2gx + 2f y + c to factorize. For,
2h2 xy + 2ghx + 2hf y + hc = 2h2 xy + 2ghx + 2hf y + 2f g

= 2(h2 xy + ghx + hf y + f g)
= 2(hx + f )(hy + g).
Remark 1.1 The above theorem can be used to prove that ∆ is invariant
under rotation. The idea is the following: Note that the distance of the
point from origin is invariant under rotation. Consider, ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 +
2gx + 2f y + c = 0. We add λ(x2 + y 2 ) to this equation and we choose λ so
that the resulting equation
(a + λ)x2 + 2hxy + (b + λ)y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
represents a pair of lines. Thus,
λ+a h g
h λ+b f = 0,
g f c
which is a quadratic equation in λ. Let λ1 , λ2 be the roots of this equation.

When we rotate the axes, the transformed equation is
(a′ + λ)x2 + 2h′ xy + (b′ + λ)y 2 + 2g ′ x + 2f ′ y + c = 0.
The new equation will represent pair of lines for λ = λ1 and λ = λ2 . Now,
using the relation between roots and coefficients of the quadratic equation,
we get that ∆ is invariant under rotation of axes.
Answers
Exercise Set 1.1
1. h = −1 2.k = −1 3. 2x2 + 3xy − 4y 2 − 4x − 14y − 1 = 0.

4. x2 − y 2 + 3 = 0. 5. (−2, 1), b = 2. 6. (3, −2), a = 1.

7. (1, 2). 8. h = −2.
Exercise Set 1.2
1. 99x′2 − 14x′ y ′ + 51y ′2 + 205x′ − 60y ′ + 100 = 0.

2. 11x′2 − 16x′ y ′ − y ′2 = 0. 3. x′′2 − 4y ′′2 + 1 = 0.
5. 5x′2 + y ′2 = 1. 7. 4x′′2 + 2y ′′2 = 1. 8. 7x′′2 − 3y ′′2 = 2.
Exercise Set 1.4

−1
1. (a) 4x′′2 + y ′′2 = 4. (b) x′′2 + 4y ′′2 = 1 (c) x′′2 = √ y ′′
2
′′2 ′′2 ′′2 ′′2 x′′2 y ′′2
(c) x + 4y = 4. (e) 3x − y = 1. (f) + = 1.
√ 5 2
(g) x′′2 = − 2y ′ .
2. (a) (−1, 2) (b) (−4, 0) (c (−4, 3)
3. (a) Ellipse (b) Circle (c) Hyperbola (d) Parabola
5. Centre (1, 0), semi-major axis = 2, semi-minor axis = 1. Equations
of major axis x + y + 1 = 0, Equations of minor axis x − y − 1 = 0,
length of latus rectum = 1.
2
6. Vertex = (1, 1), latus rectum = √ . 7, 8. Hyperbola.
10
9. Note that ab − h2 = 0 and ∆ = −100 ̸= 0. Hence, the given equation
represents a parabola.

1 4 π 1 −12 1 1 4
10. (a) tan−1 (b) (c) tan−1 (d) tan−1 (4) (e) tan−1 .
2 3 8 2 5 2 2 3
11. (i) x′2 + 11y ′2 = 10 (ii) 5x′2 + y ′2 = 7.
Geometry 31
Chapter 2
Analytical Geometry of three dimensions
2.1 Introduction
The reader has already been introduced to the study of three dimensional
geometry. In this chapter, we study lines and planes. We study the equation
of lines and planes in different forms. We will revise some of the results
which a student might have studied in twelfth standard. We shall study
the condition that two given lines are coplanar and skew lines.
x′
y′
y
x
z′
Figure 2.1: Coordinate axes in 3 dimensions
2.2 Rectangular Cartesian Co-ordinates of a point in Space

In a plane we determine the position of a point by means of a pair rectan-
gular axes. A point in the plane is identified with an ordered pair of real
numbers called the coordinates of the point. We now extend this idea
to the points in space. Let X ′ OX, Y ′ OY and Z ′ OZ be three mutually
perpendicular axes intersecting in a point O. The point O is called as the
origin. The axes X ′ OX, Y ′ OY and Z ′ OZ are respectively called as the x-
33
axis, y-axis and z -axis and will be referred as the coordinate axes. Note
that every point on x-axis is of the form (x, 0, 0) and similarly every point
on y axis is of the form (0, y, 0) and every point on z axis is of the form
(0, 0, z). These three co-ordinate axes taken two at a time determine three
mutually perpendicular planes. These three planes are called the coordi-
nate planes and are briefly written as the xy - plane (containing x and y
axes), yz- plane (containing y and z axes), zx - plane (containing z and x
axes).
2.2.1 Orientation of Axes

The positive direction of the z-axis is the direction in which a right handed
screw will move if the sense of rotation of the screw is from the positive
direction of the x-axis to the positive direction of the y-axis. Thus, OX,
OY and OZ are the positive directions of the co-ordinate axes (see Fig.
2.1). We then say that the co-ordinate system is oriented as a right handed
system.
NOTE: We always use right handed rectangular coordinate system.
2.3 Co-ordinates of a Point

In order to define the coordinates of a point in space, we need the fol-
lowing definition. A line L said to be perpendicular to a plane π, if it is
perpendicular to every line contained in π. It can be shown that the line
L is perpendicular to π if and only if L is perpendicular to two distinct
intersecting lines in π. Let P be any point in the space (see Fig. 2.2).
Draw segment P N perpendicular on the xy-plane. Draw segment N A and
segment N B perpendicular to the x and y axes respectively. Draw also,
segment P C perpendicular to the z-axis. Thus, corresponding to every
point in the space we can find three points A, B, C on the coordinate axes.
We now call the directed lengths OA, OB and OC the x, y and z coordinates
of the point P. We denote it as P (x, y, z).
Remark 2.1 If we draw planes parallel to the coordinate axes passing through
P, we get a parallelepiped OAN B−CM P L (see Fig. 2.2 (a)). P M, P L, P N
are perpendiculars on yz, zx and xy panes respectively. These planes in-
tersect x, y, z axes in A, B, C respectively. By, x, y, z coordinates of P we
mean real numbers x, y, z such that x = OA, y = OB, z = OC. Now,
P N ⊥ xy-plane, therefore P N is perpendicular to every line in the xy-
plane. Hence, P N ⊥ OX, also N A ⊥ OX. So OX is perpendicular to two
Geometry 35
z
z
C(0, 0, z)
P (x, y, z)
MC L
P
A B(0, y, 0)
A(x, 0, 0)
B y
x N N (x, y, 0)
y
x
Fig (a)
Fig (b)
Figure 2.2: Coordinates of a point
intersecting lines P N and N A. Thus, OX is perpendicular to the plane

formed by P N and N A. Thus, OX is perpendicular to every line in the
plane. Hence, OX ⊥ P A, (see Fig. 2.2 (b)).
Similarly, OY ⊥ P B and OZ ⊥ P C. Hence, x, y and z are the projec-
tions of OP on OX, OY and OZ respectively. If OP make angles α, β, γ
with axes OX, OY and OZ respectively; and OP = r, then
x = OA = projection of OP on the x-axis = r cos α

y = OB = projection of OP on they-axis = r cos β
z = OC = projection of OP on thez-axis = r cos γ.
2.3.1 Direction Cosines

In plane geometry the direction of a line is determined by its inclination
θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π); i.e., angle θ made by a line with positive direction of the
x − axis. To determine the direction of a line in space, we must know the
angles made by the line with x, y and z axes. Now on a line AB there are
two possible directions viz. AB and BA. Hence to be definite we consider
direction of vectors.
Definition 2.1 (Direction angles) Let OP represent a vector r̄ in space. Let

α, β, γ be the angles made by OP ¯ with positive directions of x, y, z axes
respectively, with 0 ≤ α, β, γ ≤ π. Then α, β, γ are called the direction

angles of the vector r̄.
Definition 2.2 (Direction cosines) If α, β, γ are direction angles of a vector

r̄, then cos α, cos β, cos γ are called the direction cosines of r̄.
We shall write in short d.c.s. for direction cosines. Further it is customary
to write the d.c.s. as l, m, n (where, l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos γ).
Remark 2.2 If l, m, n are d.c.s. of r̄, then −l, −m, −n are d.c.s. of −r̄, di-
rection angles of −r̄ are π − α, π − β, π − γ.
Definition 2.3 (Direction cosines of a line) Let L be a straight line in the

space and A, B be points on it. Suppose P is a point on the straight line
parallel to the line L, passing through the origin, such that AB and OP
have the same direction. The direction angles of the line L are defined to
be the direction angles of the vector OP . If α, β, γ are direction angles of a
line L, then cos α, cos β, cos γ are called the direction cosines (d.c.s.) of L.
Remark 2.3 If α, β, γ are direction angles of a line L, then π − α, π − β,

π − γ are also direction angles of the line L. Thus, if cos α, cos β, cos γ are
d.c.s. of the line L, then − cos α, − cos β, − cos γ are also d.c.s. of L. Any
one of these can be used as d.c.s. of the line L.
Remark 2.4 Two or more lines are parallel if and only if they have the same
sets of d.c.s..
Direction cosines of the coordinate axes Note that direction angles of the
π π π π
x-axis are 0, , . Therefore d.c.s. of the x-axis are cos 0, cos , cos i.e.
2 2 2 2
1, 0, 0. Similarly, the d.c.s. of y and z axes are 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1 respectively.
Theorem 2.1 If l, m, n are d.c.s. of a line the l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.

Proof. Let L be a line with d.c.s. l, m, n. Let a line OP be drawn through
the origin 0 and parallel to the line L, where P (x, y, z). The line L and the
line OP make the same angles with the coordinate axes. Hence the d.c.s.
of the line OP will also be l, m, n. Let α, β, γ be the direction angles of
the line OP (see Fig. 2.3). Therefore l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos γ. Let
OP = r. By the Remark 2.1, we have x = r cos α, y = r cos β, z = r cos γ.
By the distance formula, we have x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r2 . Hence, r2 cos2 α +
r2 cos2 β + r2 cos2 γ = r2 . Thus,
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1 i.e. l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.

Geometry 37
L z
x y
Figure 2.3: Parallel Lines
Definition 2.4 (Direction Ratios) If l, m, n are d.c.s. of a line, then any

l m n
three numbers a, b, c which are proportional; i.e., = = are called
a b c
the direction ratios (d.r.s.) of the line.
Note that a, b, c are d.r.s. of a line L, then so are ka, kb, kc for nonzero real
number k.
x y
Remark 2.5 In the proof of the Theorem 2.1, we have l = , m = ,
r r
z
n = . So, for a point P (x, y, z), the d.c.s. of the line OP (O is the origin)
r
x y z
are , , . This means that x, y, z are proportional to the d.c.s. of the line
r r r
OP. It follows that the coordinates (x, y, z) of P are d.r.s. of the line OP.
Remark 2.6 (Direction ratios of a line joining two points) Let P Q be a line
passing through the points P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ). Shift the origin
to the point P. The coordinates of Q will then be (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ).
But P is the new origin and so the line P Q passes through the new origin.
Hence by the Remark 2.5 d.r.s. of P Q are precisely the new coordinates of
Q viz. x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 .
Remark 2.7 (Relation between direction ratios and direction cosines)
Let l, m, n be the d.c.s and a, b, c are d.r.s. of a line L. By definition of d.r.s.
we have, l = at, m = bt and n = ct for some t ∈ R. Since, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1,
we have, t2 (a2 + b2 + c2 ) = 1. Hence,
a b c
l = ±√ , m = ±√ , n = ±√ .
a2 2
+b +c 2 2 2
a +b +c 2 a + b2 + c 2
2
Note that the same plus or minus sign has been taken through out.
Example 2.1 Find the direction cosines of the line OP, if P is (4, 3, 2) and
O is the origin.
Solution: Since P = (4, 3, 2), d.r.s.,
√ say (a,b,c), of√the line OP are 4, 3, 2.
So a = 4, b = 3, c = 2. Let k = 42 + 32 + 22 = 29. Then if l, m, n are
4 4 3 2
d.c.s. of the line OP, then l = = √ . Similarly m = √ , n = √ .
k 29 29 29
4 3 2
Hence d.c.s. of the line OP are √ , √ , √ .
29 29 29
Example 2.2 Find the direction cosines of the line AB if A is (6, 2, −3) and
B is (8, −3, 4).
Solution: Since A = (6, 2, −3), and B = (8, −3,p 4), d.r.s. of the line√AB
are 8 − 6, −3 − 2, 4 − (−3), i.e., 2, −5, 7. Let k = 22 + (−5)2 + 72 = 78.
2 −5 7 2 −5 7
Hence d.c.s. of the line AB are , , , i.e. √ , √ , √ .
k k k 78 78 78
Example 2.3 If a line makes angles of 60◦ and 120◦ with the positive direc-
tions of x and y axes respectively, find the angle made by the line with the
positive direction of the z-axis.
Solution: Let L be a line which makes angles α = 60◦ , β = 120◦ with x and
y axes respectively and angle γ with the positive direction of z−axis. We
know that cos2 α+cos2 β +cos2 γ = 1. Hence, cos2 60◦ +cos2 (120◦ +cos2 γ =
2 2
1. Thus, 21 + − 21 + cos2 γ = 1. So cos2 γ = 12 , cos γ = ± √12 . Hence
γ = 45◦ or γ = 135◦ . The required line L makes on angle 45◦ or 135◦ with
positive direction of the z−axis.
π π
Example 2.4 Show that no lines in space can make angles and with x
6 4
and y axes
π
Solution: Let if possible, there be a line L which makes angles α = and
6
π
β = , with positive directions of x and y axes and angle γ with positive
4
direction of z−axis. We know that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1. Hence,
π π
cos2 + cos2 + cos2 γ = 1.
6 4
Hence cos2 γ = − 14 . This is impossible, because there is no real number
whose square is negative. Hence there is no line in space which can make
π π
angles and with x and y axes.
6 4
Geometry 39
Example 2.5 A line lies in the yz plane and makes an angle 300 with y−axis.
Find its inclination with z−axis.
Solution: Let L be a line which lies in the yz plane and make an angle
β = 30◦ with y−axis. x−axis is perpendicular to the yz plane. So L makes
an angle 90◦ with x−axis. Assume that the line L makes an angle γ with
z−axis. We know that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1. Hence, cos2 90◦ +
cos2 30◦ + cos2 γ = 1. Hence cos2 γ = 41 , cos γ = ± 21 . Hence the line L
makes an angle 60◦ or 120◦ with z−axis.
Example 2.6 α, β, γ are the direction angles of the line where α = β and
π
γ = . Find the d.c.s. of a line.
4
Solution: Let L be a line with direction angles α, β, γ. Then cos2 α+cos2 β+
π π
cos2 γ = 1. Therefore cos2 α + cos2 α + cos2 = 1 (given β = α, γ = ).
4 4
1 1 1
Hence, 2 cos α + = 1. So cos α = , so that cos α = ± . So there are
2 2
2 4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
two lines and their d.c.s. are , , √ and − , − , √ .
2 2 2 2 2 2
Example 2.7 If θ1 , θ2 , θ3 are the angles made by the line OP with the planes
XOY, Y OZ and ZOX respectively, prove that cos2 θ1 +cos2 θ2 +cos2 θ3 = 2.
Solution. Let P (x, y, z), and let OP = r. Let ON, OM and OL be the
projections of OP on the xy, yz and xz planes respectively. Co-ordinates
of N, M and L are respectively (x, y, 0), (0, y, z) and x, 0, z). Since θ1 , θ2
and θ3 are the angles made by OP with the planes XOY, Y OZ and ZOX
respectively, angles between OP and ON, OP and OM, OP and OL are
also θ1 , θ2 and θ3 respectively.
ON = OP cos θ1 , OM = OP cos θ2 , ON = OP cos θ3 . Hence,
ON 2 = OP 2 cos2 θ1 , OM 2 = OP 2 cos2 θ2 , ON 2 = OP 2 cos2 θ3 . Thus,
x2 + y 2 = r2 cos2 θ1 , y 2 + z 2 = r2 cos2 θ2 , x2 + z 2 = r2 cos2 θ3 . Hence,
x2 + y 2 + y 2 + z 2 + x2 + z 2 = r2 (cos2 θ1 + cos2 θ2 + cos2 θ3 ). Hence,
2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = r2 (cos2 θ1 + cos2 θ2 + cos2 θ3 ). Note that x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r2 .
Thus, cos2 θ1 + cos2 θ2 + cos2 θ3 = 2.
Example 2.8 The direction cosines of two lines are connected by the rela-
tions l − 5m + 3n = 0 and 7l2 + 5m2 − 3n2 = 0. Find the direction cosines
of the lines.
Solution. Consider the equations
l − 5m + 3n = 0, (i)
7l2 + 5m2 − 3n2 = 0. (ii)
We solve the two equations for the ratios l : m : n. We find the value of
l in terms of m and n from (i) and substitute in (ii) to eliminate l. Hence,
7(5m − 3n)2 + 5m2 − 3n2 = 0 i.e. 7(25m2 − 30mn + 9n2 ) + 5m2 − 3n2 = 0.
Hence, 6m2 − 7mn + 2n2 = 0. (iii)
Now if n = 0, then by (ii) we would get 7l2 + 5m2 = 0 or l = m = 0.
This is false since l2 + m2 + n2 = 1. So n ̸= 0. Hence we may divide both
sides of (iii) by n2 and express it as a quadratic equation in m/n. Thus,
m 2 m m 2 m 1
6 −7 + 2 = 0. Solving this equation, we get = or = .
n n n 3 n 2
l m
Dividing (i) by n, we have − 5 + 3 = 0.
n n
m 2 l 2 l 1
Case (i): If = , then − 5 + 3 = 0. Thus, = . Hence,
n 3 n √3 n 3
l m n l 2 + m2 + n 2 1
= = . Each ratio equals √ = √ . Thus,
1 2 3 12 + 22 + 32 14
1 2 3
l = √ ,m = √ ,n = √ .
14 14 14
m 1 l 1 l 1 l
Case (ii): If = , then − 5 + 3 = 0. Hence, = . Hence, =
n√ 2 n 2 n 2 −1
m n l2 + m2 + n2 1 1 1 2
= = p = √ . Hence, l = − , m = √ , n = √ .
1 2 2 2
(−1) + 1 + 2 2 6 6 6 6
Thus, the d.c.s. of the two lines are
1 2 3 −1 1 2
√ , √ , √ and √ , √ , √ .
14 14 14 6 6 6
2.4 Equations of a Line Passing Through Two Points

Let L be a line passing through two points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ).
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the line L. The direction ratios of AP are
x−x1 , y −y1 , z −z1 , and of AB are x1 −x2 , y1 −y2 , z1 −z2 . Since the line AP
is parallel to AB, d.r.s of AP are proportional to the d.r.s. of AB. Hence,
the required equations of the line L passing through the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 )
and B(z2 , y2 , z2 ) are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
x1 − x2 z1 − z 2 z 1 − z2
Example 2.9 Find the equations of a line joining the points (−2, 1, 3) and
(3, 1, −2).
Solution: Let L be a line passing through the points A(−2, 1, 3) and B(3, 1, −2).
Geometry 41
The d.r.s. of the line L are 3−(−2), 1−1, −2−3; i.e. , 5, 0, −5; i.e., 1, 0, −1.
x+2 y−1 z−3
Equations of the line L are = = .
1 0 −1
2.4.1 Symmetrical form of the Equations of a Line

Equations of a line passing through the given point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having
direction cosines l, m, n are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = (2.1)
l m n
p
(x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 + (z − z1 )2
Each ratio equals √ = t (say). Thus, |t|
l2 + m2 + n2
gives the distance between the point (x, y, z) and the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
t is called as directed distance from (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to (x, y, z). Observe that we
can rewrite (2.1) as
x = x1 + lt, y = y1 + mt, z = z1 + nt (2.2)
Equations given by (2.2) represent the co-ordinates of any point on the line
at a distance t from the point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ). equations given by (2.2) are
called parametric equations of a straight line.
Remark 2.8 From the equations given by (2.2), we observe that t is the
actual distance of the point P (x, y, z) from the given point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ),
becomes l, m, n are d.c.s. of the line (l2 + m2 + n2 = 1).
However, if l, m, n are given to be proportional to the direction cosines

of AP, then t will be proportional to the distance AP. Thus if instead of the
direction cosines l, m, n the direction ratios a, b, c are given the equations
of the line are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
a b c
This form is known as symmetrical form of equations of a line.
2.5 Angle between two lines

Let L1 and L2 be two lines in the space which make an angle θ with each
other. Through origin O draw lines OP and OQ parallel to line L1 and L2
respectively, where P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ). By the distance formula

we have,
P Q2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (2.3)
Let l1 , m1 , n1 be d.c.s. of the line OP and l2 , m2 , n2 be d.c.s. of the line
OQ. If OP = r1 and OQ = r2 , then by Remark 2.1 we have x1 = l1 r1 ,
y1 = m1 r1 , z1 = n1 r1 ; x2 = l2 r2 , y2 = m2 r2 , z2 = n2 r2 . Substitute these
values in (2.3), we get
P Q2 = (l1 r1 − l2 r2 )2 + (m1 r1 − m2 r2 )2 + (n1 r1 + n2 r2 )2

∴ P Q2 = (l12 + m21 + n21 )r12 + (l22 + m22 + n22 )r22
−2(l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )r1 r2 .
As, l12 + m21 + n21 = 1 and l22 + m22 + n22 = 1, we have,
P Q2 = r12 + r22 − 2(l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )r1 r2 .

g
z C
Q
P θ
θ
y D
f Figure 2.4: Angle between the Lines
By the cosine rule of trigonometry, P Q2 = r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 cos θ. Hence,
cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 .
This gives an expression for the angle between two lines. We note that
sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ = 1 − (l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )2

= (l12 + m21 + n21 )(l22 + m22 + n22 ) − (l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )2
= (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2 + (l1 n2 − n1 l2 )2 + (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 . (2.4)
Geometry 43
Remark 2.9 (Condition for two lines to be perpendicular) If the two lines
are perpendicular, then the angle between them, say θ is 90◦ , so that cos θ =
0. Hence, we get the condition, l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0. If the direction
ratios of the lines are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 , then from Remark 2.8 the
condition for perpendicularity becomes,
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
Remark 2.10 (Condition for two lines to be parallel) If two lines are paral-
lel, then they make the same angle with each of the coordinate axes. Hence,
the two lines will be parallel, if and only if the angle between them, say θ is
zero i,e, sin θ = 0. Hence, l1 = l2 , m1 = m2 , n1 = n2 . If the d.r.s. of the lines
a1 b1 c1
are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 , then the lines will be parallel, if = = .
a2 b2 c2
Example 2.10 If P and Q are (2, 3, −6), (3, −4, 5), find the angle that OP
makes with OQ.
Solution.
p D.r.s. of OP are √ 2, 3, −6 andpd.r.s. of OQ are 3,√−4, 5. Note √
that 22 + 32 + (−6)2 = 49 = 7 and 32 + (−4)2 + 52 = 50 = 5 2.
2 3 −6
Hence, d.c.s of OP are given by l1 = , m1 = , n1 = and d.c.s. of OQ
7 7 7
3 −4 5
are l2 = √ , m2 = √ , n2 = √ . Hence, angle between OP and OQ is
5 2 5 2 5 2
given by
cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
√
2 3 3 −4 6 5 −36 −18 2
= √ + √ − √ = √ = .
7 5 2 7 5 2 7 5 2 35 2 35
Example 2.11 If P, Q, R are the points (2, 3, 5), (−1, 3, 2), and (3, 5, −2),
find the angle that P Q makes with P R.
Solution. The d.r.s. of P Q are 2 − (−1) = 3, 3 −√ 3 = 0, and 5 − 2 √
= 3 i.e.
1, 0, 1. Similarly, d.r.s of P R are −1, −2, 7. Now 12 + 02 + 12 = 2 and
p √ √ 1 1
(−1)2 + (−2)2 + 72 = 54 = 3 6. Hence, d.c.s. of P Q are √ , 0, √
2 2
1 2 7
and d.c.s. of P R are − √ , − √ , √ . Angle between P Q and P R is
3 6 3 6 3 6
given by
cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2

1 1 2 1 7 1
= √ − √ +0 − √ +√ − √ =√ .
2 3 6 3 6 2 3 6 3
Example 2.12 A line makes angles α, β, γ, δ with the four diagonals of a

cube, prove that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ = 43 .
Solution. Let a be the length of an edge of a cube. Take one of the vertices
of the cube as the origin O and co-ordinate axes along the edges through O.
Co-ordinates of the vertices of the cube are O(0, 0, 0), A(a, 0, 0), B(a, a, 0), C(0, a, 0)
O′ (0, 0, a), A′ (a, 0, a), B ′ (a, a, a), C ′ (0, a, a). Direction ratios of the di-
agonals OB ′ , AC ′ , BO ′ and CA′ are −a, −a, −a; a, −a, −a; a, a, −a and
−a, a, −a; i.e., 1, 1, 1; − 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, −1 and 1, −1, 1 respectively. Hence
their d.c.s. are respectively
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 1 1
√ , √ , √ ; √ , √ , √ ; √ , √ , √ ; and √ , − √ , √ .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Let l, m, n be the d.c.s. of the line making the angles α, β, γ and δ with the
diagonals OB ′ , AC ′ , BO ′ and CA′ respectively. Then

1 1 1 l+m+n
cos α = l √ +m √ +n √ = √ .
3 3 3 3
−l + m + n l+m+n l−m+n
Similarly, cos β = √ , cos γ = √ and cos δ = √ .
3 3 3
Squaring and adding, we get
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ

1
= [(l + m + n)2 + (−l + m + n)2 + (l + m − n)2 + (l − m + n)2 ]
3
1 2 4
= (4l + 4m2 + 4n2 ) = , because l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
3 3
4
Thus, cos α + cos β + cos γ + cos2 δ = .
2 2 2
3
Exercise Set 2.1
1. Determine the d.c.s of the joins of following pairs of points.

(i) (4, 2, −1), (0, −1, 2) (ii) (3, 0, 0), (0, 4, 0) (iii) (3, −4, 7), (0, 2, 5)
(iv) (6, 3, 1), (5, 1, 4).
2. Prove, by using direction cosines, that the points (1, −2, 3), (2, 3, −4)
and (0, −7, 10) are collinear.
3. Prove, by using direction cosines, that the points (3, 2, 4), (4, 5, 2), (5, 8, 0)
and (2, −1, 6) are collinear.
Geometry 45
4. A line makes angles of 45◦ and 60◦ with positive axes of x and y
respectively. Find the angle which the line makes with the positive
z−axis.
5. The co-ordinates of P are (1, 2, 2). Find the inclination of OP to the

z−axis.
6. If A(a, a, a), B(b, b, b), show that the line AB passes through the ori-
gin.
7. Find the angles made by√ AB with x, y and z axes if the coordinates
of A and B are (0, 0, − 3) and (1, 0, 0) respectively.
8. Find the angle between the lines whose d.c.s. are proportional to
2, 3, 4 and 1, −2, 1.
9. If A(−2, 3, 4), B(−4, 4, 6), C(4, 3, 5) and D(0, 1, 2), show that the lines
AB and CD are perpendicular.
10. Find the angles of the triangle ABC with vertices A(2, 3, 5), B(−1, 3, 2)
and C(3, 5, −2).
11. Find the equation of the line joining the pair of points
(i) (4, 2, 5), (−1, 1, −2) (ii) (−5, 1, 2), (4, −3, 1) (iii) (2, 5, −1), (−7, 1, 3).
12. Find the equation of a line passing through the point (2, 1, 3) and
parallel to the line passing through the points (4, 0, 1) and (1, −2, 3).
2.6 General Equation of First Degree

An equation of the first degree in x, y, z is of the form ax+by+cz = 0, where
a, b, c, d are given real numbers and a, b, c are not all zero, simultaneously.
A surface is called a plane, if given any two points on the surface, then a
straight line joining them also lies completely on the surface; i.e. if A and
B are any points on the surface and P is any point on the line AB, then P
also lies on the surface.
Axiom 2.1 Every equation of first degree in x, y, z represents a plane.
Theorem 2.2 If A and B are any two points which satisfies the first degree
equation in x, y, z, then every point on the line joining A and B also satisfies
the given first degree equation in x, y and z.
Proof. Consider the first degree equation in x, y, z,
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (2.5)
where the coefficients a, b, c are not all zero. Let A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 )
be any two points on the locus given by the equation (2.5). Then,
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 (2.6)

ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d = 0 (2.7)
Let P be any point on the line AB. we show that P lie on the locus (2.5).
Suppose P divides AB in the ratio m : n. By the sectionformula, we get
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
coordinates of P as, , , . Now,
m+n m+n m+n

mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
a +b +c
m+n m+n m+n
m(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + n(ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d)
= =0
m+n
using equation (2.6) and (2.7). It follows that the coordinates of P also
satisfy (2.5). As P is any point on the line AB. It follows that the lineAB
lies on the locus (2.5).
Exercise 2.1 Prove that the set {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 |ax+by+cz +d = 0} contains

at least three non-collinear points; i.e. the locus (2.5), is not a straight line;
also the locus (2.5), is not R3 .
Note, that the property, if A and B are two points in the set then all points
on the straight line through A and B are in the set; is true for a straight
line and three dimensional space also.
2.7 Normal form of the equation of a plane

To find the equation of a plane in terms of p, the length of the perpendicular
to it from the origin and l, m, n the d.c.s. of this perpendicular.
Let π be the plane (see Fig. 2.5) whose equation is required. Draw
ON perpendicular to the plane π from the origin O. Let ON = p. The
d.c.s. of ON are l, m, n. Observe that if (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) are coordinates of N,
x′ y′ z′
then x′ , y ′ , z ′ are d.r.s. of ON (see Remark 2.5). Hence, = = =
l m n
Geometry 47
6Z
N
@
@
p P
O -
Y
π
X
Figure 2.5: Normal form of equation of plane
p, so that x′ = lp, y ′ = mp, z ′ = np. Hence the coordinates of N are

(lp, mp, np). Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the plane π. The d.r.s. of N P
are x − lp, y − mp, z − np (see Remark 2.6). But ON is perpendicular to
N P, because N P lies in the plane π and ON is perpendicular to π. Hence
l(x − lp) + m(y − mp) + n(z − np) = 0.

Thus, lx + my + nz − p(l2 + m2 + n2 ) = 0.
Since l2 + m2 + n2 = 1, we get lx + my + nz = p.
This equation is called the normal form of the equation of a plane.
Note: From this result, we observe that the equation of any plane is a linear
equation in x, y, z. This is the converse of the result that, every equation of
the first degree in x, y, z represents a plane.
2.8 Transform to the normal form
To transform the equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 of a plane π to the normal

form lx + my + nz = p. Observe that l, m, n are d.c.s. of a normal to the
plane π and p is the length of the perpendicular from the origin on it. As
these two equations represent the same plane π, we have,

√
l m n −p ± l 2 + m2 + n 2
= = = = √ ;
a b c d a 2 + b2 + c 2
l m n −p ±1
i.e. = = = =√ . Thus,
a b c d a 2 + b2 + c 2
a b c
l = ±√ , m = ±√ , n = ±√ .
2 2
a +b +c 2 2
a +b +c 2 2 a + b2 + c 2
2
√
The positive or negative sign in ± a2 + b2 + c2 is chosen such that p is
always positive. Thus, the normal form of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
is,
ax + by + cz −d
√ =± √
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a 2 + b2 + c 2
Remark 2.11
1. We note that the coefficients a, b and c of x, y and z in ax+by+cz+d =

0 are d.r.s. of a normal to the plane.
2. It also follows that the length of the perpendicular from the origin on
−d
the plane is, √ .
± a + b2 + c 2
2
2.9 Angle between two planes

Angle between two planes is equal to the angle between their normals from
any point. Let
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d1 = 0 (2.8)

and ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d2 = 0 (2.9)
be the equations of the two planes which intersect each other. Observe
that d.r.s. of a normal to (2.8)are a1 , b1 , c1 and of (2.9) are a2 , b2 , c2 . If θ
is the angle between the planes and hence between that normals then, we
have
a 1 a 2 + b1 b2 + c 1 c 2
cos θ = p 2 p
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
The two plane are perpendicular if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 and parallel if,
a1 b1 c1
= = .
a2 b2 c2
Geometry 49
2.10 Determination of a plane under given conditions
2.10.1 Intercept form of the equation of a plane

To find the equation of a plane which makes intercepts a, b and c respectively
on the coordinate axes x, y and z. Let,
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (2.10)
be the equation of the plane which makes intercepts a, b, c on the coordinate

axes. Then the points (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0) and (0, 0, c) lie on the plane. The
coordinates of each point satisfy. Thus A(a) + B(0) + C(0) + D = 0 gives
D D D
A = − . Similarly, we get B = − , C = − . The equation (2.10) can
a b c
be written as,
D D D x y z
− x − y − z + D = 0 i.e. D + + =D
a b c a b c
Observe that D ̸= 0 for otherwise the plane would pass through the origin
x y z
and there would be no intercepts on the axes. Hence + + = 1 is the
a b c
required equation of plane.
2.11 Plane passing through a given point

To find the equation of a plane passing through the point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
d.r.s. of whose normal are a, b, c. Let the equation of the plane be
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (2.11)
Coordinates of A satisfy the equation (2.11), so we get ax1 +by1 +cz1 +d = 0

so
d = −ax1 − by1 − cz1 .
Substitute the value of d in (2.11), we have
ax + by + cz + (−ax1 − by1 − cz1 ) = 0.

Thus, a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.
This is the equation of the plane passing through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
d.r.s. of whose normal are a, b, c.
2.12 Plane passing through three points.

To find the equation of the plane passing through three non collinear points
(x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ). Let the required equation of the plane
be
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.
Since (x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ) lie on this plane, they satisfy the above equa-
tion. Thus,
a(x2 − x1 ) + b(y2 − y1 ) + c(z2 − z1 ) = 0,
a(x3 − x1 ) + b(y3 − y1 ) + c(z3 − z1 ) = 0. (2.12)
Solving (2.12) using Cramer’s rule, we get
a b c
= =
y2 − y 1 z2 − z1 z2 − z1 x2 − x1 x2 − x1 y 2 − y1
y3 − y1 z3 − z 1 ) z3 − z1 x3 − x1 ) x3 − x1 y3 − y1 )
Substituting these values of a, b and c, we get the equation of plane as
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y 1 z2 − z1 = 0.
x3 − x1 y3 − y 1 z3 − z1
2.13 Systems of Planes

The following are the equations of systems of planes containing one or two
parameters.
1. We know that two planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and
a1 b1 c1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 are parallel if and only if = = .
a2 b2 c2
Hence a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
ax + by + cz + k = 0, k ∈ R. For different values of k, we get the set of
planes, each planes is parallel to given plane ax+by+cz+d = 0. Here k
is called as the parameter. Thus {ax+by+cz+k = 0|k ∈ R} represents
the system of planes parallel to the given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.
2. Let L be a line with d.r.s a, b, c. Then the equation of a plane perpen-
dicular to the line L is of the form ax + by + cz + d = 0, d ∈ R. For
different values of d, we get set of planes, each plane is perpendicular
to the given line L. Thus, the system of planes perpendicular to the
given line L with d.r.s. a, b, c is given by {ax + by + cz + d = 0|d ∈ R}.
Geometry 51
3. We know that the equation of a plane passing through the point

(x1 , y1 , z1 ) is of the form a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0, where
a, b, c are real numbers not all zero simultaneously. Suppose c ̸= 0.
Then the equation reduces to
a b
A(x − x1 ) + B(y − y1 ) + (z − z1 ) = 0, where A = ,B = .
c c
For different values of A and B, we get a set of planes, each plane of
the set passes through the given point (x1 , y1 , z1 ). Here A and B are
two parameters. Hence the equation a(x−x1 )+b(y−y1 )+c(z−z1 ) = 0
represents the system of planes passing through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ),
where the required two parameters are the ratios of the coefficients
a, b, c.
4. Consider two planes a1 x+b1 y+c1 z+d1 = 0 and a2 x+b2 y+c2 z+d2 = 0
which intersect each other in a line. Now consider the locus given by
the following equation
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + k(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0, k ∈ R. (2.13)
Rewrite this equation as

(a1 + ka2 )x + (b1 + kb2 )y + (c1 + kc2 )z + (d1 + d2 ) = 0.
This is a linear equation in x, y and z. Hence, it represents a plane.
Thus equation (2.13) represents a plane. For different values of k, we
get a set of planes. It is easy to see the plane given by (2.13) passes
through the line of intersection of the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0. Hence the equation
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + k(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0
represents the system of planes through the line of intersection of the

planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0, k being
the parameter.
2.13.1 Two sides of a plane

It is clear that each plane π divides the space into two parts, called the
two sides or two half regions of the space determined by π. Two points A
and B, not on π, lie on different sides of π if and only if the segment AB
intersects π in a unique point, otherwise they lie on the same side of π.
Theorem 2.3 Two points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) lie on the same or dif-
ferent sides of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, if the expressions ax1 + by1 +
cz1 + d and ax2 + b2 y + c2 z + d are of the same or different signs.
Proof. Let A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two points which are not
on the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0. (2.14)
Let the line AB meet the plane (2.14) in the point P. Suppose P divides
AB in the ratio λ : 1. If λ is positive, then P divides AB internally; and P
divides AB externally, if λ is negative. By section formula, we get

λx2 + x1 λy2 + y1 λz2 + z1
P , , .
λ+1 λ+1 λ+1
P lies on the
plane (2.14).
Coordinates
of Psatisfy the
equation (2.14).
λx2 + x1 λy2 + y1 λz2 + z1
Therefore a +b +c + d = 0; i.e.,
λ+1 λ+1 λ+1
(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + λ(ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d) = 0.
From this equation, we get
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

λ=− . (2.15)
ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d
This shows that λ is negative or positive according as ax1 + by1 + cz1 +

d and ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d are of the same or different signs. Suppose
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d are of the same signs. Therefore
the ratio
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
is positive. Hence by (2.15), λ is negative. Therefore
ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d
in this case P divides AB externally. Hence A and B lie on the same side
of the plane (2.14). If ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d are of the
different signs, then A and B lie on the different sides of the plane (2.14).
Example 2.13 Show that the origin and the point (2, −4, 2) lie on the dif-
ferent sides of the plane x + 3y − 5z + 7 = 0.
Solution. Let α denote the expression x + 3y − 5z + 7. The value of the
expression α at the origin is 0 + 3(0) − 5(0) + 7 = 7 > 0. The value of the
expression α at the point (2, −4, 3) is 2 + 3(−4) − 5(3) + 7 = −18 < 0.
The values of the expressions have different signs. Hence the origin and the
point (2, −4, 3) lie on different sides of the plane x + 37 − 5z + 7 = 0.
Geometry 53
2.14 Length of the perpendicular from a point to a plane.

Consider the equation of the plane in the normal form viz.
lx + my + nz = p (2.16)
where p denotes the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the
plane; and l, m, n are d.c.s. of the normal to the plane.
The equation of a plane parallel to the plane (2.16) and passing through
the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is given by l(x − x1 ) + m(y − y1 ) + n(z − z1 ) = 0.
i.e.,
lx + my + nz = p1 , (2.17)
where p1 = lx1 + my1 + nz1 .
Let OKK ′ be the perpendicular from the origin O to the two parallel
planes meeting them in K and K ′ . If p1 > 0 then K and K ′ are on the
same side of the plane lx + my + nz = 0 so that OK = p and OK ′ = p1 .
Draw P L perpendicular from P to the plane given by (2.16) (see figure 2.6).
We have P L = K ′ K = OK ′ − OK = p1 − p. P lies on the plane given by
(2.17). As lx1 + my1 + nz1 = p1 , we get P L = lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p. Thus the
required length of the perpendicular from P to the plane lx + my + nz = p
is |P L| = |lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p|.
If p1 < 0 then K and K ′ are on the opposite sides of the plane lx+my +
nz = 0 so that OK = p and OK ′ = −p1 . Then the distance between the
two planes is (−p1 ) + p = p − (lx1 + my1 + nz1 ). Thus, we get the distance
between the planes as |lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p|.
Remark 2.12 The length of the perpendicular drawn from the point (x1 , y1 , z1 )
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is √ .
a 2 + b2 + c 2
The normal form of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ax + by + cz −d
√ = ±√ ,
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a 2 + b2 + c 2
the plus or minus sign being taken in the denominator according as d is

negative or positive hence the length of the perpendicular from P to the
plane
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d |ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
√ = √ .
± a +b +c
2 2 2 a 2 + b2 + c 2
L P
O K′
K
Figure 2.6: Distance between parallel planes
Example 2.14 Find the distance of the point (1, 1, 4) from the plane
3x − 6y + 2z + 11 = 0.
Solution. By Remark 2.11, the distance of the point (1, 1, 4) from the plane
3(1) − 6(1) + 2(4) + 11 16
3x − 6y + 2x + 11 = 0 is p = .
2 2
(3) + (−6) + (2) 2 7
2.14.1 Bisectors of angles between two planes

To find the equations of the planes bisecting the angles between the planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0.
Let P (x, y, z) be a point on the plane bisecting the angle between the two
given planes. Then the perpendicular distances from P to the two given
planes should be equal. Hence by Remark 2.11,
a 1 x + b1 y + c 1 z + d 1 a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2
p = p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
Thus the equations of the bisecting planes are
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d1 ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d2

p =± p .
2 2 2
a 1 + b1 + c 1 a22 + b22 + c22
Of these two bisecting planes, one bisects the acute angle and other obtuse
angle between the two given planes.
Geometry 55
Example 2.15 Find the equations of the planes bisecting the angles between
the planes x + 2y + 2z = 9 and 4x − 3y + 12z + 13 = 0. Also specify the
one which bisects the acute angle.
Solution. The equations of the two bisecting planes are
x + 2y + 2z − 9 4x − 3y + 12z + 13
√ =± √ ;
2 2
1 +2 +2 2 42 + −32 + 122
x + 2y + 2z − 9 4x − 3y + 12z + 13
i.e., =
3 13
x + 2y + 2z − 9 4x − 3y + 12z + 13
and = − ;
3 13
i.e x + 35y − 10z = 156 and 25x + 17y + 62z = 78.
To find which plane bisects the acute angle between the given planes, for
this find the angle between x + 2y + 2z = 9 and one of these bisecting
planes, say x + 35y − 10z = 156. Let θ be the angle between the planes
x + 2y + 2z = 9 and x + 35y − 10z = 156. Hence,
1(1) + 2(35) + 2(−10) 17
cos θ = √ p =√ .
12 2 2 2 2
+ 2 + 2 1 + 35 + (−10) 2 1326
√
1037
From cos θ, we find tan θ = > 1. Therefore θ > 45◦ . Hence the plane
17
x+35y −10z = 156 bisects the obtuse angle between the given planes. This
implies that the other plane, 25x + 17y + 62z = 78 bisects the acute angle
between the given planes.
2.15 Joint equation of two planes

Consider the equation of two planes
a 1 x + b1 y + c 1 z + d 1 = 0 (2.18)
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0. (2.19)
Then the joint equation of these two planes is given by
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 )(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0. (2.20)
Note that if (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies on either the plane (2.18) or the plane (2.19),
then either a1 x1 + b1 y1 + c1 z1 + d1 = 0 or a2 x1 + b2 y1 + c2 z1 + d2 = 0.
Therefore (a1 x1 + b1 y1 + c1 z1 + d1 )(a2 x1 + b2 y1 + c2 z1 + d2 ) = 0. Hence the

point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies on the locus given by (2.20). Conversely if the point
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies on the locus given by (2.20), then (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies on either
the plane (2.18) or the plane (2.19). Thus we say that
(a1 x1 + b1 y1 + c1 z1 + d1 )(a2 x1 + b2 y1 + c2 z1 + d2 ) = 0
is the joint equation of the given two planes.
Theorem 2.4 The necessary and sufficient condition that the homogeneous
second degree equation ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0 represents
a h g
two planes is ∆ = h b f = 0.
g f c
Proof. We suppose that the given equation
ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0 (2.21)
represent two planes. Let the equation of two separate planes be lx + my +

nz = 0 and l′ x + m′ y + n′ z = 0. As the equation (2.21) is a homogenous
equation, there can not appear constant terms in the separate equations of
the plane. We have
ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy = λ(lx + my + nz)(l′ x + m′ y + n′ z).
Comparing coefficients, we get
a = λll′ , b = λmm′ , c = λnn′ ,

2f = λ(nm′ + mn′ ), 2g = λ(ln′ + nl′ ), 2h = λ(lm′ + ml′ ).
2a 2h 2g ll′ + ll′ lm′ + ml′ ln′ + nl′

Hence, 2h 2b 2f = λ lm + ml mm + mm nm′ + mn′
3 ′ ′ ′ ′
2g 2f 2c ln′ + nl′ nm′ + mn′ nn′ + nn′

′ ′ ′ ′
l l 0 l m n a h g
= λ3 m m′ 0 × l m n = 0. Therefore, 8× h b f = 0.
n n′ 0 0 0 0 g f c
Thus, ∆ = 0.
Conversely, suppose that abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0.
Denote S = ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy.
Now regarding aS as a polynomial in x and going through the process of
Geometry 57
completing the square, we get

aS = (ax + hy + gz)2 + aby 2 + acz 2 + 2af yz − (gz + hy)2 . Thus,
aS = (ax + hy + gz)2 + (ab − h2 )y 2 − 2(gh − af )yz + (ac − g 2 )z 2

= (ax + hy + gz)2 + (Cy 2 − 2F yz + Bz 2 ),
where C = ab − h2 , F = gh − af, B = ac − g 2 . Hence,

BC − F 2 = a(abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 ).
a h g
As, h b f = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0, we get BC − F 2 = 0.
g f c
Hence for some r and t, Cy 2 − 2F yz + Bz 2 = −(ry + tz)2 .
Therefore aS can be expressed as a difference of two squares and so has
linear factors. Thus, if a ̸= 0 and if (abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 ) = 0,
then the given equation (2.21) represents two planes.
If a = 0 but b ̸= 0 or c ̸= 0, there is a similar argument. If a = b = c = 0
then 2f gh = 0. It gives at least one of f, g, h = 0; this is sufficient for
2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy to factorize.
Remark 2.13 If θ is the angle between the planes represented by the equa-
′ ′ ′
p and if ll + mm + nn ̸= 0, then
tion (2.21);
(mn − m n) + (nl − n′ l)2 + (lm′ − l′ m)2
′ ′ 2 ′
tan θ =
p ll′ + mm′ + nn′
2 f 2 + g 2 + h2 − ab − bc − ca
∴ tan θ = .
a+b+c
The planes will be at right angles if a + b + c = 0.
Example 2.16 Show that the equation 12x2 −2y 2 −6z 2 −2xy+7yz+6zx = 0
represents a pair of planes. Also find the angle between them.
Solution. Comparing 12x2 − 2y 2 − 6z 2 − 2xy + 7yz + 6zx = 0 with
ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0, we have a = 12, b = −2, c =
−6, 2h = −2, 2f = 7, 2g = 6. Hence,
12 −1 3
∆ = −1 −2 7
2 = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2
3 7
2 −6
7 7
= 12(−2)(−6) + 2( )(3)(−1) − 12( )2 − (−2)32 − (−6)(−1) = 0.
2 2
Hence, the given second degree equation represents a pair of planes. Let θ
be the angle between two planes. Then

p
2 f 2 + g 2 + h2 − ab − bc − ca
tan θ =
a+b+c
s
2
7
2 + 32 + (−1)2 − 12(−2)(−6) − (−6)(12) √
2 5 17
= = .
12 + (−2) + (−6) 4
4 4
It gives cos θ = . Thus θ = cos−1 ( ).
21 21
2.16 Illustrative Examples

Example 2.17 Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersec-
tion of the planes x + y + z = 6 and 2x + 3y + 4z + 5 = 0 and the point
(1, 1, 1).
Solution. The required plane passes through the line of intersection of the
given planes. Therefore its equation is of the form
(2x + 3y + 4z + 5) + k(x + y + z − 6) = 0 for some k ∈ R. (2.22)
Also it is given that the plane passes through the point(1, 1, 1). Coordinates
14
of these point satisfy the equation (2.22), we get k = . Substituting
3
14
k= , we get equation of the required plane as 20x + 23y + 26z − 69 = 0.
3
Example 2.18 Find the equation of the plane which is perpendicular to the
plane 5x + 3y + 6z + 8 = 0 and which contains the line of intersection of
the planes x + 2y + 3z − 4 = 0, 2x + y − z + 5 = 0.
Solution. The required plane passes through the line of intersection of the
given planes. Therefore its equation is of the formed
(x + 2y + 3z − 4) + k(2x + y − z + 5) = 0for some k ∈ R. (2.23)
d.r.s of the normal to the plane (2.23) are 1 + 2k, 2 + k, 3 − k. The required
plane is perpendicular to the plane 5x + 3y + 6z + 8 = 0. Therefore
5(1 + 2k) + 3(2 + k) + 6(3 − k) = 0.

29 29
From this equation, we get k = − . Substitute k = − in (5.12.2) we
7 7
get the required equation of the plane as 51x + 15y − 50z + 173 = 0.
Geometry 59
Example 2.19 Find the equations to the planes through the line of inter-
section of the planes x + 2y + 2z − 4 = 0, 2x + y − z + 5 = 0 and
(a) parallel to x-axis (b) parallel to y-axis and (c) parallel to z-axis.
Solution. The required equation of the plane passes through the line of
intersection if the given planes. Therefore its equation is of the form
(x + 2y + 2z − 4) + k(2x + y − z + 5) = 0f or some k ∈ R. (2.24)
d.r.s of the normal to the plane (2.24) are 1 + 2k, 2 + k, 2 − k
(a) d.r.s of the x − axis are 1, 0, 0. The plane (2.24) is parallel to x − axis.
Hence normal to plane (2.24) is perpendicular to x − axis. 1(1 + 2k) + 0(2 +
−1
k) + 0(2 − k). It gives k = . Substitute this value k in (2.24) we get the
2
equation of the plane parallel to x − axis as 3y + 5z − 13 = 0.
(b) By the similar argument, the equation of the plane parallel to y − axis
is 3x − 4y + 14 = 0.
(c) The equation of the plane parallel to z − axis is 5x + 4y + 6 = 0.
Example 2.20 Show that the distance between the parallel planes 2x − 2y +
1
z + 3 = 0 and 4x − 4y + 2z + 5 = 0 is .
6
Solution. The distance between two parallel planes is the distance of any
one point from one plane to other. The point P (1, 1, −3) lies on the plane
2x − 2y + z + 3 = 0. Hence the distance between two parallel planes equals
the perpendicular distance from P to the plane 4x − 4y + 2z + 5 = 0.
4(1) − 4(1) + 2(−3) + 5 1
The perpendicular distance equals p = . Thus
2 2
4 + (−4) + 2 2 6
1
the distance between given two parallel planes is .
6
Example 2.21 A variable plane which remains at a constant distance 3p
from the origin, the cuts to coordinate axes at A, B and C Show that the
1 1 1
locus of the centroid of the △ABC is 2 + 2 + 2 = p2 .
x y z
Solution. Let the equation of the variable plane be ax + by + cz + d = 0,
which is at a distance 3p from the origin. Then by the perpendicular
distance formula,
a(0) + b(0) + c(0) + d d2
√ = 3p i. e. 2 = 9p2 .
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a + b2 + c 2
Suppose the plane meets the x, y and z-axis at A, B and C respectively.
d d d
Then, we have A(− , 0, 0), B(0, − , 0), C(0, 0, − ). Let G(x1 , y1 , z1 ) be
a b c
the centroid of the △ABC. Then

d d d
− +0+0 d 0− +0 d 0+0−
x1 = a = − , y1 = b = − , z1 = c =−d.
3 3a 3 3b 3 3c
Squaring and adding the reciprocals of these equations, we get
1 1 1 9(a2 + b2 + c2 )
2 + 2+ 2 = = p2 .
x1 y1 z1 d2
1 1 1
Hence the locus of the centroid of the △ABC is 2
+ 2 + 2 = p2 .
x y z
Or
Let the equation of the variable plane be lx + my + nz = 3p. Suppose
the plane meets the x, y and z-axis at A, B and C respectively. Then, we
3p 3p 3p
have A( , 0, 0), B(0, , 0), C(0, 0, ). Let G(x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the centroid
l m n
p p p
of the △ABC. Then x1 = , y1 = , z1 = . Squaring and adding these
l m n
equations, we get
1 1 1
2 + 2 + 2 = p2 .
x1 y1 z1
1 1 1
Hence the locus of the centroid of the △ABC is 2 + 2 + 2 = p2 .
x y z
Example 2.22 The plane lx+my = 0 is rotated about its line of intersection
with the plane z = 0 through an angle√α. Prove that the equation of the
plane in its new position is (lx + my ± l2 + m2 tan α)z = 0.
Solution. Let π be the plane obtained by rotating the plane lx + my = 0
about its line of intersection with the plane z = 0 through an angle α. Then
the equation of the plane π is of the form
lx + my + kz = 0 for some k ∈ R. (2.25)
Note that the angle between the plane π and the plane lx + my = 0 is α.
Using angle between two planes, we get
√
l2 + m2 l2 + m2
cos α = √ √ =√ .
l2 + m2 + k 2 l2 + m2 l 2 + m2 + k 2
l2 + m2 √
Thus, cos2 α = . From this equation, we get k = ± l2 + m2 tan α.
l2 + m2 + k 2 √
Substitute this value of k in (2.25), we have (lx+my± l2 + m2 tan α)z = 0.
Geometry 61
Example 2.23 Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the two
planes x + 2y + 2z = 3 and 3x + 4y + 12z + 1 = 0.
Solution. Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be a point which is equidistant from the given
two planes.Then by the perpendicular distance formula,we have
x1 + 2y1 + 2z1 − 3 3x1 + 4y1 + 12z1 + 1

√ = √
12 + 2 2 + 2 2 32 + 42 + 122
x1 + 2y1 + 2z1 − 3 3x1 + 4y1 + 12z1 + 1
∴ = ±
3 13
Thus, 2x1 + 7y1 − 5z1 − 21 = 0; or 11x1 + 19y1 + 13z1 − 18 = 0.
Hence the locus of a point which is equidistant from the given planes is
2x + 7y − 5z − 21 = 0 or 11x + 19y + 13z − 18 = 0.
Example 2.24 Find the joint equation of the planes 2x + 3y − z = 0 and

x − y + 5z = 0.
Solution. The joint equation of given two planes is (2x+3y−z)(x−y+5z) =
0. On simplification, we get 2x2 − y 2 − 5z 2 + 16yz + 9zx + xy = 0
Exercise Set 2.2
1. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (2, 3, 5) and
perpendicular to the line whose d.r.s. are 3,-2,6.
2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, −3, −4)
and parallel to the plane 6x + 2y − 3z = 5.
3. Find the distance from the point P to the plane π, where
(a) π is 2x + y − z = 4, P is (2, 3, 5)
(b) π is 4x − 3y − z = 4, P is (4, 2, 3)
(c) π is 5x − 3y + 2z = 6, P is (3, −1, 2)
4. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of whose distances
from the planes x + y + z = 0, x − z = 0 and x − 2y + z = 0 is 9.
5. Show that the equation x2 − y 2 + 2z 2 + yz + 3zx + x + y + z = 0

represents a pair of planes. Also find the angle between the planes.
6. Show that the points (−2, 2, −1) and (1, −1, 1) lie on different sides
of the plane x − 2y + z + 5 = 0.
7. Find the equations of the planes bisecting the angles between the
planes x + 2y + 2z − 3 = 0 and 3x + 4y + 12z + 1 = 0 and specify the
one which bisects the acute angle.
8. Find the equations of planes parallel to the plane x − 2y + 2z = 3

whose perpendicular distance from the point (1, 2, 3) is 1.
9. Find the perpendicular distance between the parallel planes 2x − 2y +

z + 6 = 0 and 4x − 4y + 2z + 5 = 0.
√ through the point (4, 0, −1)

10. Find the equation of the plane passing
and parallel to the plane 2x − 5y + 7z + 5 = 0.
11. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 2, 1) and
containing the y-axis.
12. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes 2x + y − z + 5 = 0 = x + 2y + 2z − 4 and is perpendicular
to the plane 5x + 3y + 6z + 11 = 0.
13. Find the equation of the plane through the point (3, 3, 1) and perpen-
dicular to the line joining the points (2, −1, 3) and (4, 2, −1).
of the planes 2x + y − z = 3 and 5x − 3y + 4z + 9 = 0 and is parallel
to the line whose d.r.s.are 2, 4, 5.
15. Write the equations of the following planes:
(a) parallel to the XZ-plane through (2, 4, 5)

(b) parallel to the XY -plane and 5 units from it.
7
16. Find the locus of a point which is always at a distance √ units from
3
the plane x + y + z + 1 = 0.
17. Find the locus of a point whose distance from the origin is 7 times its
distance from the plane 2x + 3y − 6z = 2.
of the planes x + 2y + 3z + 4 = 0 and 4x + 3y + 2z + 1 = 0 and passing
through the origin.
Geometry 63
19. The plane x − 2y + 3z = 0 is rotated through a right angle about its

line of intersection with the plane 2x + 3y − 4z + 5 = 0. Show that the
equation of the plane in its new position is 22x + 5y − 4z + 35 = 0.
20. From the point P (a, b, c) perpendiculars P M and P N are drawn to

the ZX-plane and XY -plane. Find the equation of the plane OM N,
where O is the origin.
21. Find the equation of the plane which is perpendicular bisector of the
segment (2, 5, −3) and (0, −4, 2).
22. Find the equation of a plane which bisects the acute angle between
the planes 2x − y + 2z + 3 = 0 and 3x − 2y + 6z + 8 = 0.
23. Determine whether the following points lie on the same side of the
plane 3x − 2y + 4z = 10 : (1, −1, 2), (0, 1, 1) and (0, 0, 2).
24. Find the equation of a plane which bisects the angle between the
planes 3x − 6y + 2z + 5 = 0 and 4x − 12y + 3z = 3 which contains the
origin.
25. Determine which of the following equations represent pairs of planes.

Also, find the angle between the pair if the equation represents a pair
of plane.
(a) 3x2 − 10yz + 5zx − 6xy + x − 2y = 0

(b) yz + zx + 2xy + 2x + 5 = 0
(c) x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4yz + 2zx + 2xy + x − 2y + 1 = 0
(d) 2x2 − 2y 2 − 3z 2 + 5yz − 5zx + 3xy + 4x − 7y + 9z − 6 = 0.
26. Show that the plane 14x−8y+13 = 0 bisects the obtuse angle between
the planes 3x + 4y − 5z + 1 = 0 and 5x + 12y − 13z = 0.
27. Show that the planes 3x−5y+2 = 0, 6x+y−2z = 13 and 11y−2z = 17

pass through one line.
28. Find the condition that the planes x = cy + bz, y = az + cx and

z = bx + ay may pass through one line.
2.17 Equations of a Line

We know that the intersection of two planes is a line. Consider two inter-
secting planes
a 1 x + b1 y + c 1 z + d 1 = 0 (2.26)
a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 (2.27)
Let L be the line of intersection of the planes given by (2.26) and (2.27).
Any point in L is common to both the planes. Hence its coordinates will
satisfy the equations (2.26) and (2.27). Also if the co-ordinates of a point
satisfy both equations (2.26) and (2.27), then it lies in the line L. Hence
two equations (2.26) and (2.27) taken together are the equations of the line
L. There equations are said to be the general equations of a line. Thus, a
straight line is represented by two equations of the first degree in x, y, z.
2.17.1 Transformation of the equations of a line from the

asymmetric form to the symmetric form.
Let the equations of a line L in asymmetrical form be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0, a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0.
To transform this asymmetrical form to the symmetrical form, we must

know the coordinates of a point on the line L are d.r.s. of the line.
The following illustrative example will make the procedure clear.
Example 2.25 Find the symmetric form of the equations of the line
x + y + z + 1 = 0; 4x + y − 2z + 2 = 0.
Solution: Let L be a line whose equations are given by
x + y + z + 1 = 0; 4x + y − 2z + 2 = 0 (i)
To transform the equations of the line into the symmetric form, first we
find co-ordinates of a point on the line L. We may consider, for the sake
of convenience, the intersection of the line with any one of the co-ordinate
planes, say z = 0, so that
x + y + 1 = 0; 4x + y + 2 = 0 (ii)
Geometry 65
Solving
equations
given by (ii) simultaneously, we get the required point as
1 2
− , − , 0 . Next, let a, b, c be the d.r.s. of the line L. The line L lies in
3 3
both the planes given by (i). Hence it is perpendicular to the normals of
the two planes; and as d.r.s. of the normals to the planes x + y + z + 1 = 0
and 4x + y − 2z + 2 = 0 are 1, 1, 1 and 4, 1, −2. Hence,
a+b+c = 0
4a + b − 2c = 0
by cramer’s rule, solving these equations for l, m, n we have
a b c
= = .
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 −2 −2 4 4 1
a b c
Therefore, = = .Thus, the d.r.s. of the required line are 1, −2, 1
−3 6 −3
1 2
x+ y+
and the equations of the line L in symmetric form are 3 = 3 = z.
1 −2 1
2.17.2 Angle between a line and a plane:

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
To find the angle between the line L : = = and the
l m n
plane α : ax + by + cz + d = 0. If θ is the angle between the line L and the
plane α, then the angle between the line L and the normal to the plane α
π
is − θ (see fig. 2.7).
2
The d.r.s. of the line L are l, m, n while d.r.s. of the normal (say P B) are
a, b, c.
π al + bm + cn
Hence, cos −θ = p √
2 a2+ + c2 · l2 + m2 + n2
b2
al + bm + cn
i. e. sin θ = √ as l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
a 2 + b2 + c 2
The line will be parallel to the plane if θ = 0, i.e. if al + bm + cn = 0.
Illustrative Examples
P
π
−θ
2
A B
θ
Figure 2.7: Angle between a line and a plane
Example 2.26 Find the equations of a line through (−2, 3, 4) and parallel
to the planes 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and 3x + 4y + 5z = 6.
Solution: Let L be a line passing through the point A(−2, 3, 4) and parallel
to the planes
α1 : 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and α2 : 3x + 4y + 5z = 6.
d.r.s. of the normal to the plane α1 and α2 are 2, 3, 4; 3, 4, 5 respectively.

Given that the line L is parallel to the planes α1 and α2 , hence L is
perpendicular to their normals, we get 2a+3b+4c = 0 and 3a+4b+5c = 0,
where a, b, c are d.r.s. of the line L. Solving there equations for a, b, c we get
a b c
= = . Therefore d.r.s of the line L are 1, −2, 1. Hence its equations
1 −2 1
are
x+2 y−3 z−4
= = .
1 −2 1
Example 2.27 Find the equations of the line through (3, 1, 2) and perpen-
dicular to the plane 2x − 2y + z + 3 = 0. Also find the coordinates of the
foot of the perpendicular.
Geometry 67
Solution: Let L be a line passing through the point (A(3, 1, 2) and perpen-
dicular to the plane α : 2x − 2y + z + 3 = 0. d.r.s. of the normal to the
plane α are 2, −2, 1. The line L is perpendicular to the plane α. d.r.s. of L
are 2, −2, 1. Equations of the line L are
x−3 y−1 z−2
= = = t (say).
2 −2 1
Coordinates of any point on the line L are (3 + 2t, 1 − 2t, 2 + t). For some
t, these are the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular. Hence (3 +
2t, 1 − 2t, 2 + t) lies on the plane α.
2(3 + 2t) − 2(1 − 2t) + (2 + t) + 3 = 0 i.e.9t + 9 = 0.
Hence, t = −1 and the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular are

(1, 3, 1).
Example 2.28 Find the distance of the point (1, −2, 3) from the plane x −
x y z
y + z = 5 measured parallel to the line = = .
2 3 6
Solution: Let A(1, −2, 3) and let the line AB be drawn parallel to the line
x y z
L : = = , so as to intersect the plane α : x − y + z = 5 at the point
2 3 6
B. (see Fig. 2.8). As the line AB is parallel to the line L, d.r.s. of AB are
2, 3, 6. Equations of the line L are
x−1 y+2 z−3
= = = t (say)
2 3 6
Coordinates of any point on the line AB are (1 + 2t, −2 + 3t, 3 + 6t). For
some t, these are the coordinates of B. But B lies on the plane α. Thus,
1
∴ (1 + 2t) − (−2 + 3t) + (3 + 6t) = 5⇒t=− .
5

3 −13 9
Coordinates of B are , , . Hence, the required distance is
5 5 5
s 2 2 2
3 13 9 7
AB = 1− + −2 + + 3− = .
5 5 5 5
Example 2.29 Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point
x−1 y z
(5, 4 − 1) to the line = = .
2 9 5
b
A b
H
b
B G
b
Figure 2.8:
b
C
b
B
D
b
b
A
Figure 2.9:
Solution: Let C(5, 4, −1); and let D be the foot of the perpendicular from
x−1 y z
C to the line (see Fig. 2.9) L : = = = t (say).
2 9 5
Coordinates of any point on the line L are (1 + 2t, 9t, 5t). B lies on the
line L, for some t these are the coordinates of D. Now d.r.s. of CD are
2t − 4, 9t − 4, 5t + 1. d.r.s. of L are 2, 9, 5. CD is perpendicular to L. Thus,
39
2(2t − 4) + 9(9t − 4) + 5(5t + 1) = 0. ⇒ t = .
110

188 351 195
Thus, we get D , , . The required length of the perpendicu-
110 110 110
Geometry 69
lar,
s 2 2 2 √
188 351 195 231990
CD = −5 + −4 + +1 =
110 110 110 110
x−7 y−5 z−3
Example 2.30 Show that the line = = intersects the
4 3 2
line 5x − 3y + z − 10 = 0; 2x + 7y − 4z − 16 = 0. Also find the coordinates
of the point of intersection.
x−7 y−5 z−3
Solution: Let L1 : = = ; and
4 3 2
L2 : 5x − 3y + 3 − 10 = 0; 2x + 7y − 4z − 16 = 0.
Coordinates of any point on the line L are (7 + 4t, 5 + 3t, 3 + 2t). Suppose
the line L1 intersects the plane 5x − 3y + z − 10 = 0 at P.
For some t, let the coordinates of P be (7+4t, 5+3t, 3+2t). But P lies on the
plane 5x−3y +z −10 = 0. Therefore 5(7+4t)−3(5+3t)+(3+2t)−10 = 0.
From this equation, we get t = −1. Therefore, we get P as (3, 2, 1). If the
coordinates of P satisfy the equation of another plane 2x+7y −4z −16 = 0,
then we say that the lines L1 and L2 intersect. Now 2(3)+7(2)−4(1)−16 =
0.
Coordinates of P satisfy the equation of the plane 2x + 7y − 4z − 16 = 0.
Hence the lines L1 and L2 intersect; and the coordinates of the point of
intersection are (3, 2, 1).
Example 2.31 Find the equation of the plane containing point (0, 7, −7)
x+1 y−3 z+2
and the line = = .
−3 2 1
Solution: Let α be a plane containing the point A(0, 7, −7) and the line
x+1 y−3 z+2
L: = = .
−3 2 1
Note that the point B(−1, 3, −2) lies on the line, and hence lies on the
plane α. d.r.s. of the line AB are 0 − (−1), 7 − 3, −7 − (−2); i.e; 1, 4, −5
and d.r.s. of the line L are −3, 2, 1. Let a, b, c be d.r.s. of the normal to
the plane α. Line AB and L lie on the plane α, therefore both the lines are
perpendicular to the normal. Therefore, a+4b−5c = 0 and −3a+2b+c = 0.
Solving these equations for a, b and c.
a −b c a b c
= = ; i.e. = = .
14 −14 14 1 1 1
Now, d.r.s. of the normal to the plane α are 1, 1, 1. The required equation
of the plane α is 1(x − 0) + 1(y − 7) + 1(z + 7) = 0; i.e. x + y + z = 0.
2.18 Coplanar Lines
2.18.1 Condition for a line to lie in a plane:

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
To find the conditions for the line L : = = to lie in
l m n
the plane α : ax + by + cz + d = 0. The line L lies in the plane α if and
only if every point on the line lies in the plane α. Now, the coordinates of
any point on the line L are (x1 + lt, y1 + mt, z1 + nt). These coordinates
satisfy the equation of the plane α. Hence,
a(x1 + lt) + b(y1 + mt) + c(z1 + nt) + d = 0

i. e. (ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + (al + bm + cn)t = 0.
This equation is true for every value of t. This is possible if and only if
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 and al + bm + cn = 0; which are the required
two conditions. Hence a line will lie in the plane if and only if the point
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies in the plane and the normal is perpendicular to the line. 1
Remark 2.14 From the conditions for a line to lies on a plane, it is easy
x − x1
to see that the general equation of a plane containing the line =
l
y − y1 z − z1
= is
m n
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0, where al + bm + cn = 0.
8−y
Example 2.32 Show that the line x + 10 = = z lies in the plane
2
x + 2y + 3z = 6.
Solution : The parametric equation of the line L is x = t−10, y = 8−2t, z =
t. Hence, the general point on line L is given by (t − 10, 8 − 2t, t). Note
that it satisfies the equation of the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6. Thus, the line
8−y
x + 10 = = z lies in the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6.
2
or
1 If we put t = 0 then we get that ax + by + cz + d = 0. Substituting t = 1 we get
1 1 1
al + bm + cn = 0.
Geometry 71
8−y
Solution: Let L : x + 10 = = z. The point A(−10, 8, 0) lies on the
2
line L and d.r.s. of L are l = 1, m = −2, n = 1. d.r.s. of the normal to the
plane x + 2y + 3z = 6 are a = 1, b = 2, c = 3. To show that the line L lies
in the plane for we show that A lies on the plane and al + bm + cn = 0.
Consider −10 + 2 × 8 + 2 × 0 = 6. Coordinates of A satisfy the equation of
the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6. Also al + bm + cn = 1 × 1 + 2 × (−2) + 3 × 1 = 0.
8−y
Hence the line x + 10 = = z lies in the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6.
2
2.18.2 Condition for two lines to be coplanar:

To find the condition that the two given lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = (i)
l1 m1 n1
x − x2 y − y1 z − z1
= = (ii)
l2 m2 n2
are coplanar. By Remark 2.14 a plane containing the line (i) will be of the
form
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0; (iii)
where a, b, c being numbers not all zero simultaneously satisfying the con-
dition
al1 + bm1 + cn1 = 0 (iv)
The line (ii) will lie in the plane (iii) if and only if
a(x2 − x1 ) + b(y2 − y1 ) + c(z2 − z1 ) = 0 (v)
subject to al2 + bm2 + cn2 = 0 (vi)

Eliminating a, b, c from (iv), (v) and (vi), we get
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z2 − z1
l1 m1 n1 = 0,
l2 m2 n2
as the required condition for the lines to be coplanar. When this condi-
tion of coplanarity is satisfied, the equation of the plane containing the
x − x 1 y − y 1 z − z1
intersecting lines (i) and (ii) is given by l1 m1 n1 = 0.
l2 m2 n2
Remark 2.15 If the lines are given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y1 z − z1
= = and = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x 2 − x 1 y 2 − y 1 z2 − z1
then we get a1 b1 c1 = 0,
a2 b2 c2
as the required condition for the lines to be coplanar. When this condition
of coplanarity is satisfied, the equation of the plane containing the given
x − x 1 y − y 1 z − z1
intersecting lines is a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
Example 2.33 Show that the lines
x+3 y+5 z−7 x+1 y+1 z+1

= = and = =
2 3 −3 4 5 −1
are coplanar and find the equation of the plane containing them.
Solution. Let
x+3 y+5 z−7 x+1 y+1 z+1

L1 : = = and L2 : = = .
2 3 −3 4 5 −1
The points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (−3, −5, 7) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (−1, −1, −1) lie on
the lines L1 and L2 respectively. d.r.s of L1 are a1 = 2, b1 = 3, c1 = 3; and
that of L2 are a2 = 4, b2 = 5, c2 = −1. Consider
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z2 − z1 2 4 −8 2 4 −8
a1 b1 c1 = 2 3 −3 = 0 −1 5
a2 b2 c2 4 5 −1 0 −3 15
by performing R2 − R1 and R3 − 2R2 . Since, the third row is 3 times

the second row, the determinant is zero. Hence the lines L1 and L2 are
coplanar. The equation of the plane containing them is
x+3 y+5 z−7
2 3 −3 = 0 which on expansion gives 6x − 5y − z = 0.
4 5 −1
Geometry 73
2.19 Sets of conditions which determine a line
2.19.1 Number of arbitrary constants in the equations of

a straight line
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Let L be a line whose equations are = = . These
l m n
x − x1 y − y1 y − y1 z − z1
are equivalent to = ; = . From these equations,
l m m n
l mx1 − ly1 m ny1 − mz1
we get x = y + and y = z + . These equations
m m n n
l m l m
contain , , x1 − y1 and y1 − z1 as the five arbitrary constants, viz
m n m n
.
l m
, , x 1 , y1 , z1 .
m n
Hence the equations of a line involve five arbitrary constants.
2.19.2 Sets of conditions which determine a line:

We know that the equations of a straight line involve four arbitrary con-
stants and as such any four geometrical conditions.
We have seen equations of a line using following conditions:
1. A line through a given point and a given line direction.
2. A line passing through two given points.
3. A line through a given point and parallel to the two given planes.
4. A line through a point and perpendicular to the two given lines.
5. A line through a given point and intersecting two given lines.
6. A line intersecting two given lines and a given direction.
7. A line intersecting two given lines at right angles.
8. A line intersecting a given line at right angles and passing through a

given point.
2.20 Skew lines and shortest distance

Definition 2.5 Two lines are said to be non coplanar or skew lines if no
plane can be drawn to contain both of them.
Therefore such lines are neither parallel nor intersecting. A line is com-
pletely determined if it intersects two lines at right angles. Thus, there is
one and only one line which intersects the two given skew lines at right an-
gles and the segment of this line terminated by the two skew lines is known
as the shortest distance between them.
2.20.1 To find the length and the equations of the line of short-
est distance between two lines
b
B
E
b
A b
C
2 b
F
b
b
D
Figure 2.10: Shortest distance between skew lines

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Let the equations of the two skew lines AB and CD be
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
AB : = = (2.28)
l1 m1 n1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
CD : = = (2.29)
l2 m2 n2
Let GH be line which meets both skew lines AB and CD at right angles
(see Fig. 2.10). Then GH is the line of shortest distance between the lines
AB and CD; the length GH being the magnitude. Let l, m, n be the d.c.s..
Since GH is perpendicular to both of AB and CD, we have
ll1 + mm1 + nn1 = 0 and ll2 + mm2 + nn2 = 0.
Solving these two equations, we determine l, m, n. The shortest distance
GH is the projection of AC on GH. Hence
GH = l(x1 − x2 ) + m(y1 − y2 ) + n(z1 − z2 ).
Geometry 75
A method to determine the equations of the line of shortest distance

The line GH intersects the lines AB and CD. Therefore there is a unique
plane determined by the lines GH and AB, also there is a unique plane
determined by the lines GH and CD. The equation of the plane containing
the coplanar lines GH and AB is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
l1 m1 n1 = 0 (2.30)
l m n
and the equation of the plane containing the coplanar lines GH and CD is
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
l2 m2 n2 = 0. (2.31)
l m n
Equations (2.30) and (2.31) together constitute the equation of the shortest
distance when the lines are skew.
If the equations of the two skew lines AB and CD are given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
AB : = = (2.32)
a1 b1 c1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
CD : = = (2.33)
a2 b2 c2
then the equation of the plane containing the coplanar lines GH and AB
is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0 (2.34)
l m n
and the equation of the plane containing the coplanar lines GH and CD is
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
a2 b2 c2 = 0. (2.35)
l m n
Equations (2.34) and (2.35) together constitute the equation of the shortest
distance when the lines are skew.
Example 2.34 Find the shortest distance and the equations of the line of
shortest distance between the skew lines
x−1 y−2 z−4 x−3 y−4 z−5
= = ; = =
2 3 4 3 4 5
Solution. We give two methods for the solution.

First Method. Let
x−1 y−2 z−4 x−3 y−4 z−5
L1 : = = and L2 : = = .
2 3 4 3 4 5
The d.r.s. of L1 and L2 are 2,3,4 and 3,4,5 respectively. Let L be the line
of shortest distance between L1 and L2 ; and let l, m, n be the d.c.s. of the
line L. L is perpendicular to both L1 and L2 .
2l + 3m + 4n = 0; 3l + 4m + 5n = 0
l m n
Solving these two equations for l, m, n, we get = = . Thus, the
−1 2 −1
1 −2 1
d.r.s. of the line L are −1, 2, −1 and hence d.c.s. of L are √ , √ , √ .
6 6 6
A(1, 2, 4) and B(3, 4, 5) lie on the lines L1 and L2 respectively.
L1
L
b
A b
B M
b
L2
Figure 2.11:
The length of the shortest distance between the lines L1 and L2 equals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the length of the projection of the line segment AB on the line L is
1 −2 1 1
(x1 −x2 )l+(y1 −y2 )m+(z1 −z2 )n = (1−3) √ +(2−4) √ +(4−5) √ = √ .
6 6 6 6
The equation of the plane containing the lines L and L1 is
x−1 y−2 z−4
2 3 4 = 0; i.e., 11x + 2y − 7z + 13 = 0.
1 −2 1
x−1 y−2 z−4
3 4 5 = 0; i. e. 7x + y − 5z + 7 = 0.
1 −2 1
Geometry 77
Hence the equations of the line of shortest distance are
11x + 2y − 7z + 13 = 0 and 7x + y − 5z + 7 = 0.
Second Method. Let

x−1 y−2 z−4
L1 : = = = t and
2 3 4
x−3 y−4 z−5
L2 : = = = s(say).
3 4 5
A(1, 2, 4) and B(2, 4, 5) are points on the lines L1 and L2 respectively. Let
LM be the line of shortest distance between L1 and L2 (see Fig. 2.11).
Coordinates of any point on the line L1 are (1 + 2t, 2 + 3t, 4 + 4t). For some
t, we get coordinates of L. Let (2 + 3s, 4 + 4s, 5 + 5s) be the coordinates of
M for some s. Therefore d.r.s. of LM are 2t − 3s − 1, 3t − 4s − 2, 4t − 5s − 1.
LM is perpendicular to both L1 and L2 . It implies that
2(2t − 3s − 1) + 3(3t − 4s − 2) + 4(4t − 5s − 1) = 0

and 3(2t − 3s − 1) + 4(3t − 4s − 2) + 5(4t − 5s − 1) = 0
From these two equations, we get 29t − 38s − 12 = 0 and 19t − 25s − 8 = 0.
−4 −4
Solving these two equations for t and s, we have t = ,s= . So that
3 3
−5 −4 −4 −5 1
L( , −2, ) and M (−2, , ). By the distance formula, LM = √ .
3 3 3 3 6
3x + 6 3y + 4 3z + 5
Equations of LM are = = .
1 −2 1
2.20.2 Length of the perpendicular from a point to a line

To find the length of the perpendicular from the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to
x−α y−β z−γ
the given line L : = = . Let Q be the foot of the
l m n
perpendicular from the point P on the line L (see Fig. 2.12). HQ is
projection of HP on the line L. Hence, HQ = l(x1 − α) + m(y1 − β) +
n(z1 − γ). By the distance formula, HP 2 = (x1 − α)2 + (y1 − β)2 + (z1 − γ)2 .
We have P Q2 = HP 2 − HQ2 . Thus, the length of the perpendicular
form the point P on the line L is given by
P Q2 = (x1 −α)2 +(y1 −β)2 +(z1 −γ)2 −[l(x1 −α)+m(y1 −β)+n(z1 −γ)]2 .
b
P
H Q B
b b b
Figure 2.12: Distance of a point from the line
Example 2.35 Find the length of the perpendicular from the point (4, −5, 3)
x−5 y+2 z−6
to the line = = .
3 −4 5
x−5 y+2 z−6
Solution. Let L : = = . H(5, −2, 6) is a point on the
3 −4 5
line L, and d.r.s. of the line L are 3, −4, 5. Therefore d.c.s.of the line L are
3 −4 5
√ , √ , √ . Let Q be the foot of the perpendicular from P (4, −5, 3)
5 2 5 2 5 2
on the line L. HQ=projection of HP on the line L.
3 4 5 −6
HQ = √ (4 − 5) − √ (−5 + 2) + √ (3 − 6) = √ . By the distance
5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2
√ 36
formula HP = 19. P Q2 = HP 2 − HQ2 = 19 − . Hence the required
√ 50
457
length of the perpendicular is P Q = .
5
2.21 Illustrative Examples

x−1 y+2 z+5
Example 2.36 Show that the line = = lies on the plane
−2 3 4
x + 2y − z = 0.
x+1 y+2 z+5
Solution. Let L : = = = t(say). If the coordinates of
−2 3 4
every point on the line L lies on the on the plane x + 2y − z = 0, then we
say that the line L lies on the plane. Coordinates of any point on the line
L are (−1 − 2t, −2 + 3t, −5 + 4t). As (−1 − 2t) + 2(−2 + 3t) − (−5 + 4t) = 0,
the coordinates of any point on the line L satisfy the equation of the plane
x + 2y − z = 0. Hence the line L lies on the plane x + 2y − z = 0.
Example 2.37 Prove that the planes 2x − 3y − 7z = 0, 3x − 14y − 13z = 0

and 8x − 31y − 33z = 0 pass through one line.
Geometry 79
Solution. Let α1 : 2x − 3y − 7z = 0, α2 : 3x − 14y − 13z = 0 and

α3 : 8x − 31y − 33z = 0.
First we find the line of intersection of the planes α1 and α2 , say L in the
symmetric form. Both the planes pass through the origin O(0, 0, 0). Hence
the origin lies on the line of intersection L. Let a, b, c be d.r.s. of the line L.
L is perpendicular to the normals of the planes α1 and α2 . Hence, we get
2a − 3b − 7c = 0 and 3a − 4b − 13c = 0. Solving these two equations for a, b
and c, we have
a b c
= = .
−59 5 −19
Therefore d.r.s. of the line are 59, −5, 19. Equations of the line are
x−0 y−0 z−0
= = = t(say).
59 −5 19
Now we show that the line L lies on the plane 8x − 31y − 33z = 0. Coordi-
nates of any point on the line L are(59t, −5t, 19t). Now 8(59t) − 31(−5t) −
33(19t) = 0. Therefore the coordinates of any point on the line L satisfy the
equation of the plane 8x−31y −33z = 0. Hence the planes 2x−3y −7z = 0,
3x − 14y − 13z = 0 and 8x − 31y − 33z = 0 pass through one line.
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−2
Example 2.38 Prove that the lines = = and =
2 3 4 3
y−3 z−4
= are coplanar.
4 5
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−2 y−3
Solution. Let L1 : = = and L2 : = =
2 3 4 3 4
z−4
.
5
The points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (1, 2, 3) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (2, 3, 4) lie on the lines
L1 and L2 respectively. The d.r.s. of the line L1 are 2, 3, 4; and that of L2
are 3, 4, 5.
x 2 − x 1 y 2 − y 1 z2 − z1 1 1 1
a1 b1 c1 = 2 3 4 = 0.
a2 b2 c2 3 4 5
Hence the given lines L1 and L2 are coplanar.
Example 2.39 Find the length and equations of the shortest distance be-
tween the lines
3x − 9y + 5z = 0 = x + y − z; (2.36)
6x + 8y + 3z − 13 = 0 = x + 2y + z − 3. (2.37)
Solution. Let L1 : 3x−9y +5z = 0 = x+y −z and L2 : 6x+8y +3z −13 =

0 = x + 2y + z − 3. The line L1 passes through the origin.Let a, b, c be
d.r.s. of the line L1 , which is perpendicular to the normals of the planes
3x − 9y + 5z = 0 and x + y − z = 0. Hence,we get 3a − 9b + 5c = 0 and
a b c
a + b − c = 0. Solving these two equations for a, b, c, we have = = .
4 8 12
Therefore d.r.s. of L1 are 1, 2, 3.
Now to find the coordinates of a point on the line L2 , take z = 0. We have
6x + 8y = 13 and x + 2y = 3. Solving these two equations for x and y, we
1 5 1 5
get x = , y = . Therefore A( , , 0) is a point on the line L2 . Let e, f, g
2 4 2 4
be d.r.s. of the line L2 , which is perpendicular to the normals of the planes
6x+8y +3z = 13 and x+2y +z = 3. Using this we get 6e+8f +3g = 13 and
e f g
e+2f +g = 3. Solving these two equations for e, f, g, we have = = .
2 −3 4
Therefore d.r.s. of the line L2 are 2, −3, 4.
Now let L be the line of shortest distance between L1 and L2 . Therefore
L is perpendicular to both L1 and L2 . From this, we have l + 2m + 3n = 0
and 2l − 3m + 4n = 0. Solving these two equations, we get d.r.s of the line
17 2 −7
L as 17, 2, −7. Hence the d.c.s. of the line L are √ ,√ ,√
342 342 342
The length of the shortest distance between the lines L1 and L2 is the
projection of the line segment OA on the line L equals
1 17 5 2 −7 11
( − 0) √ + ( − 0) √ + (0 − 0) √ =√ .
2 342 4 342 342 342
x−0 y−0 z−0

1 2 3 = 0 i.e., 10x − 29y + 16z = 0.
17 2 −7

1 5
x− y− z−0
2 4 = 0 i.e., 13x + 82y + 55z = 109.
2 −3 4
17 2 −7
Hence the equations of the line of shortest distance are
10x − 29y + 16z = 0 = 13x + 82y + 55z − 109.

Geometry 81
Exercise Set 2.3
1. Show that the following lines are coplanar and find the equation of
the plane passing through the lines:
x−4 y+3 z+1 x − 1 y + 1 z + 10
(a) = = and = =
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
x−3 y−5 z−1 x−4 y−2 z−4
(b) = = and = =
1 2 −1 2 −1 2
x−1 y+1 z + 10 x−4 y+3 z+1
(c) = = and = =
2 −3 8 1 −4 7
2. Show that the shortest distance between the lines
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−2 y−4 z−5 1
= = and = = is √ .
2 3 4 3 4 5 6
3. Find the length and equations of the shortest distance between the
x−3 y−8 z−3 x+3 y+7 z−6
lines = = and = = .
3 −1 1 −3 2 4
4. Find the distance of (−1, 2, 5) from the line through (3, 4, 5) having
d.c.s. are proportional to 2, −3, 6.
5. Find the distance of the point (6, 6, −1) from the line
x−2 y−1 z+3
= = . Also find the coordinates of its foot.
1 2 −1
x−2 y+2 z−3
6. Show that the line = = lies in the plane
2 1 6
2x + 2y − z + 3 = 0.
x+2 y+3
7. Find the equation of the plane containing the line = =
2 3
z−4
and the point (0, 6, 0).
−2
8. Find the distance of A(1, −2, 3) from the line P Q, through P (2, −3, 5),
which makes equal angles with the coordinate axes.
9. Find the equations of the line of shortest distance between the lines
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−2 y−4 z−5
= = ; = = .
2 3 4 3 4 5
10. Show that the shortest distance between the z − axis and the line
ax + by + cz + d = 0 = a′ x + b′ y + c′ z + d′ = 0
cd′ − c′ d
is p .
(ac′ − a′ c)2 + (bc′ − b′ c)2
11. Find the distance of the point (−2, 2, −3) from the line
x−3 y+1 z−2
= = . Also find the coordinates of its foot.
1 2 −4
12. Find the equation of the plane containing the point (0, 7, −7) and the
x+1 y−3 z+2 7−y
line = = . Also show that the line x = =
−3 2 1 3
z+7
lies in the same plane.
2
13. Obtain the coordinates of the points where the line of shortest dis-
tance between the lines
x − 23 y − 19 z − 25 x − 12 y−1 z−5
= = and = =
−6 −4 3 −9 4 2
meets them.
14. Prove that the lines
x−a+d y−a z−a−d x−b+c y−b z−b−c
= = and = =
α−δ α α+δ β−γ β β+γ
are coplanar. Also find the equation in which they lie.
15. Find the length and the equations of the common perpendicular to
the lines
x−3 y−4 z+1 x+6 y+5 z−1
= = ; = = .
1 1 1 2 4 −1
16. Prove that the lines x = ay + b = cz + d and x = αy + β = γz + δ are
coplanar if (γ − c)(aβ − bα) − (α − a)(cδ − dγ) = 0.
y z
17. Show that the equation to the plane containing the line + =
b c
x z x y z
1; x = 0 and parallel to the line − = 1; y = 0 is − − = 1.
a c a b c
1 1 1 1
Also prove that 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 , where 2d is the shortest distance
d a b c
between the lines.
x+4 y+6 z−1
18. Show that the lines = = and 3x − 2y + z + 5 =
3 5 −2
0 = 2x + 3y + 4z − 4 are coplanar. Also find the equation of the plane
containing the lines.
Geometry 83
x y z x y z x y z
19. Show that the lines = = , = = and = =
α β γ aα bβ cγ l m n
lie in a plane if lβγ(b − c) + mαγ(c − a) + nαβ(a − b) = 0.
Answers Exercise Set 2.1
4 3 −3 3 −4 3 −6 2
1. (i) ± √ , ± √ , ± √ (ii) ± , ± , 0 (iii) ± , ± ,±
34 34 34 5 5 7 7 7
1 2 −2 −1 2

(iv) ± , ± ,± 0
. 4. 60 , 120 0
5. cos 0 0
7. 60 , 90 , 300
8. 900
3 −3 3 r
3
1 π 2
10. ∠A = cos−1 √ , ∠B = , ∠C = cos−1 .
2 2 3
Exercise Set 2.2

√ √ √
6 3 7 8 38
1. 3x − 2y + 6z = 30 2. 6x + 2y − 3z = 12 3. (a) (b) (c)
3 14 19
√
2
4. 3x2 + 3y 2 + 3z 2 + 2xz − 27 = 0. 5. θ = cos−1 ( )
3
7. 2x + 7y − 5z = 21;11x + 19y + 31z = 18 which bisects the acute angle.
7 √ √
8. x − 2y + 2z = 6; x − 2y + 2z = 0. 9. 10. 2x − 5y + 7z = 8 − 7
6
11. x − z = 0. 12. 51x + 15y − 50z + 173 = 0 13. 2x + 3y − 4z = 11
14. 7x + 9y − 10z = 27. 15.(a) y = 4 (b) z ± 5
16. x + y + z = 6;x + y + z + 8 = 0
17. 3x2 + 8y 2 + 35z 2 − 36yz − 24zx + 12xy − 8x − 12y + 24z + 4 = 0
18. 3x + 2y + z = 0 19. bcx − acy − abz = 0.
21. 2x + 9y − 5z = 9 22. 23x − 13y − 32z + 45 = 0
23. All points lie on the same side. 24. 67x − 162y + 47z + 44 = 0.
25. (a) and (d) represent pair of planes. Angles are

− 2y)+ 5z(x − 2y) +
(a) 3x(x 1(x − 2y) = (3x + 5z + 1)(x − 2y) = 0
3 −3
cos−1 √ and (d) cos−1 √ .
170 70
84 Geometry
28. a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc = 1. Hint: For some λ and µ, we have
(x − cy − bz) + λ(y − cx − az) = µ(z − bx − ay).
Exercise Set 2.3
1. (a) The given lines L1 and L2 are coplanar as
x2 − x1 y2 − y 1 z2 − z1 4−1 −3 + 1 −1 + 10
a1 b1 c1 = 1 −4 7 = 0.
a2 b2 c2 2 −3 8
(b) 3x − 4y − 5z + 16 = 0 (c) 11x − 6y − 5z = 67

√
√ x−3y−8 z−3 4 61 √
3. 3 30, = 4. 5. 21, (4, 5, −5)
2 5 −1 7
r
14
7. 3x + 2y + 6z = 12 8. 9. 11x + 2y − 7z + 6 = 0;7x + y − 5z + 7 = 0
3
√
11. 28, (4, 1, −2) 12. x + y + z = 0 13. (11, 11, 31) and (3, 5, 7)
√ x−1 y−2z−1
14. x − 2y + z = 0 15. 14, =
3 −1 2
18. 45x − 17y + 25z + 53 = 0.
Chapter 3
The Sphere
Definition 3.1 A sphere is the locus of a point which remains at a constant
distance from a fixed point.
The constant distance is called the radius and the fixed point is called the
centre of the sphere.
Figure 3.1: Sphere
3.1 Equation of a sphere:

We shall discuss various forms of the equation of sphere.
1. Standard equation of sphere: To find the equation of a sphere with
centre at origin 0(0, 0, 0) and radius r.
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere. Then OP = r, therefore
OP 2 = r2 . By distance formula OP 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Therefore x2 +
y2 + z 2 = r2 .
This is standard equation of a sphere.
2. Centre Radius form of sphere: To find the equation of a sphere with
centre at C(a, b, c) and radius r.
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere. Then CP = r, therefore
CP 2 = r2 . By distance formula, CP 2 = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 .
Hence,
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r2 . (3.1)
85
86 Geometry
This is centre radius form of sphere.

Remark 3.1 1. The equation (3.1) can be written in the form
x2 − 2ax + a2 + y 2 − 2by + b2 + z 2 − 2cz + c2 = r2 .
Let u = −a, v = −b, w = −c, d = a2 + b2 + c2 − r2 . Hence, we get
the equation as
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0, (3.2)
The equation (3.2) is called as general equation of sphere.
2. Note the following characteristics of the equation (3.2) of the sphere:
(i) It is second degree equation in x, y, z;
(ii) The coefficient of x2 , y 2 , z 2 are all equal;
(iii) The product terms xy, yz, zx are absent.
Conversely, we shall now show that the general equation
ax2 + ay 2 + az 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0, a ̸= 0 (3.3)
having the above three characteristics represents a sphere.
Dividing equation (3) by a, we get
u v w d
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z + = 0.
a a a a
Completing the square, we get
u 2 v 2 w 2 u2 + v 2 + w2 − ad
x+ + y+ + z+ =
a a a a2
u v w
Thus equation (3.3) represents a sphere with centre at − , − , − and
a a a
1 √ 2
radius u + v 2 + w2 − ad
|a|
Example 3.1 Find the centre and radius of sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2cx − 2cy − 2cz + 2c2 = 0.
Solution: Comparing given equation of sphere with general equation of
sphere we have u = −c, v = −c, w √= −c, d = 2c2 . Hence, √ centre is
C(−u, −v, −w) = (c, c, c) and radius is u2 + v 2 + w2 − d = c2 + c2 + c2 − 2c2 =
|c|.
The Sphere 87
Example 3.2 Find the centre and radius of the sphere

(i) x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 4y + 6z + 5 = 0
(ii) 3x2 + 3y 2 + 3z 2 + 6x − 9y − 12z + 15 = 0.
Solution: (i) The given equation of the sphere is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 4y + 6z + 5 = 0.
Comparing this equation with general equation or sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
We have u = −1, v = 2, w = 3, d = 5.
√ sphere = C(−u, −v,
Centre of the √ −w) = (1, −2, −3)
√
Radius = u2 + v 2 + w2 − d = 1 + 4 + 9 − 5 = 9 = 3.
(ii) The equation of the given sphere is
3x2 + 3y 2 + 3z 2 + 6x − 9y − 12z + 15 = 0.
Dividing by 3, we get x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 3y − 4z + 5 = 0.
Comparing this equation of sphere with general equation of sphere.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
−3
We have u = +1, v = , w = −2, d = 5. Hence, the centre of the sphere
2
3
is C(−u, −v, −w) = (−1, , 2) and radius equals
2
r r
p 9 9 3
u +v +w −d =
2 2 2 1+ +4−5= = .
4 4 2
Example 3.3 Find the equation of a sphere having centre (2, −3, 4) and
radius 5.
Solution: Let P (x, y, z) be a point on the sphere. Then distance of P from
centre = radius i.e.
(x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 + (z − 4)2 = 52
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 6y − 8z + 4 = 0
This is required equation of sphere.
Example 3.4 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points
(3, 0, 2), (−1, 1, 1), (2, −5, 4) and having centre on the plane 2x+3y+4z = 6.
Solution: Let (a, b, c) be the centre of the required equation of sphere.
Therefore
(a − 3)2 + b2 + (c − 2)2 = (a + 1)2 + (b − 1)2 + (c − 1)2 .
88 Geometry
Simplifying, we get 8a − 2b + 2c = 10 (1)

Similarly
(a − 3)2 + b2 + (c − 2)2 = (a − 2)2 + (b + 5)2 + (c − 4)2 .
Hence, we get a + 5b − 2c = −16 (2)

Since the centre (a, b, c) lies on the given plane 2x + 3y + 4z = 6 we have
2a + 3b + 4c = 6 (3)
Solving (1), (2) and (3) we get a = 0, b = −2, c = 3.
p √
Radius of sphere = (3 − 0)2 + (0 + 2)2 + (2 − 3)2 = 14.
Required equation of sphere is x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4y − 6z − 1 = 0.
Example 3.5 Find the equation of the sphere passing through A(1, 1, 2) and
B(0, −2, 1) and its centre lies on the line x − 1 = 2 − y = z + 1.
Solution: Let C(a, b, c) be the centre of the sphere. Since A and B are two
points on the sphere, AC 2 = BC 2 = (radius)2 and we get
(a − 1)2 + (b − 1)2 + (c − 2)2 = (a − 0)2 + (b + 2)2 + (c − 1)2

2a + 6b + 2c = 1 (1)
Since centre C(a, b, c) lies on the line x − 1 = 2 − y = z + 1,

a − 1 = 2 − b = c + 1 = r say
11
a = 4 + 1, b = 2 − r, c = r − 1. Using these values in (1), we get r = .
2
11 13 11 −7 11 9
Thus, a = r + 1 = +1 = , b = 2− = , c= −1 = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
13 −7 9
Therefore centre of sphere is C(a, b, c) = , , and radius of sphere
2 2 2
equals
s 2 2 r √
2
13 7 9 169 + 9 + 49 227
+ 2− + −1 = =
2 2 2 4 2
Required equation of sphere is

2 2 2
13 7 9 227
x− + y+ + z− =
2 2 2 2
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 13x + 7y − 9z + 18 = 0.
The Sphere 89
Example 3.6 Find the equation of the sphere passing through (0, 3, 0), (2, 1, −1)
and whose centre lies on the line x − y − z = 0 = 2x + 3y.
Solution: Let C(a, b, c) be the centre of the sphere. Since the center
C(a, b, c) lies on the line x − y − z = 0 = 2x + 3y, we get
a−b−c = 0 (1)
2a + 3b = 0 (2)
Let A(2, 1, −1) and B(0, 3, 0) be two points on the sphere. Therefore
(AC)2 = (BC)2 = (radius)2
(a − 2)1 + (b − 1)2 + (c + 1)2 = a2 + (b − 3)2 + c2

−4a + 4b + 2c = 3 (3)
9 3 15
Solving (1), (2) and (3) we get a = − , b= , c=−
10 5 10
s 2 2 2 r
−9 6 −15 882
Radius of sphere = + −3 + =
10 10 10 100
The required equation of sphere is

2 2 2
9 6 15 882
x+ + y− + z+ = .
10 10 10 100
3.1.1 Sphere with a given diameter:

To find the equation of the sphere described on the line joining the points
A(x1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) as diameter.
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere described on AB as diameter.
Since section of the sphere by the plane through the three points P, A, B is
a great circle having AB as diameter and P lies on semi-circle. Therefore
P A⊥P B. The direction cosines of P A and P B are proportional to x−x1 , y−
y1 , z − z1 and x − x2 , y − y2 , z − z2 respectively. Since P A is perpendicular
to P B,
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) + (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) = 0
This is diameter form of equation of the sphere.
Example 3.7 Obtain the equation of the sphere described on the join of
A(2, −3, 4), B(−5, 6, −7) as diameter.
90 Geometry
b
P
O b
b b
B(x2 , y2 , z2 )
A(x1 , y1 , z1 )
Figure 3.2: Diameter form of Sphere
Solution: Note that A, B are the end points of the diameter AB. The
equation of sphere in diameter form is
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) + (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) = 0

(x − 2)(x + 5) + (y + 3)(y − 6) + (z − 4)(z + 7) = 0
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 3x − 3y + 3z − 56 = 0
Example 3.8 Find the equation of the smallest sphere passing through
A(−1, 2, 3) and B(1, 3, −4).
Solution: Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere. The direction ratios of
AP are x + 1, y − 2, z − 3. The direction ratios of BP are x − 1, y − 3, z + 4.
Since AP ⊥ BP
(x + 1)(x − 1) + (y − 2)(y − 3) + (2 − 3)(z + 4) = 0

x + y + z − 5y + z − 7 =
2 2 2
0.
3.1.2 Intercept Form:

To find the equation of a sphere with intercepts a, b, c on x, y and z-axis
respectively and passing through the origin. Let the equation of required
sphere be
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (3.4)
The Sphere 91
Since origin O(0, 0, 0) lies on sphere (3.4) d = 0. Since x, y, z intercepts are

a, b, c respectively. Therefore the point A(a, 0, 0) lies on sphere (3.4)
a
a2 + 2ua = 0 i. e. u = −
2
Similarly the points B(0, b, 0) and C(0, 0, c) lies on sphere (3.4). This gives
b c
v = − and w = − . Using above values of u, v, w, d in equation (3.4) we
2 2
get
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − ax − by − cz = 0
This is equation of sphere in intercept form.
Example 3.9 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the origin
and making equal positive intercept 5 units of the axes.
Solution : We know equation of the plane passing through origin and mak-
ing intercept a, b, c on co-ordinate axes.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − ax − by − cz = 0
In this case a = b = c = 5. Hence, equation of the sphere is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 5x − 5y − 5z = 0
Example 3.10 Find the equation of the sphere which circumscribes the
tetrahedron: (0, 0, 0), (0, 3, 0), (5, 0, 0), (0, 0, 7).
Solution: The equation of sphere passing through origin and making inter-
cepts a, b, c on co-ordinate axes is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − ax − by − cz = 0
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 5x − 3y − 7z = 0
3.1.3 Equation of the sphere through four given points:

We want to find the equation of the sphere passing through four given
points, A(x1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x2 , y2 , z2 ), C(x3 , y3 , z3 ) and D(x4 , y4 , z4 ). Let
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (3.5)
be the required equation of sphere.

Since the four points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x2 , y2 , z2 ), C(x3 , y3 , z3 ) and
92 Geometry
D(x4 , y4 , z4 ) lie on the sphere (3.5), we get
x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d = 0 (3.6)

x22 + y22 + z22 + 2ux2 + 2vy2 + 2wz2 + d = 0 (3.7)
x23 + y32 + z32 + 2ux3 + 2vy3 + 2wz3 + d = 0 (3.8)
x24 + y42 + z42 + 2ux4 + 2vy4 + 2wz4 + d = 0 (3.9)
Eliminating u, v, w and d from above five equations, we have
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x y z 1
x21 + y12 + z12 x1 y1 z1 1
x22 + y22 + z22 x2 y2 z2 1 = 0.
x23 + y32 + z32 x3 y3 z3 1
x24 + y42 + z42 x4 y4 z4 1
This is the required equation through the four given points.

Note: While solving the problems we may adopt a simple method as illus-
trated in solved examples.
A(2, 4, −1), B(0, −4, 3), C(−2, 0, 1) and D(6, 0, 9).
Solution : Let E(a, b, c) be the centre of the sphere. Since the points A, B, C
and D lie on the sphere, radius r = AE = BE = CE = DE. This implies
that AE 2 = BE 2 = CE 2 = DE 2 . Now AE 2 = BE 2 gives
(a − 2)2 + (b − 4)2 + (c + 1)2 = (a − 0)2 + (b + 4)2 + (6 − 3)2

a + 4b − 2c = −1 (1)
Similarly AE 2 = CE 2 gives
(a − 2)2 + (b − 4)2 + (c + 1)2 = (a + 2)2 + b2 + (c − 1)2

2a + 2b − c = 4 (2)
Next AE 2 = DE 2 gives
(a − 2)2 + (b − 4)2 + (c + 1)2 = (a − 6)2 + b2 (c − 9)2

2a − 2b + 5c = 24 (3)
Adding (2) and (3)

4a + 4c = 28 i.e. a + c = 7 (4)
The Sphere 93
Multiplying equation (3) by 2 and adding to equation (1) we get
5a + 8c = 87 (5)
Solving (4) and (5) we obtain a = 3, c = 4 By (1) b = 1. √

The centre of the sphere is E(a, b, c) = (3, 1, 4) and its radius is 35. By
centre radius form of sphere.
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r2

i.e. (x − 3)2 + (y − 1)2 + (z − 4)2 = 35
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x − 2y − 8z − 9 = 0
Example 3.12 Find the equation of sphere passing through O(0, 0, 0), A(0, 1, −1),
and C(1, 3, 2).
Solution: Let x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (1)
be the required equation of sphere. Since O(0, 0, 0) lies on (1) , we get
d = 0. Since the point A(0, 1, −1) lies on (1)
0u + v − w + 1 = 0 (2)
Similarly the points B(−1, 2, 0) and C(1, 3, 2) lies on (1)
−2u + 4v + 0w + 5 = 0 (3)
u + 3v + 2w + 7 = 0 (4)
−11 −23 −9
Solving equations (2), (3) and (4) we get u = , v = , w= .
14 14 14
Using these values in equation (1)
11 23 9
x2 + y 2 + z 2 −
x− y− z = 0
7 7 7
7x + 7y + 7z − 11x − 23y − 9z
2 2 2
= 0
This is required equation of the sphere.
Example 3.13 Find the equation of the sphere passing through A(1, 1, 0),
B(0, −1, 2), C(2, 0, −1), D(2, 2, 0)
Solution : Let E(a, b, c) be the centre of the sphere. Since A, B, C and D
94 Geometry
lie on the sphere, radius = AE = BE = CE = DE. This implies that

(AE)2 = (BE)2 = (CE)2 = (DE)2 . Now (AE)2 = (BE)2 gives
(a − 1)2 + (b − 1)2 + c2 = a2 + (b + 1)2 + (c − 2)2

2a + 4b − 4c = −3 (1)
Similarly (AE)2 = (CE)2 gives
(a − 1)2 + (b − 1)2 + c2 = (a − 2)2 + b2 + (c + 1)2

2a − 2b − 2c = 3 (2)
(AE)2 = (DE)2 gives a + b = 3 (4)

33 −3 21
After solving (1), (2) and (3) we get a = , b= , c= .

10 10 10
33 −3 21
The centre of the sphere is C(a, b, c) = , , and its radius is
√ 10 10 10
1139
. By centre radius form of sphere,we get
10
2 2 2
33 3 21 1139
x− + y+ + z− = .
10 10 10 100
Hence, 5(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 33x + 3y − 21z + 20 = 0 is the required equation

of sphere.
Example 3.14 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points:
A(1, 0, −1), B(2, 1, 0), C(1, 1, −1) and D(1, 1, 1).
Solution: Let E(a, b, c) be the centre of the sphere. Since A, B, C and
D are four points on the sphere, radius = AE = BE = CE = DE. This
implies (AE)2 = (BE)2 = (CE)2 = (DE)2 . Now (AE)2 = (BE)2 gives
(a − 1)2 + b2 + (c + 1)2 = (a − 2)2 + (b − 1)2 + c2

2a + 2b + 2c = 3 (1)
Similarly (AE)2 = (CE)2 gives 2b + 2c = 1 (2)

(CE)2 = (DE)2 gives
(a − 1)2 + (b − 1)2 + (c + 1)2 = (a − 1)2 + (b − 1)2 + (c − 1)2

c = 0 (3)
The Sphere 95
1
By (2) b = and by (1) a = 1. The centre of the sphere is E(a, b, c) =
2 r √
1 1 5
(1, , 0) and its radius is 0 + + 1 = . By centre radius form the
2 4 2
sphere
1 5
(x − 1)2 + (y − )2 + (z − 0)2 = i.e. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − y = 0.
2 4
This is the required equation of sphere.
3.2 Plane section of a sphere:

To prove that the plane section of a sphere is a circle.
Let O be the centre of the sphere. Let P be any point which is
common to the sphere and the plane. Let ON is perpendicular to the
given plane; N being the foot of the perpendicular. The line N P lies in
the plane. Therefore ON ⊥ N P. In right angled triangle ON P, OP 2 =
ON 2 + N P 2 . Hence, N P 2 = OP 2 − ON 2
The points O and N being fixed. But OP is radius of the sphere which is
fixed. Also ON is fixed. Therefore OP 2 − ON 2 is fixed N P 2 and hence
N P is constant. Hence the locus of P is circle whose centre in N (the foot
of
√ perpendicular from the centre of the sphere to the plane) and radius is
OP 2 − ON 2 .
Thus section of a sphere by a plane is a circle.
Remark 3.2 1. The section of a sphere by a plane through it centre is

known as a great circle. The centre and radius of a great circle are
the some as those of sphere.
2. (i) If ON > OP, then circle is imaginary.
(ii) If ON = OP, then it is the point circle.
Example 3.15 Find the centre and the radius of the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2y − 4z = 11, x + 2y + 2z = 15.
Solution: The given equation of circle is the intersection of the sphere

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2y − 4z − 11 = 0 (1)
with the plane x + 2y + 2z − 15 = 0 (2)
The centre of √ √ −v, −w) = (0, 1, √
the sphere (1) is C(−u, 2), and
radius = r = u2 + v 2 + w2 − d = 0 + 1 + 4 + 11 = 16 = 4.
96 Geometry
b
N
b
P
b
F
b
O
Figure 3.3: Intersection of a plane and Sphere
Figure 3.4: Section of a sphere by a plane

H
b
N
b
P
b
F
b
C
Draw CM perpendicular from C on the plane x + 2y + 2z − 15 = 0 Since

CM is perpendicular to the plane (2), the direction ratios of CM are 1, 2, 2
x y−1 z−2
and the equations of line CM are = = = r say
1 2 2
x = r, y = 2r + 1, z = 2r + 2 (3)
These are the co-ordinates of any point on the line CM. If this point lies
on the plane (2) then
4 + 2(2r + 1) + 2(2r + 2) = 15 i. e. r = 1
The Sphere 97
Putting r = 1 in (3) we get M (x, y, z) = (1, 3, 4). From right angled

triangle CM P, CM 2 + M P 2 = CP 2 . Hence,
p p √
M P = CP 2 − CM 2 = 16 − [1 + 4 + 4] = 7.
√
Thus, the centre of the circle is M (1, 3, 4) and its radius = 7.
x+1 y−2 z−2
Example 3.16 Prove that the straight line = = touches
4 1 1
2 2 2
the sphere x + y + z = 9. Find the point of contact.
Solution We have the equation of sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9 (1)
x+1 y−2 z−2
The equations of the line are = = = r say
4 1 1
x = 4r − 1, y = r + 2, z = r + 2 (2)
Let P (x, y, z) = P (4r − 1, r + 2, r + 2) be points on the line. If this point
lies on sphere (1) then
(4r − 1)2 + (r + 2)2 + (r + 2)2 = 9 i.e. 18r2 = 0 i.e.r = 0.
Both roots of the quadratic equation in r are zero. Putting r = 0 in (3)
we get P (−1, 2, 2). Clearly P (−1, 2, 2) satisfies equation of sphere (1). i.e.
P (−1, 2, 2) lies on (1). Therefore the straight line (2) is tangent line to the
sphere (1) at point P (−1, 2, 2). The point P (−1, 2, 2) is required point of
contact.
3.3 Intersection of two spheres:

To prove that the curves of intersection of two spheres is a circle.
Let
S1 ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u1 x + 2v1 y + 2w1 z + d1 = 0 (1)
S2 ≡ x + y + z + 2u2 x + 2v2 y + 2w2 z + d2
2 2 2
= 0 (2)
be two equations of sphere. Consider the equation S1 − S2 = 0 i.e.
2(u1 − u2 )x + 2(v1 − v2 )y + 2(w1 − w2 )z + (d1 − d2 ) = 0 (3)
Equation (3) is first degree equation in x, y, z. Therefore it represents a
plane. Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be a point common to two spheres (1) and (2).
Therefore
S1 ≡ x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u1 x1 + 2v1 y1 + 2w1 z1 + d1 = 0
S2 ≡ x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u2 x1 + 2v2 y1 + 2w2 z1 + d2 = 0
98 Geometry
Now at point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ), S1 − S2 = 0 gives
2(u1 − u2 )x1 + 2(v1 − v2 )y1 + 2(w1 − w2 )z1 + (d1 − d2 ) = 0
This shows that the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) satisfy equation of plane (3)
Therefore the curves of intersection of two spheres (1) and (2) is same as
that of sphere (1) and plane (3) or sphere (2) and plane (3).
But intersection of a sphere and a plane is a circle.
Thus the curves of intersection of two spheres is a circle.
Note: The plane given by equation (3) is called radical plane.
Example 3.17 Find the equation of the sphere through the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6x − 4y − 6z − 14 = 0, x + y − z = 0 and passing through the
point (1, 1, −1). Also find centre and radius of this sphere.
Solution: The equations of given circle are
S ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6x − 4y − 6z − 14 = 0
U ≡x+y−z = 0
The equation of the sphere passing through this circle is S + λU = 0, where

λ is a real number.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6x − 4y − 6z − 14 + λ(x + y + z) = 0 (1)
Since the point (1, 1, −1) lies on the sphere (1)
1 + 1 + 1 + 6 − 4 + 6 − 14 + λ(1 + 1 + 1) = 0.
Hence, λ = 1. Putting λ = 1 in equation (1) we get required equation of

sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6x − 4y − 6z − 14 + (x + y − z) = 0
x + y + z + 7x − 3y − 7z − 14 = 0
2 2 2
√
−7 3 7 163
The centre of this sphere is C , , and its radius is .
2 2 2 2
Example 3.18 Show that following spheres touches each other and find their
point of touching
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x − 2y − 4z + 5 = 0 (1)
x + y + z − 6x − 6y + 17
2 2 2
= 0 (2)
The Sphere 99
Solution:
√ The centre of √ sphere (1) is C1 (2, 1, 2) and radius is
r1 = 4 + 1 +√4 − 5 = 4 = 2. The √ centre of sphere (2) is C2 (3, 3, 0) and
radius is r2 = 9 + 9 + 0 − 17 = 1 = 1. √
The distance between the centre of the spheres C1 C2 is 1 + 4 + 4 = 3 =
r1 + r2 . Therefore two spheres (1) and (2) touch externally.
If P (x, y, z) is their point of contact, then P divides C1 C2 internally in the
ratio r1 : r2 i.e. 2 : 1 therefore
2(3) + 1(2) 8 2(3) + 1(1) 7 2(0) + 1(2) 2

x= = ,y = = ,z = = .
2+1 3 2+1 3 2+1 3

8 7 2
P , , is required point of contact.
3 3 3
3.3.1 Equations of a circle

We know that the plane section of a sphere is a circle. Therefore the circle
can be represented by two equations, one being of a sphere and other of
the plane. Thus the two equations
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0, lx + my + nz = P
taken together represent a circle. A circle can also be represented by the

equations of any two spheres through it. We note that the equations x2 +
y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, z = 0 also represents a circle which is the
intersection of the cylinder x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 with the plane.
3.4 Sphere through a given Circle
3.4.1 Sphere passing through the circle of intersection of the

given sphere and plane
To find the equation of a sphere which passes through the circle with equa-
tions
S ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (1)

U ≡ lx + my + nz − p = 0 (2)
Consider the equation S + λU = 0 i.e.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d + λ(lx + my + nz − p) = 0

100 Geometry
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + (2u + λl)x + (2v + λm)y + (2w + nλ)z + d − λp = 0(3)

In equation (3) we observe that it is the second degree equation in x, y, z in
which coefficients of x2 , y 2 , z 2 are same and the product terms in xy, yz, zx
are absents. Therefore equation (3) represents a sphere. Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be
any point which satisfy the equations of circle (1) and (2) i.e.
x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d = 0

lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p = 0
The point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) also satisfies equation (3)

x21 + y12 + z12 + (2u + λl)x1 + (2v + λm)y1 + (2w + nλ)z1 + d − λp
= (x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d) + λ(lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p)
= 0 + λ0 = 0
i.e. the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) which is common to (1) and (2) also lies on (3).
Hence (3) represents a sphere which passes through the circle in which the
sphere (1) is cut by the plane (2). For different values of λ, we get different
spheres. Thus, the equation S + λU = 0 represents a sphere containing the
circle S = 0 and U = 0 for all real values of λ.
3.4.2 Sphere passing through a circle, which is the intersection

of two spheres:
Let S1 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u1 x + 2v1 y + 2w1 z + d1 = 0 (1)
and S2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u2 x + 2v2 y + 2w2 z + d2 = 0 (2)
be two intersecting spheres. Equations (1) and (2) represents a circle. Con-
sider the equation S1 + λS2 = 0 (λ ̸= −1)
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u1 x + 2v1 y + 2w1 z + d1 +
λ(x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u2 x + 2v2 y + 2w2 z + d2 ) = 0
(1 + λ)x2 + (1 + λ)y 2 + (1 + λ)z 2 + 2(u1 + λu2 )x + 2(v1 + λv2 )y
+ 2(w1 + λw2 )z + (d1 + λd2 ) = 0 (3)
Thus, equation (3) is a second degree equation in x, y, z in which coefficients
of x2 , y 2 , z 2 are equal and product terms xy, yz, zx are absent. Therefore
equation (3) represents sphere.
If P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a point common to sphere (1) and (2) then
x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u1 x1 + 2v1 y1 + 2w1 z1 + d1 = 0

x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u2 x1 + 2v2 y1 + 2w2 z1 + d2 = 0
At point P (x1 , y1 , z1 )
The Sphere 101
S1 + λS2 = (x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u1 x1 + 2v1 y1 + 2w1 z1 + d1 )

+λ(x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u2 x1 + 2v2 y1 + 2w2 z1 + d2 )
= 0 + λ(0) = 0
Therefore P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) satisfies equation (3).

Thus S1 + λS2 = 0 (λ ̸= −1) is a sphere through the circle of intersection
of the two spheres S1 = 0, S2 = 0.
3.5 Intersection of a sphere and a line:

Let x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (1)
be the equation of the sphere. The equations of line having l, m, n asdi-
x − x1 y − y1
rection cosines and passing through P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) are = =
l m
z − z1
= r say. (2)
n
Therefore x = x1 + lr, y = y1 + mr, z = z1 + nr (3)
These are the co-ordinates of general point on the line (2).
If the point (x, y, z) = (x1 + lr, y1 + mr, z1 + nr) on the sphere (1), then
(x1 + lr)2 + (y1 + mr)2 + (z1 + nr)2 + 2u(x1 + lr) + 2v(y1 + mr)
+ 2w(z1 + nr) + d = 0
r2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) + 2r(lx1 + my1 + nz1 + lu + mv + nw)
+ x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d = 0
This is quadratic equation in r and hence it gives two values of r say r1
and r2 . Therefore, there are two points A(x1 + lr1 , y1 + mr1 , z1 + nr1 ) and
B(x1 + lr2 , y1 + mr2 , z1 + nr2 ) common to sphere (1) and line (2). Hence
in general a line intersects a sphere in two points.
Remark 3.3
1. If r1 and r2 are real and distinct, then there are two common points.
2. If r1 = r2 , then line touches the sphere.
3. If r1 and r2 are imaginary, then the line does not intersect the sphere.
x−7 y−6 z+5

Example 3.19 Find the point at which the line = =
2 1 −1
Cuts the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 3y − 5z − 31 = 0.
102 Geometry
Solution: We have equation of sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 3y − 5z − 31 = 0. (1)
The equations of the line are

x−7 y−6 z+5
= = = r say (2)
2 1 −1
Therefore x = 2r + 7, y = r + 6, z = −r − 5.
Let P (x, y, z) = (2r + 7, r + 6, −r − 5) be a point on the line. If this point
lies on sphere (1) then
(2r + 7)2 + (r + 6)2 + (−r − 5)2 − 2(2r + 7) + 3(r + 6) − 5(−r − 5) − 31 = 0.
Hence,
6r2 + 54r + 108 = 0

(r + 6)(r + 3) = 0. Hence, r = −6 or r = −3
Putting r = −6 and r = −3 in the coordinates of P, we obtain point of

intersection of line and sphere as P (−5, 0, 1), Q(1, 3, −2).
Example 3.20 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 2y − 2z − 1 = 0; 2x − 2y + z − 1 = 0 and passing through
the point (3, −1, 1).
Solution: The equations of given circle are
S ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 2y − 2z − 1 = 0
U ≡ 2x − 2y + z − 1 = 0.
The equation of the sphere passing through this circle is S + λU = 0, where

λ is real number.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 2y − 2z − 1 + λ(2x − 2y + z − 1) = 0 (1)
Since the point (3, −1, 1) lies on (1)
8λ + 16 = 0 i. e. λ = −2.
Putting λ = −2 in equation (1) we get.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 2y − 2z − 1 − 2(2x − 2y + z − 1) = 0
x + y + z − 2x + 2y − 4z + 1
2 2 2
= 0
The Sphere 103
3.6 Equation of Tangent Plane

3.6.1 Standard equation of sphere
To find the equation of a tangent plane to the standard equation of sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) on it.
Let x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 (1)
be the standard equation of the sphere. Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be any point on
the sphere (1). Therefore x21 + y12 + z12 = a2 (2)
The equations of a line passing through P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = = r say (3)
l m n
The co-ordinates of a general point on the line are
x = x1 + lr, y = y1 + mr, z = z1 + nr.
This point lies on the sphere (1) if
(x1 + lr)2 + (y1 + mr)2 + (z1 + nr)2 = a2
r2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) + 2r(lx1 + my1 + nz1 ) + (x21 + y12 + z12 ) = a2
By using equation (2)

r2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) + 2r(lx1 + my1 + nz1 ) + a2 = a2
r2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) + 2r(lx1 + my1 + nz1 ) = 0
One root of this equation is 0. Therefore, in order that the line (3) is tangent
line to sphere (1), the other root must also be 0.
Therefore lx1 + my1 + nz1 = 0 (4)
The equation of tangent plane at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is obtained by eliminating
l, m, n from equations (3) and (4)
(x − x1 )x1 + (y − y1 )y1 + (z − z1 )z1 = 0
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 = x21 + y12 + z12
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 = a2
This is the equation of tangent plane to sphere (1) at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) on it.
3.6.2 Equation of Tangent Plane

To find the equation of the tangent plane at any point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) of the
sphere.
104 Geometry
Let x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (1)

be the general equation of the sphere. Since the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lies on
the sphere (1)
x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d = 0 (2)
The equation of a line passing through P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = = r say (3)
l m n
Then the co-ordinates of general point on this line are
x = x1 + lr, y = y1 + mr, z = z1 + nr.
This point lies on the sphere (1) if
(x1 + lr)2 + (y1 + mr)2 + (z1 + nr)2 + 2u(x1 + lr) + 2v(y1 + mr)
+ 2w(z1 + nr) + d = 0
r2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) + 2r[l(x1 + u) + m(y1 + v) + n(z1 + w)]
(x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d = 0
By using equation (2)
r2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) + 2r[l(x1 + u) + m(y1 + v) + n(z1 + w)] = 0
One root of this equation is 0.
Therefore, in order that the line (3) is a tangent line to sphere (1), the
other root must also be 0.
l(x1 + u) + m(y1 + v) + n(z1 + w) = 0 (4)
The equation of tangent plane at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ). is obtained by eliminating
l, m, n from (3) and (4).
(x − x1 )(x1 + u) + (y − y1 )(y1 + v) + (z − z1 )(z1 + w) = 0
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + ux + vy + wz = x21 + y12 + z12 + ux1 + vy1 + wz1
Adding ux1 + vy1 + wz1 + d on both the sides
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + u(x + x1 ) + v(y + y1 ) + w(z + z1 ) + d
= x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d.
∴ By using (2)
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + u(x + x1 ) + v(y + y1 ) + w(z + z1 ) + d = 0.
This is the equation of the tangent plane at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the sphere (1).
Example 3.21 Show that the plane 2x − 2y + z + 12 = 0 touches the sphere

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 2z = 3. Also find the point of contact.
Solution: We have equation of sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 2z − 3 = 0 (1)
centre of sphere (1) is√(1, 2, −1) and radius

The √ √ is
r = u2 + v 2 + w2 − d = 1 + 4 + 1 + 3 = 9 = 3.
The length of perpendicular from the centre. C(1, 2, −1) to the plane 2x −
The Sphere 105
2y + z + 12 = 0 is
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d 2(1) − 2(2) + 1(−1) + 12 9

√ = √ = = 3,
a 2 + b2 + c 2 4+4+1 3
which is radius of the sphere. Therefore the plane 2x − 2y + z + 12 = 0

touches the sphere (1). The direction ratios of normal to the plane (2) are
2, −2, 1.
CM is normal to the plane (2) Equation of line CM are
x−1 y−2 z+1
= = = r say. Hence,
2 −2 1
x = 2r + 1, y = −2r + 2, z = r − 1 (3)
These are the co-ordinates of any point on the line. If this point lies on the
plane (2)
2(2r + 1) − 2(−2r + 2) + (r − 1) + 12 = 0
r = −1.
Put r = −1 in (3) we get point of contact M (−1, 4, −2).
3.6.3 The condition of tangency

Standard Sphere:
To find the condition that the plane
lx + my + nz = p (1)
is tangent plane to the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 (2)

Suppose the plane (1) is a tangent plane to the sphere (2) at P (x1 , y1 , z1 )
on it. We know that the equation of the tangent plane at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to
sphere (2) is
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 = a2 (3)
Since the equations (1) and (3) represents the same plane. Therefore, their
coefficients are proportional i.e.
x1 y1 z1 a2
= = =
l m n p
a2 l a2 m a2 n
x1 = , y1 = , z1 =
p p p
106 Geometry

a2 l a2 m a2 n
Since the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = P , , lies on sphere (2)
p p p
2 2 2
a2 l a2 m a2 n
+ + = a2
p p p
a2 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) = p2
√
i.e. p = ±a l2 + m2 + n2 = ±a.
This is required condition. If this condition is satisfied, then the point of
contact is
2
a l a2 m a2 n
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = , , = (±al, ±am, ±an) .
p p p
General equation of sphere:
To find the condition that the plane lx + my + nz = p is tangent plane to

the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (3.10)
√ general equation of the sphere having centre C(−u, −v, −w)

(3.10) is the
and radius u2 + v 2 + w2 − d. The plane lx + my + nz = p will be tangent
plane to the sphere (3.10) if the length of perpendicular from the centre of
the sphere is equal to the radius of the sphere.
l(−u) + m(−v) + n(−w) − p p

√ = u2 + v 2 + w 2 − d
l 2 + m2 + n 2
Thus,(lu + mv + nw + p)2 = (u2 + v 2 + w2 − d)(l2 + m2 + n2 ) i.e.
(lu + mv + nw + p)2 = u2 + v 2 + w2 − d.
This is the required condition.
Remark 3.4 Let C and r be the centre and radius of the sphere respectively
and P be any point in space. If
(i) CP < r, then the point P lies inside the sphere.
(ii) CP = r, then the point P lies on the sphere.
(iii) CP > r, then the point P lies out side the sphere.
The Sphere 107
3.7 llustrative Examples:

Example 3.22 Find the co-ordinates of the points where the line
x+3 y+4 z−8
= = intersects the sphere x2 +y 2 +z 2 +2x−10y−23 = 0.
4 3 −5
Solution: The given equations of line are
x+3 y+4 z−8
= = = r say (I)
4 3 −5
Hence, x = 4r − 3, y = 3r − 4, z = −5r + 8 (II)
Since line (I) cuts the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 10y − 23 = 0 (III)
using (II), we get the points of intersection as

(4r − 3)2 + (3r − 4)2 + (−5r + 8)2 + 2(4r − 3) − 10(3r − 4) − 23 = 0
50r2 − 150r + 100 = 0, i.e. (r − 1)(r − 2) = 0. Hence, r = 1, or r = 2.
When r = 1, by (II) P (x, y, z) = (1, −1, 3) and when r = 2, Q(x, y, z) =

(5, 2, −2). Thus, P (1, −1, 3) and Q(5, 2, −2) are the required points of in-
tersection.
Example 3.23 Find the equation of the circle which is a section of the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6y − 6z − 21 = 0 and has its centre at the point M (2, −1, 2).
Solution: The given equation of the sphere is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6y − 6z − 21 = 0 (I)
The √centre of the sphere√(I) = C(0, −3, 3) and radius of sphere is

r = 0 + 9 + 9 + 21 = 39. The direction ratios of line CM are 2, 2, −1.
But CM is normal to the plane.
Therefore equation of plane passing through M (2, −1, 2) and having direc-
tion ratios 2, 2, −1 of its normal is
2(x − 2) + 2(y + 1) − (z − 2) = 0
2x + 2y − z = 0
Therefore equation of the required circle is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6y − 6z − 21 = 0, 2x + 2y − z = 0.
108 Geometry
Example 3.24 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 3y − 6 = 0, x − 2y + 4z = 9 = 0 and through the center
of the sphere x2 + y 2 − z 2 − 2x + 4y − 6z + 5 = 0.
Solution: Let
S ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 3y − 6 = 0
U ≡ x − 2y + 4z − 9 = 0
We know S + λU = 0 represents sphere passing through the circle S =

0, U = 0.
∴ (x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 3y − 6) + λ(x − 2y + 4z − 9) = 0 (1)
be the equation of the required sphere. The centre of the sphere S = 0

is (1, −2, 3). Since sphere (1) passes through centre (1, −2, 3). Therefore
−1 −1
4 + 8λ = 0, i.e. λ = . Putting λ = in equation (1) we get
2 2
2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 3x + 8y − 4z − 3 = 0
Example 3.25 Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is (−2, 0, 1)
and which touches the plane 5x − y + 4z = 36.
Solution: Radius of sphere equals the length of perpendicular drawn from
(−2, 0, 1) on the plane 5x − y + 4z − 36 = 0. Thus,
−10 − 0 + 4 − 36 −42 √
√ = √ = 42
25 + 1 + 16 42
Since centre of the sphere is (−2, 0, 1). By centre radius form of sphere
(x + 2)2 + (y − 0)2 + (z − 1)2 = 42

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4x − 2z − 37 = 0
P (2, 3, −1) and Q(1, 1, 0) and whose centre lies on the line
x y+1 z−2
= = .
3 −2 2
The Sphere 109
x y+1 z−2
Solution: The given equations of line are = = = r, say.
3 −2 2
Let C(3r, −2r − 1, 2r + 2) be the centre of the sphere. But P (2, 3, −1) and
Q(1, 1, 0) lies on sphere. Therefore (radius)2 = CP 2 = CQ2 .
(3r−2)2 +(1+2r+3)2 +(2+2r+1)2 = (3r−1)2 +(1+2r+1)2 +(2r+2−0)2 .

−10 17 −14
Hence, 6r = −20 i.e. r = . Centre of sphere = C −10, ,
√ 3 3 3
1481
and radius of sphere is . By centre radius form required equation of
3
sphere is
2 2
17 14 1481
(x + 10)2 + y − + z+ =
3 3 9
9(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 180x − 102y + 84z − 96 = 0.
(2, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 0, 2) and having the radius as small as possible.
Solution: Let the required equation of sphere be
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (I)
Since (2, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 0, 2) lies on sphere (I). Therefore
4 + 4u + d = 0, 4 + 4v + d = 0, 4 + 4w + d = 0.
This gives d =√−4 − 4u = −4 − 4v = √

−4 − 4w i.e. u = v = w. The radius of
sphere is r = u2 + v 2 + w2 − d = 3u2 + 4u + 4. For r to be minimum
dr d2 r
= 0 and > 0. Now,
du du2
dr 1(6u + 4) 4 2
= √ = 0. Hence, 6u + 4 = 0 i.e. u = − = − .
du 2
2 3u + 4u + 4 6 3
d2 r −2
We leave it as an exercise to show that > 0. Thus, u = v = w =
du2 3
8 −4
and d = −4 + = . Using above value of u, v, w and d in (I), we get
3 3
the equation of required sphere as 3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 4x − 4y − 4z − 4 = 0.
Example 3.28 Discuss the position of point P (0, 1, 2) with respect to the
sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x + 4y − 2z − 11 = 0.
110 Geometry
Solution. The centre√ of given sphere =√C(−u, −v, −w) =√(3, −2, 1) and
radius equals r = u2 + v 2 + w2 − d = 9 + 4 + 1 + 11 = 25 = 5.
Since Pp(0, 1, 2), by distance formula √ √
CP = √ (3 − 0)2 + (−2 − 1)2 + (1 − 2)2 = 9 + 9 + 1 = 19
CP = 19 < 5 = radius. Hence P (0, 1, 2) lies inside the sphere.
Example 3.29 Find the length of the intercept cut off by the line
x + 2 = y + 3 = z + 5 on the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x + 5z + 11 = 0.
Solution: We have given equation of sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x + 5z + 11 = 0 (I)
and equations of line x + 2 = y + 3 = z + 5 = r say. If

(x, y, z) = (r − 2, r − 3, r − 5) lies on (I) then r2 − 7r + 12 = 0 i.e. r = 4 or 3.
When r = 4, P (x, y, z) = (2, 1, −1), and when r = 3, Q(x, y, z) = (1, 0, −2).
Length of intercept cut off by line
p √ √
P Q = (2 − 1)2 + (1 − 0)2 + (−1 + 2)2 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
Example 3.30 Find the value of λ if the plane x + y + z = λ touches the

sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 2y − 2z − 9 = 0. Also then find the point of
touching.
Solution: The given equation of sphere is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 2y − 2z − 9 = 0 (I)
The centre of sphere given by (I) is C(−1, −1, 1) and radius of sphere is
√ √ √
r = 1 + 1 + 1 + 9 = 12 = 2 3.
The plane x + y + z = λ will touch the sphere (I) if the length of the
perpendicular from C(−1, −1, 1) to the plane = radius of the sphere.
−1 − 1 + 1 − λ √
√ = 2 3 i. e.| − 1 − λ| = 6 i. e. λ = 5 or λ = −7.
3
The direction ratios of a normal to the plane x + y + z = λ are 1, 1, 1.

Equations of line passing through C(−1, −1, −1) and having d.r.s 1, 1, 1
are
x+1 y+1 z−1
= = = r say.
1 1 1
The Sphere 111
Thus, (x, y, z) = (r − 1, r − 1, r + 1) is any point on the line.

If λ = −7, then the equation of the plane is x + y + z = −7 and the point
P (r − 1, r − 1, r + 1) lies on this plane. Hence, r = −2 and the point of
contact is P (−3, −1, −1).
If λ = 5, then the equation of the plane is x + y + z = 5 and the point
Q(r −1, r −1, r +1) lies on this plane. Hence, r = 2 and the point of contact
is Q(1, 1, 3).
Example 3.31 Show that the tangent planes at any common point of the
two spheres
S = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 and

′ 2 2 2 ′ ′ ′ ′
S = x + y + z + 2u x + 2v y + 2w z + d = 0
are at right angle if 2uu′ + 2vv ′ + 2ww′ = d + d′ .

Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be any common point of the two spheres
S = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 (I)

′ 2 2 2 ′ ′ ′ ′
S = x + y + z + 2u x + 2v y + 2w z + d = 0 (II)
Therefore
x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + d = 0 (III)

′ ′ ′ ′
x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u x1 + 2v y1 + 2w z1 + d = 0 (IV)
The equations of tangent planes at P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the two sphere are
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + u(x + x1 ) + v(y + y1 ) + w(z + z1 ) + d = 0

′ ′ ′ ′
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + u (x + x1 ) + v (y + y1 ) + w (z + z1 ) + d = 0
i. e. (x1 + u)x + (y1 + v)y + (z1 + w)z + ux1 + vy1 + wz1 + d = 0 and
(x1 + u′ )x + (y1 + v ′ )y + (z1 + w′ )z + u′ x1 + v ′ y1 + w′ z1 + d′ = 0.
These two planes are perpendicular if
(x1 + u)(x1 + u′ ) + (y1 + v)(y1 + v ′ ) + (z1 + w)(z1 + w′ ) = 0
x21 + y12 + z12 + ux1 + vy1 + wz1 + u′ x1 + v ′ y1 + w′ z1 + uu′ + vv ′ + ww′ = 0.

Multiplying by 2
2x21 + 2y12 + 2z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 + 2u′ x1 + 2v ′ y1 + 2w′ z1
112 Geometry
+ 2uu′ + 2vv ′ + 2ww′ = 0

(x21 + y12 + z12 + 2ux1 + 2vy1 + 2wz1 )
+ (x21 + y12 + z12 + 2u′ x1 + 2v ′ y1 + 2w′ z1 ) + 2uu′ + 2vv ′ + 2ww′ = 0.
By using (III) and (IV)
−d − d′ + 2uu′ + 2vv ′ + 2ww′ = 0

2uu′ + 2vv ′ + 2ww′ = d + d′ .
Example 3.32 Find the equations of the tangent planes to the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x − 2y + 2z − 12 = 0 which are parallel to the plane
4x + y + z = 5. State their points of contact.
Solution: The given equation of sphere is
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x − 2y + 2z − 12 = 0 (I)
The centre of sphere (1) = C(−2, 1, −1). The direction ratios of normal
to the plane 4x + y + z = 5 are 4, 1, 1. Equations of line passing through
x+2 y−1 z+1
C(−2, 1, −1) and having d.r.s. 4, 1, 1 are = = = r say.
4 1 1
Thus,
x = 4r − 2, y = r + 1, z = r − 1.
Using above value of (x, y, z) in equation (I) 18r2 − 18 = 0 i.e. r = ±1.
When r = 1, P (x, y, z) = (2, 2, 0) and when r = −1, Q(x, y, z) = (−6, 0, −2).
We know equation of tangent plane at point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the general equa-
tion of spheres
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + u(x + x1 ) + v(y + y1 ) + w(z + z1 ) + d = 0.
Hence, the equation of tangent plane at P (2, 2, 0) to sphere (I) is
4x + y + z − 10 = 0.
Similarly equation of tangent plane at Q(−6, 0, −2) to sphere (I) is

4x + y + z + 26 = 0. Can you find distance between these two tangent
planes?
Example 3.33 Find the equation of the sphere having the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 10y − 4z − 8 = 0, x + y + z = 3
as the great circle.

The Sphere 113
Solution: The equation of the sphere passing through given circle is of the
form
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 10y − 4z − 8 + λ(x + y + z − 3) = 0 (I)

−λ λ λ
The centre of sphere (I) is , −5 − , 2 − . Since given circle is a
2 2 2
great circle of required sphere, its centre will lie on the plane of the circle
x + y + z = 3.
−λ λ λ
−5− +2− =3 i.e. λ = −4.
2 2 2
Putting λ = −4 in equation (I) we get
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 10y − 4z − 8) − 4(x + y + z − 3) = 0

x + y + z − 4x + 6y − 8z + 4
2 2 2
= 0
Exercise
1. Find the equation of the sphere
(i) whose centre is at origin and radius 5.

(ii) whose centre is at (−1, 2, 1) and radius 3.
(iii) passing the points A(2, 3, −1) and B(1, 1, 0) and whose centre
x y+1 z−2
lies on = = .
3 −2 2
(iv) passing through the origin and making equal positive intercept
3 units of the axes.
(v) which circumscribes the tetrahedron having vertices (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0),
(0, 2, 0),
(0, 0, 3).
(vi) through the four points A(4, −1, 2), B(0, −2, 3),C(1, −5, 1) and
D(2, 0, 1).
(vii) which passes through three points (3, 0, 2), (−1, 1, 1), (2, −5, 4)
and having centre on the line 2x + 3y + 4z = 6.
2. Find the centre and radius of the following sphere

(i) x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y − 6z + 5 = 0.
(ii) 4(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 6x + 4y − 10z − 1 = 0
114 Geometry
3. Find the equation of the smallest sphere passing through A(2, −3, 4)
and B(−5, 6, −7).
4. Find the equation of the sphere described on the join of the points
A(−1, 2, 3) and B(1, 3, −4) as a diameter.
x−8 y
5. Find the co-ordinates of the points in which the line = =
4 1
−(z − 1) cuts the sphere x + y + z − 4x + 6y − 2z + 5 = 0.
2 2 2
x−7 y−6
6. Find the length of the intercept made by the line = =
2 1
z+5
with the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 3y − 5z − 31 = 0.
−1
7. Find the co-ordinates of the centre and radius of the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 2z − 30 = 0, 2x − y + 2z − 7 = 0.
8. Find the area of the circle cut off the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 6z − 3 = 0 by the plane x + 2y − 2z = 17.
9. Find the area of the circle cut of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 16 by the
plane −x + 2y + 2z = 9.
10. Find the equation of the sphere
(i) through the circle x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9, 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and the
point (1, 2, 3).
(ii) through the circle x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 6x − 4y − 6z − 14 = 0,
x + y − z = 0 and the point (1, 1, −1).
(iii) passing through the circle x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2z + 3y − 6 = 0,
x − 2y + 4z − 9 = 0 and through the centre of the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 6z + 5 = 0.
(iv) passing through the origin and the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 3y + 2z − 6 = 0, x + 2y + 4z + 9 = 0.
11. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) and having the radius as small as possible.
12. Find the positions of the points P (1, 1, 1), Q(−2, −2, −2) w.r.t. the
sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x + 4y − 2z − 2 = 0.
13. Discuss the position of a point P (2, −3, 0) w.r.t. the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 4y − 4z + 8 = 0.
The Sphere 115
14. Obtain the equation of the circle having its centre at (2, 3, −4) lying
on the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 4y − 6z + 3 = 0.
15. Find the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 6z − 3 = 0,

x + 2y − 2z = 17.
16. Find the co-ordinates of the centre and radius of the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 2z − 30 = 0, 2x − y + 2z − 7 = 0.
17. Find the angle between the tangent planes to the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4x − 6y = 0 at (−2, 6, 2) and (0, −3, 3).
√ 2, −2), (1, −1, 1) respectively.

18. If the co-ordinates of points A, B are (2,
Find the locus of P such that AP = 2BP. Show that the locus is a
sphere and find its centre and radius.
19. Show that the spheres x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 18x − 24y − 40z + 225 = 0 and
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25 touch each other and find the point of contact.
20. Show that the plane 2x − 2y + z + 16 = 0 touches the sphere

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 4y + 2z − 3 = 0. Also find the point of contact.
21. Show that the two spheres x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 6y − 15 = 0 and

10x2 + 10y 2 + 10z 2 − 20x + 52y + 84z + 214 = 0 touch each other and
find point of contact.
22. Show that the plane lx + my + nz = p will touch the sphere

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 if
(ul + vm + wn + p)2 = (l2 + m2 + n2 )(u2 + v 2 + w2 − d).
23. Find the equations of the two tangent planes to the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 2y − 6z + 5 = 0 which are parallel to the plane
2x + 2y − z = 0.
24. Show that the spheres x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 24x − 40y − 18z + 225 = 0 and
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25 touch externally and find the point of contact.
25. Find the area of the section of a sphere with centre (−6, 1, 2) and
radius 4 which is cut by a plane x − y + 2z + 5 = 0.
26. Find the centre and radius of the section of the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 4y − 6z − 8 = 0 by the (i) xy- plane (ii) yz- plane
(iii) z = 8 plane.
116 Geometry
√
27. Find the value of k for which the plane x + y + z − k 3 = 0 touches
the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 2y − 2z − 6 = 0.
28. Find the equation of the sphere having the circle
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 2y − 2z − 22 = 0, x + 2y + 2z + 7 = 0 as the great
circle.
29. Find the equation of the sphere on AB as a diameter where A(2, −3, 1)
and B(−1, −2, 4).
30. The sphere of constant radius k passes through the origin and meets
the axes in A, B, C. Prove that the centriod of the triangle ABC lies
on the sphere.
31. A tangent plane at a variable point (α, β, γ) on the sphere x2 + y 2 +
z 2 = a2 meets the axes in ABC. Show that the locus of the centre of
1 1 1 4
the sphere OABC is 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 .
x y z a
Answers
1. (i) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25 (ii) x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x − 4y − 2z − 3 = 0.
(iii) 9(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 180x − 102y + 84z − 96 = 0.
(iv) x2 +y 2 +z 2 −2x−3y −3z = 0. (v) x2 +y 2 +z 2 −x−2y −3z = 0.
(vi) x2 +y 2 +z 2 −4x+6y−2z+5 = 0. (vii) x2 +y 2 +z 2 +4y−6z−1 = 0.

−3 −2 5
2. (i) Centre (1, 2, 3) radius = 3. (ii) Centre , ,
4 4 4
3. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 3x − 3y + 3z − 56 = 0.
4. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 5y + z − 7 = 0.
√ √
5. (0, −2, 3), (4, −1, 2). 6. 54. 7. (3, 1, 1), 3 3 8. 7π 9. 7π
10. (i) 3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 2x − 3y − 4z − 22 = 0
(ii) x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 6z − 3 = 0, y + z + 1 = 0.
(iii) 3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 8x + 5y + 8z − 36 = 0.
(iv) 3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 8x + 13y + 14z = 0.
11. 3x2 + 3y 2 + 3z 2 − 2x − 2y − 2z − 1 = 0.
12. P inside, Q outside. 13.P outside the sphere.
14. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 4y − 6z + 3 = 0, x + 5y − 7z − 45 = 0.
The Sphere 117
√ √ 6
15. (3, 2, −5), 7 16. (3, 1, 1), 3 3 17. cos θ = √
7 13

√ 9 12
18. Centre (0, −4, 4), radius = 38 19. , , 4 20. (−3, 4, −2)
5 5
21. (1, −1, −3) 23.2x + 2y − z + 10 = 0, 2x + 2y − z − 8 = 0.

12 20 9 40π
24. , , 25.
5 5 5 3
√
262. (i) (2, −2, 0), 4 (ii) (0, −2, 3), 21 (iii) (2, −2, 8), r = 0
√
27. 3 ± 3 28. 3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 2x + 10y + 10z − 10 = 0.
29. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − x + 5y − 5z + 8 = 0.

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Geometry

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2 Analytical Geometry of three dimensions 33

2.18 Coplanar Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

1.1.1 Translation of Axes

Figure 1.1: Translation of axes

Example 1.2 By a translation to the origin (−2, 3) transform the equation

On simplification, we get 15x′2 + 14x′ y ′ − 8y ′2 = (5x′ − 2y ′ )(3x′ + 4y ′ ) = 0.

Using (2) in (1), we get (x′ + h)2 + 4(x′ + h) + 3(y ′ + 2) − 5 = 0. Hence,

Using (2) in (1)

(x′ + h)2 − 6(x′ + h) − 4(y ′ + k) − 1 = 0

x′2 = 4y ′ + (6 − 2h)x′ + 4k + 1 − h2 (3)

x2 − 2xy + 3y 2 − 10x + 22y + 30 = 0.

1.2 Elimination of Linear Terms

a(x′ + α)2 + 2h(x′ + α)(y ′ + α) + b(y ′ + β)2 + 2g(x′ + α) + 2f (y ′ + β) + c = 0.

We note that the coeﬀicients of x2 and x′2 , xy and x′ y ′ and y 2 and y ′2

Solving equations (1.5) and (1.6) using Cramer’s rule, we get

7. Under the translation of axes, the equation 2x2 − 3y 2 + 4y + 5 = 0 is

1.3 Rotation of Axes

x = r cos(ϕ + θ) = r(cos ϕ cos θ − sin ϕ sin θ)

It is easy to see that

x′ = x cos θ + y sin θ (1.10)

Example 1.7 Transform the equation xy = 8 by rotation of axes through

Hence, x′2 − y ′2 = 16.

Figure 1.2: Rotation of axes

Example 1.8 Transform the equation x2 + 2xy tan 2θ − y 2 = k 2 by rotation

x′2 (cos 2θ + 2 tan 2θ sin θ cos θ) + y ′2 (− cos 2θ − 2 tan 2θ sin θ cos θ)

On simplification, we get x′2 − y ′2 = k 2 cos 2θ.

x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ, y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ.

Now the expression

ux + vy = u(x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ) + v(x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ)

2. Find the transformed form of the equation x2 + 4xy + y 2 = 0 when

3. Transform the equation 11x2 +24xy+4y 2 −20x−40y−5 = 0 by  shifting

4. If by rotation of axes without changing the origin the equation ax2 +

6. If under rotation of axes, without shifting the origin, the expression

7. What does the equation 3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 − 18x − 22y + 50 = 0 becomes

8. Transform the equation x2 − 5xy + y 2 + 8x − 20y + 15 = 0 by shifting

1.4 Removal of xy term

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (1.12)

x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ (1.13)

Using equations (1.13) in equation (1.12) we get

a′ x′2 + 2h′ x′ y ′ + b′ y ′2 + 2g ′ x′ + 2f ′ y ′ + c′ = 0 (1.14)

a′ = a cos2 θ + 2h sin θ cos θ + b sin2 θ (1.15)

The transformed form of equation (1.12) is equation (1.14).

1. Note that (1.12) and (1.14) are both polynomials of degree 2.

2. The constant term is unchanged.

3. It will not contain product term x′ y ′ if h′ = 0 i. e. if

−a sin θ cos θ + h(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + b sin θ cos θ = 0.

2h(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 2(a − b) sin θ cos θ i.e. 2h cos 2θ = (a − b) sin 2θ.

On the other hand, if a = b then axes are rotated through an angle

Theorem 1.2 If by rotating the axes through an angle θ, without changing

Multiply equations (1.15), (1.16) and (1.17) by 2,1 we get

2a′ = 2a cos2 θ + 2h(2 sin θ cos θ) + 2b sin2 θ

(2a′ )(2b′ ) − (2h′ )2

Thus, a′ b′ − h′2 = ab − h2 . Therefore a + b and ab − h2 are invariant.

4∆′1 = 2(2f ′ g ′ )(2h′ ) − (2a′ )(2f ′2 ) − (2b′ )(2g ′2 )

Thus, using the fact that (A + B)(C − D) + (A − B)(C + D) = 2AC − 2BD,

4∆′1 = −4h(g 2 − f 2 ) sin 2θ cos 2θ + 8f gh cos2 2θ

Hence, ∆1 = ∆′1 and we are done.

Example 1.10 Reduce the equation

5x2 + 6xy + 5y 2 − 10x − 6y − 3 = 0 (1)

to the standard form and name the conic.

As ∆ ̸= 0 and ab − h2 = 25  − 9 = 16 > 0 equation

3. Transform the equation 11x2 +24xy+4y 2 −20x−40y−5 = 0 by shifting

As ∆ ̸= 0 and ab − h2 = 25 − 9 = 16 > 0 equation

and ab − h2 = 1 − 4 = −3 < 0. Therefore equation (1) represents