RAFFLES INSTITUTION

H2 Mathematics (9758)
2020 Year 5

Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques

SYLLABUS INCLUDES

 Use of a graphing calculator to graph a given function

 Determining the equations of asymptotes, axes of symmetry, and restrictions on the possible
values of x and/or y

 Graphical Interpretation of
(i) f ( x )  0 , f ( x )  0 and f ( x )  0
(ii) f ( x )  0 and f ( x )  0

 Determining the nature of the stationary points (local maximum and minimum points and
points of inflexion) analytically, in simple cases, using the first derivative test or the second
derivative test

 Locating maximum and minimum points using a graphing calculator

 Important characteristics of graphs such as symmetry, intersections with the axes, turning
points and asymptotes of the following:
x2 y 2
 1
a 2 b2
x2 y 2 y2 x2
  1 ;  1
a2 b2 b2 a 2
ax  b
y
cx  d
ax 2  bx  c
y
dx  e

 Simple parametric equations and their graphs

 Effect of transformations on the graph of y  f ( x ) as represented by y  a f ( x ) , y  f ( x )  a

, y  f ( x  a ) and y  f ( ax ) , and combinations of these transformations
1
 Relating the graphs of y  f 1 ( x) , y  f ( x) , y  f ( x ) , and y  to the graph of
f ( x)
y  f ( x)

 Relating the graph of y  f ( x ) to the graph of y  f ( x )

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 1 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

CONTENT

1 Characteristics of Graphs
1.1 Intersections with the axes
1.2 Axes of symmetry
1.2.1 Symmetry about the x-axis or y-axis
1.2.2 Symmetry about other lines
1.3 Restrictions on the possible values of x and/or y
1.4 Asymptotes
1.5 Shape of graphs
1.5.1 Monotonicity & Concavity
1.5.2 Stationary Points, Turning Points & Points of Inflexion

2 Rational Functions
ax  b
2.1 Graphs of functions of the form f ( x)  , where c  0 , and the numerator and
cx  d
denominator have no common factor if a  0
ax 2  bx  c
2.2 Graphs of functions of the form f ( x)  , where a  0, d  0 and the
dx  e
numerator and the denominator have no common factors

3 Conic Sections
3.1 Circle
3.2 Ellipse
3.3 Hyperbola

4 Parametric Equations and their graphs

5 Standard Transformations
5.1 Translation
5.2 Scaling (Stretching)
5.3 Reflection about axes
5.4 Combination of standard transformations

6 More Transformations
6.1 Graphs of modulus functions
6.2 Graphs of derivative functions
1
6.3 Sketching the graph of y  from the graph of y  f ( x)
f ( x)

Appendix
I Parabola
II Sketching ellipse and hyperbola using a graphing calculator

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 2 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPHS

In sketching graphs, certain features of a curve can be observed, or easily calculated, from the
equation of the curve. Some of the important features that we can consider are intersections with
the axes, axes of symmetry, asymptotes, restrictions on the possible values of x and/or y turning
points etc.

1.1 Intersections with the axes

It is usually easy to determine whether the curve y  f ( x) meets the x-axis and/or y-axis. The x
intercepts are found by setting y  0 in the equation of the curve and solving for x. Similarly, the
y intercepts are found by setting x  0 in the equation of the curve and solving for y.

x2 y 2
For example, the curve with equation   1 clearly intersects the x-axis at (2,0) and
4 9
(2,0) but does not cross the y-axis.

1.2 Axes of symmetry

1.2.1 Symmetry about the x-axis or y-axis

If the equation of the curve is unchanged when , the graph is symmetrical

about the ___________. Similarly, if the equation of the curve is unchanged when
______________________, the graph is symmetrical about the ____________.

For example, the graph of the curve with equation y  ln( x 2 ) is symmetrical about the ______
x2 y 2
while the graph of the curve with equation   1 is symmetrical both about the x-axis and
4 9
y-axis. y
y

–1 O 1 x –2 2 x
O

Note:
3 3 x2 y 2
The dotted lines y  x and y   x are asymptotes to the curve   1 . In the case of
2 2 4 9
the curve y  ln( x 2 ) , the line x  0 is an asymptote to the curve. We will learn more about
asymptotes in section 1.4.

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 3 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.2.2 Symmetry about other lines

Besides symmetry about the axes, the graph of the curve could possibly have other axes of
symmetry.
For the curve with equation y  4   x  2  , the graph is symmetrical about the line x  2 .
2

1
In the case of the curve with equation y  1  , the lines of symmetry are y  x and
x 1
y  x  2 .

y y

O
2 x 1
4
O 1 x

Note:
To determine if a curve is symmetrical in the line y  x , we can easily do so by replacing both
x with y and y with x. If the equation of the curve is unchanged, then the line y  x is a line of
symmetry. However, it may not be easy to see from its equation that the curve with equation
1
y  1 also has y   x  2 as a line of symmetry.
x 1

Exercise:
State a line of symmetry of the following curves whose equations are
8
y 2
2
(i) , (ii) y  e x . Answer: (i) _______ (ii) _______
x  x 1

1.3 Restrictions on the possible values of x and/or y

It is sometimes useful to consider whether there are any restrictions on the possible values of x
and/or y when we graph the curve y  f ( x) .

For instance, the curve with equation y  ln  2  x  is only well-defined when x  2 . Thus the
graph of y  ln  2  x  lies only in the region where x  2 .

In the case of the curve with equation y 2  x  1 , we observe that since y 2  0 for all y   ,
then x 1  0  x  1. Thus the graph lies only in the region where x  1.

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 4 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Example 1
x2  3
It is given that that y  , x  , x  1 . Without using a calculator, find the set of values
x 1
that y can take.

Solution

Note:
Graphs of circles, ellipses and hyperbolas (which will be dealt with in Section 3) have certain
restrictions on values of x and y as well.

Consider the graph of x 2  y 2  9 , which is a circle with centre at the origin and radius 3 units.
We note that 3  x  3 and 3  y  3 .

For the graph of hyperbola 9 x 2  4 y 2  36 , we observe that as 9 x 2  36  4 y 2 , we have x 2  4 ,

since y 2  0 for all y   . Thus x  2or x  2 .

1.4 Asymptotes

An asymptote of the curve with equation y  f ( x) is a line or a curve that the graph of y  f ( x)
approaches when x or y is large. It gives an indication of the behaviour of the curve when
x  or  and/or when y   or   . In our syllabus, we will only concern ourselves with
linear asymptotes.

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 5 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Example 2
1
Find the equations of the asymptotes of the curve with equation y  2  .
x
Solution
As ______________________ and hence ____________________________.
Note that, in fact, we also have as x   , y  2 .

As x  0  (i.e. approaching x  0 from the left), y   . Thus ________________________.

Note also that as x  0  (i.e. approaching x  0 from the right), y   .

Graphically, we see that

Example 3
3
Find the equation(s) of the asymptote(s) of the curve with equation y  x  e x .
2
Solution y

As x  , ____________ and hence ___________.

Thus ______________________________ . O
–1 x
Graphically, we have

Exercise:
1
State the equations of the asymptotes of the curve with equation y  x  . Ans: __________
x2
____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 6 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.5 Shape of graphs

Having discussed intercepts and asymptotes of graphs, it remains for us to study the shape of the
graph. In this section, we will discuss the concept of strictly increasing (decreasing), concavity
as well as stationary points. These form the foundation to determine the shape of any given graph.
Hence it is important for us to look at f ( x) to determine the shape of the graph.

1.5.1 MONOTONICITY & CONCAVITY

A function f is said to be strictly increasing on an interval I

if for all b  a where a , b  I , f (b )  f ( a ) .

1
For example, f : x  x 3 , x   .

O x

Similarly,

A function f is said to be strictly decreasing on an interval I

if for all b  a where a , b  I , f (b )  f ( a ) .

1
For example, g : x  , x  , x  0 .
x
y

O x

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 7 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Consider a function f given by y  f ( x ), x  I .

 f ( x ) denotes the rate of change of f ( x ) with respect to x , and f  is known as the first
derivative or gradient function.

 f ( x ) denotes the rate of change of gradient f ( x ) with respect to x , and f  is known as
the second derivative.

 The sign of the first derivative of the function gives us information about its monotonicity
(i.e. increasing or decreasing) while the sign of the second derivative of the function gives
us information about its concavity (i.e. concave up or down).

Sign of f ( x ) Graphical
over ( a , b ) Perspective

If f ( x )  0 , then f is
strictly increasing over the
interval ( a , b ) . or
a b a b

If f ( x )  0 , then f is
strictly decreasing over the b
or
interval ( a , b ) . a
a b

Note:
The converse of the above statements are not true.
That is, a strictly increasing function can have points where the derivative f ( x ) is 0 or undefined.
1
1
Consider the function f ( x)  x 3 , x   . The function is strictly increasing but f ( x )  2
is
3x 3

undefined at x  0 .
y
y = f ( x)

O x

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 8 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Consider the function g( x)  x3 , x   . The function is strictly increasing but g(0)  0 .

y

y = g( x )

x
O

Example 4
Prove that the function f defined by f ( x)  x3  6 x 2  18x  5, x   is strictly increasing.
Solution
f ( x)  x3  6 x 2  18x  5, x  
Since f ( x)  3x 2  12 x  18

The function f is

Example 5
 1
The function f defined by f  x   2  x    ln x , where x   , x  0 . Find f   x  and show
 2
1
that the function is strictly increasing for x  .
2
1  1
Hence show that for x  , 2  x    ln x  ln 2 .
2  2

Solution
1
f  x  2 
x
When and hence
1
Thus the curve is strictly increasing for x  . (shown)
2
1 1 1 1 1
When x  , f    2     ln  ln 2 .
2 2 2 2 2
1
Since the function is strictly increasing for x  ,
2

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 9 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

A function f is said to concave up on an interval I if for any a , b  I , the line segment joining
( a , f ( a )) and (b , f (b )) lies above the graph of the function.

Similarly, a function f is said to concave down on an interval I if for any a , b  I , the line
segment joining ( a , f ( a )) and ( b , f (b )) lies below the graph of the function.

Sign of f ( x ) Graphical

over ( a , b ) Perspective

If f ( x )  0 , then f is
concave up over the b
or a
interval ( a , b ) .
a b

If f ( x )  0 , then f is
concave down over the
or
interval ( a , b ) .
a b a b

Note:
 f ( x )  0 means that as x increases, f ( x ) increases

f ( x )  0 means that as x increases, f ( x ) decreases

 f ( x )  0 means that as x increases, gradient f '( x) increases

f ( x )  0 means that as x increases, gradient f '( x) decreases

Remark:

We observe from the above that if a function f is

concave up over an interval I, then the graph of
the function lies above the tangent to the curve
y  f ( x ) at x  k for all k  I .

Observe from the graph, for all a , b  I with a  b ,

f (a)  f (b) , i.e. gradient f '( x) increases. a b x

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 10 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

In the case where a function f is concave

down over an interval I, then the graph of
the function lies below the tangent to the
curve y  f ( x ) at x  k where k  I .

Observe from the graph, for all a , b  I

with a  b , f (a)  f (b) , i.e. gradient f '( x) a b x
decreases.

An example to illustrate concavity and sign of gradient:

y

y = f(x)

1.5.2 STATIONARY POINTS, TURNING POINTS AND POINTS OF INFLEXION

If a curve with equation y  f ( x ) has a stationary point at x  k , then f ( k )  0 .

i.e. at x  k , the gradient of the curve is zero and the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis.

Let us now consider the following graph.

The stationary points of the graph are points A, B and C.

y y = f (x)
A

C
B
x

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 11 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

As we move along the curve from the slight left of A to the slight right of A, the gradient of the
curve f ( x) changes from positive to zero and then negative. i.e. the curve y  f ( x ) increases and
then decreases.
A is known as a maximum turning point.

As we move along the curve from the slight left of B to the slight right of B, the gradient of the
curve f ( x) changes from negative to zero and then positive. i.e. the curve y  f ( x ) decreases
and then increases.
B is known as a minimum turning point.

However, although the gradient is zero at C, the gradient of the curve does not change sign as we
move along the curve from the slight left of C to the slight right of C.
C is known as a stationary point of inflexion.

Definition:
A turning point is a stationary point at which the first derivative of a function
(i.e. gradient function) changes sign.

Thus we have the following methods for determining the nature of the stationary point.

Method 1 : First Derivative Test

dy
Check the signs of for x  k  and x  k  .
dx
x k k k k k k k k k
 ve 0  ve
dy
 ve 0  ve  ve 0  ve or
dx  ve 0  ve

Tangent or

Nature of
Minimum turning Stationary point of
Stationary Maximum turning point
point inflexion
Point

Method 2 : Second Derivative Test

d2 y
Check the sign of 2 at x  k .
dx
2
d y
If  0 , then  k , f (k )  is a maximum turning point.
dx 2 x  k

d2 y
If  0 , then  k , f (k )  is a minimum turning point.
dx 2 x k

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 12 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Note:
The converse of the 2 statements above is not true, i.e.  k , f (k )  is a maximum turning point
d2 y
does not imply 0 or  k , f (k )  is a minimum turning point does not imply
dx 2 x k

d2 y
0 .
dx 2 x k

A counter-example would be the function f ( x)  x 4 , x   .

d2 y
 0, 0  is a minimum turning point but 0 .
dx 2 x 0

d2 y
Thus there is no conclusion about the nature of the stationary point when  0 . In this
dx 2 x k
case, the first derivative test must be used.

Let us look more closely at points of inflexion. A point of inflexion is a point on the curve at
which the curve crosses its tangent and the concavity of the curve changes from up to down or
vice versa.
y y = f (x)
A

C
B
x

Remark: [Not in syllabus, but good to know.]

In the above example, in addition to the point C, the points D and E are also points of inflexion.
We call D and E non-stationary points of inflexion as the gradient at these points are not zero.

y y = f (x)
)

D
C
E
x

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 13 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Example 6
dy
Given y  2 x5  5 x 3 , find and the coordinates of the stationary points. Determine the nature
dx
of each stationary point using the first derivative test. Sketch the graph of y  2 x5  5 x 3 , giving
the coordinates of all axial intercepts and stationary points.
Solution
dy
 10 x 4  15 x 2 
dx

dy
At stationary points, 0 
dx

3 3 3 3
When x  0, y  0 ; when x   , y 3 ; when x  , y  3
2 2 2 2

Coordinates of stationary points are

To check nature of stationary points,

   
 
x 3
2  3
2
3
2

+ve 0  ve

dy
+ve 0  ve
dx
Tangent

Nature of Stationary Point Maximum turning point

 3
x2  x2  
 2
dy
dx

Tangent

Nature of Stationary Point

You may use the second derivative test if you wish.

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 14 of 59
Raffles Institution H2 Mathematics 2020 Year 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

y


   x

NOTE:
If the question does not require the answers to be written in exact values, you may locate the
maximum and minimum points using a graphing calculator

SUMMARY FOR CURVE SKETCHING

A simple way to start any curve sketching question is to remember the following mnemonic:
S (Shape/Stationary Points) A (Asymptotes) I (Intercepts) L (Labelling your graphs). In practice,
we usually start from determining the asymptotes (if any), then the intercepts, followed by the
shape, which includes the stationary points.

S A I L
(Shape/Stationary (Asymptotes) (Intercepts) (Label your graphs)
Points)

In the next section, we will learn how to sketch some standard curves such as graphs of rational
functions and conic sections.

____________________________
Chapter 5D: Graphing Techniques
Page 15 of 59