Chapter 1

General Electric System

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 1

 Table of contents
● Type of Electrical Sources ● Short Circuits
 Dependent Sources
● Open Circuits
 Independent Sources
● Assignment-2
 Ideal and practical voltage source

 Ideal and practical current source ● Tutorial-2

● Series Circuits

 Voltage division rule

● Parallel Circuits

 Current division rule

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 2

 Type of Electrical Sources

Figure 1.12 Types of electrical sources

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 Continued…
● A source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or some other form of energy into
electrical energy. In other words, the source is an active network element meant for generating electrical
energy.
● Electrical sources can also be classified as independent and dependent voltage and current sources whether
each source depends upon some other sources or acts independently.
1) Dependent Sources
● The sources whose output voltage or current is not fixed but depends on the voltage or current in another part
of the circuit are called dependent sources. There are four possible dependent sources which are represented
below:
a) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) c) Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
b) Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) d) Current Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
● Dependent sources are used to model transistors and the operational amplifier IC.

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 4

 Continued…

Figure 1.13 Types of dependent sources

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 Continued…
2) Independent Sources
● The sources which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit
● The two terminal devices having a constant value i.e. the voltage across or the current flowing through the
two terminals remains constant irrespective of all circuit conditions are called independent sources.
● There are two types of independent sources available in the electrical network:
A. Voltage source
B. Current source
● A voltage source has a forcing function of emf whereas the current source has a forcing function of current.
● The current and voltage sources are further categorized as:
a. Ideal source
b. Practical source

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 6

 Continued…
A. Voltage source
● An ideal voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is constant and is
independent of the current drawn from it. It is also defined as that voltage source which gives a fixed or
constant load voltage despite of infinite variation in load or load current. An ideal voltage source has zero
internal resistance so that voltage drop in the source and power drawn by the source are zero.

In the figure aside, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉

Figure 1.14 (i) Circuit diagram (ii) V-I characteristics of Ideal Voltage Source

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 7

 Continued…
● Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be obtained.
● No source voltage can maintain its terminal voltage constant even when its terminals are short-circuited i.e.
in practice, voltage does not remain constant but falls slightly which is taken care of by connecting a small
resistance 'r' in series with ideal source and this resistance is the internal resistance of the source. Hence, the
source having some amount of internal resistance is known as practical voltage source.

Figure 1.15 (i) Circuit diagram (ii) V-I characteristics of Practical Voltage Source

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 8

 Continued…
● Due to this internal resistance, voltage drop takes place, and it causes the terminal voltage to reduce. The
smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source, the more closer it is to an ideal source.
● In the figure above, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑟
● When the circuit is open (i.e. I = 0), the above equation becomes
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉
● When the circuit is short (i.e. VAB = 0 or R = 0), the equation becomes
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑟 ⇒ 𝐼 =
𝑟

B. Current source
● An ideal current source is a two-terminal device which supplies the same current to any load resistance
connected across its terminals. It is also defined as that current source which gives a fixed or constant current
irrespective of the value of voltage across load. An ideal current source has infinite resistance so that the
current drawn by itself is zero. An ideal current source has capability of supplying infinite power.

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 9

 Continued…

In the figure aside, 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼

Figure 1.16 (i) Circuit diagram (ii) V-I characteristics of Ideal Current Source

● Practically an ideal current source is not possible.

● No current source can maintain constant current even when its terminals are open-circuited i.e. in practice,
output current does not remain constant but decrease with increase in voltage which is taken care of by
connecting a high resistance 'r' in parallel with ideal source and this resistance is the internal resistance of the
source. Hence, source having some amount of internal resistance is known as practical voltage source.

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 10

 Continued…
● Due to this internal resistance, the load current of source decreases as the output voltage increases.
● Examples of practical current sources are secondary current in a current transformer, Solar Panels,
Semiconductor devices, etc.

𝑉𝐴𝐵
● In the figure aside, 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 − 𝑟

● When the circuit is short (i.e. VAB = 0 or R = 0),

the above equation becomes
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼
● When the circuit is open (i.e. IAB = 0), the
above equation becomes
𝑉𝐴𝐵
Figure 1.17 (i) Circuit diagram (ii) V-I characteristics of
𝐼= ⇒ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝑟 Practical Current Source
𝑟

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 11

 Source Transformation
● Electrical source transformation is a method of replacing voltage source in a circuit by its equivalent current
source and current source by its equivalent voltage source. The source transformation technique is required
to simplify an electric circuit for analysis.

(i) (ii)
Figure 1.18 (i) Conversion of practical voltage source into practical current source
(ii) Conversion of practical current source into practical voltage source

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 12

 Series circuits
When all the resistors in DC circuit are connected end to end so that they form a single path for flow of
current, then the resistors are said to be in series and the circuit is referred as series DC circuit.
The figure 1.19 shows 'n' number of resistors R1, R2, R3,….., Rn connected in series. Let ‘I’ be the same
amount of current flowing through all resistors and ‘V’ be the total potential difference across the resistors.

Figure 1.20 Series connection of ‘n’ resistors

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 Continued…
From Ohm’s law, we have,
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 is the voltage drop across R1
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 is the voltage drop across R2
𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 is the voltage drop across R3
𝑉𝑛 = 𝐼𝑅𝑛 is the voltage drop across Rn
So, the sum of all the individual potential difference across R1, R2, R3,…and Rn is given by
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑅𝑛
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 ) … … (1)
If whole of the resistors are replaced by single resistor having equivalent resistance R eq , then from ohm’s
law, we can write, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 … … (2)
Using equations (1) and (2) , we have
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 14

 Continued…
Therefore, equivalent resistance (Req) is defined as the single value of resistance that can replace any number
of resistors either connected in series or parallel or both combination without altering the values of the
current or voltage in the circuit. Thus, in series combination, the equivalent resistance of the circuit would be
the sum of all the individual resistance.
For ‘n’ identical resistors in series, each having resistance R, equivalent resistance will be
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑅

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 15

 Voltage Division rule
Let us consider only two resistors R1 and R2 in series as shown in figure 1.21 and now we are going to
calculate potential difference across both resistors.
We know that, 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 ……(1)
And, 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 ……(2)
If we replace both these series resistors by their equivalent
resistance Req, from Ohm’s law, we can write
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 Figure 1.21 Series connection of two resistors
𝑉
𝐼=𝑅
1 +𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑅2
Substituting value of I in equations (1) and (2) respectively, we get: 𝑉1 = 𝑅 𝑉 and 𝑉2 = 𝑅 𝑉
1 +𝑅2 1 +𝑅2

The above equations are known as voltage division rule. For ‘n’ resistors, it can be expressed as

𝑅𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛
8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCEv 16
 Parallel circuits
When number of resistors in DC circuit are connected in such a way that one end of each of them is connected
to a common node and the other end being connected to another common node so that same potential
difference exists between the ends of each resistor, then the resistors are said to be in parallel and the circuit is
referred as parallel DC circuit.

Figure 1.22 shows 'n' number of resistors R1, R2, R3,..., Rn

connected in parallel. The amount of current flowing through
each of them is different, depending upon their resistances.
Let ‘I’ be the main current flowing through the circuit and is
divided into I1, I2, I3,…, and In and ‘V’ be the potential
difference across each resistor. We have,
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 … … (1)
Figure 1.22 Parallel connection of ‘n’ resistors

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 17

 Continued…
If whole of the resistors are replaced by single resistor having equivalent resistance R eq , then from ohm’s
law, we can write, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 … … (2)
Using equations (1) and (2) , we have
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
∴ = + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
1
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛
1
𝑖=1 𝑅𝑖
Thus, in parallel combination, the equivalent resistance of the circuit would be reciprocal of the sum of
reciprocal of all the individual resistances.
For ‘n’ identical resistors in parallel, each having resistance R, equivalent resistance will be
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑛

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 18

 Current Division rule
Let us consider only two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel as shown in figure 1.21 and now we are going to
current flowing through each resistor.
𝑉
We know that, 𝐼1 = 𝑅 ……(1)
1

𝑉
And, 𝐼2 = 𝑅 ……(2)
2

If we replace both these parallel resistors by their equivalent

resistance Req, from Ohm’s law, we can write
𝑅 𝑅 Figure 1.23 Parallel connection of two
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 1+𝑅2
1 2 resistors
𝐼𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉=𝑅
1 +𝑅2

Substituting value of V in equations (1) and (2) respectively, we get

𝐼𝑅1 𝑅2 1 𝑅2 𝐼𝑅1 𝑅2 1 𝑅1
𝐼1 = × = 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐼2 = × = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCEv 19
 Continued…
The above equations are known as current division rule.
In general, current division rule can be expressed as

𝐺𝑛
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
Where, G represents conductance which is the reciprocal of resistance. The SI unit for conductance is
Siemen(S) or mho(℧).

Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 20

 Short circuits
When two nodes of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire having practically zero resistance
as shown in figure 1.24, they are said to be short-circuited and it gives rise to two important facts:
 No voltage can exist across it (V = 0).
 Theoretically, infinitely large short-circuit current flows through it.

Being more specific, a short circuit is a closed unwanted low resistance

path formed in the electrical circuit due to unintended contact of
components and consequent accidental diversion of the current which
results in excessive current flow in the power source through the 'short',
and may even cause the power source to be destroyed. If a protective
Figure 1.24 Short circuit device such as fuse is used in the supply circuit, it will blow out and the
circuit will be opened thereby stopping the current flow.

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 Dead short circuits
In dead short circuit condition, the voltage source itself is short circuited by some abnormalities as shown
in figure 1.25. Hence, infinite current flows through zero resistance path without affecting load resistors R1
and R2.
But practically, finite amount of current will flow through short circuit path which is very high compared
to the normal current.

Figure 1.25 Dead Short circuit

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCEv 22

 Shorts in parallel circuits
The Figure 1.26 shows two load resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel with the battery having V volts.
Here, I is the total current flowing through the battery to the load circuit, and I1 and I2 is the current
flowing through the resistor R1 and R2 respectively. Let us suppose due to some failure, R2 resistor got
short as shown in figure 1.28.
Ideally, a short circuit is zero resistance path parallel to a load.
Applying current division rule, we get
Due to short circuit, R2 becomes zero.
𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝑅 ×𝐼 Thus, we have
1 +𝑅2

0
𝐼1 = ×𝐼 =0
𝑅1 + 0

𝑅1
𝐼2 = 𝐼=𝐼
𝑅1 + 0
Figure 1.27 After R2 is short circuited
Figure 1.26 Before R2 is short circuited

8/23/2023 Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCEv 23

 Continued…
This means that all the current flows from short circuit path and no shorted load resistors get damaged.

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = × 𝑉 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = =∞
𝑅2
Hence, during short-circuit, the current more than rated or normal current flows in the circuit which makes
the necessity of fuse, a protective device to be used in the circuit because short becomes directly connected
across the battery and draws almost infinite current.

Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 24

 Continued…
Two nodes are said to be open-circuited when there is no direct connection between them or there is a break
in the continuity of the circuit. Due to this break, it gives rise to two important facts:
The resistance between the two nodes is infinite.
Air acts as insulating medium in the path of current flow having very high, ideally infinite resistance and
hence, no current flow in between the two nodes.

Being more specific, if connecting wires or loads suffer from

heat energy more than their dissipating capacity or consuming
capacity, the result is that, these elements may melt and get
burned and make the continuous connection in the circuit broken.
Hence, the circuit in which no current flows through a circuit
element is called open circuit. The realization of open circuit can
be incorporated using switch in the circuit for control purpose. All
Figure 1.28 Open circuit the switches on the ‘OFF’ position are examples of open circuit

Prepared by Er. Dhurba Karki, Lecturer, KhCE 25

 Assignment-2
1) Explain ideal voltage source with its V-I characteristics.
2) Explain practical voltage source with its V-I characteristics.
3) Explain ideal current source with its V-I characteristics.
4) Explain practical voltage source with its V-I characteristics.
5) Derive the expression for equivalent resistance in series combination and list the properties of series
combination.
6) Derive the expression for equivalent resistance in parallel combination and list the properties of parallel
combination.
7) Derive the expression for voltage across nth resistor in series combination using voltage division rule.
8) Derive the expression for current through nth resistor in parallel combination using current division rule.
9) Write down the difference between series and parallel combination of resistors.
10) Why is household wiring done in parallel? Explain with suitable reasons.

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 Tutorial-2
1) The equivalent resistance of four resistors joined in parallel is 30 Ω. The currents flowing through them are
4A, 2A, 4/3A and 2/3A. Determine values of each resistor.
2) Two resistors having resistance of 4Ω and 6Ω in parallel are connected in series with another resistor of
12Ω. If the current flowing through 12Ω resistor is 2A, determine:
a) the current flowing through 4Ω and 6Ω resistors
b) voltage across the whole circuit and
c) power drawn from the supply
3) A direct current comprises two resistors ‘A’ value of 25Ω and ‘B’ of unknown value, connected in parallel
together with a third resistor ‘C’ of value 5Ω connected in series with the parallel group. The potential
difference across C is found to 90V. If the total power in the circuit is 4320W, calculate:
a) the value of unknown resistor ‘B’
b) the voltage applied to the ends of the whole circuit and
c) the current in each resistor.
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 Continued…
4) Two filament lamps A and B take 0.8 A and 0.9 A respectively when connected across 110 V supply.
Calculate the value of current when they are connected in series across a 220 V supply, assuming the
filament resistances to remain unaltered. Also find the voltage across each lamp.
5) A 100W, 250V bulb is connected in series with a 40W, 250V bulb across 500V supply. What will be the
current drawn? What will be the power consumed by each bulb? Will such combination work normally?
6) A circuit energized by 7.5 V dc supply consists of 5Ω in series with parallel combination of 10Ω each. What
resistance must be shunted across parallel combination so that the power loss in 5Ω resistance is 5W?

7) Determine the value of unknown resistance R if 5 A total current

is drawn from the source in the circuit of figure 1.29. Also
compute the total power dissipated in the circuit.

Figure 1.29
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 Continued…
8) A circuit consists of three resistances of 12Ω, 18Ω, and 36Ω respectively, joined in parallel is connected in
series with a fourth resistance. The whole circuit is supplied at 60 V and it is found that power dissipated in
12Ω resistance is 36 W. Determine the value of fourth resistance and the total power dissipated in the group.
9 a) Determine the value of R in figure 1.30a if the power dissipated in 10 Ω resistor is 40W.
9 b) The current in the 6 Ω resistor of the network shown in figure 1.30b is 2A. Find the current in all other
resistors and the voltage V across the network.
4Ω
8Ω
4Ω

6Ω 20Ω

Figure 1.30b
Figure 1.30a
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 Continued…
10) Find the current from the source in the circuit shown in figure 1.31.
11) In the circuit shown in figure 1.32, calculate the power dissipated by 12 Ω resistor. If the short-circuited
terminals A and B are replaced by open circuit, what will be the power dissipated in 12 Ω resistor?

Figure 1.31

Figure 1.32

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 Continued…
12) Calculate the power consumed by the 10 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in figure 1.33.
13) In the circuit shown figure 1.34, find the value of resistance R when VAB = 5 V.

Figure 1.33
Figure 1.34

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 Continued…
14) A battery of unknown emf is connected across resistances as shown in figure 1.35. The voltage drop across
the 8Ω resistor is 20V. What will be the current reading in the ammeter? What is the emf of the battery?
15) Find the current through 4Ω resistor shown in the circuit shown in figure 1.36.

Figure 1.36
Figure 1.35

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 Continued…
16) A current of 90 A is shared by three resistances in parallel. The wires are of the same material and have
their lengths in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4 and their cross-sectional areas in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3. Determine current in
each resistance.
17) Six resistors are connected as shown in figure 1.37. If a battery having an e.m.f. of 24 volts and internal
resistance of 1Ω is connected to the terminals A and B, find (i) the current from the battery, (ii) p.d. across
8Ω and 4Ω resistors and (iii) the current taken from the battery if a conductor of negligible resistance is
connected in parallel with 8 Ω resistor.

Figure 1.37

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 Continued…
18) Find the voltage VAB in the circuit shown in figure 1.38.
19) Find the current supplied by the source in the circuit shown in figure 1.39.

Figure 1.38
Figure 1.39

20) Find the equivalent resistance between A and B for the network shown below
24Ω

8Ω 8Ω

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