Lecture Notes BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION:

An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at

least one closed path in which current can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a
component for any engineering system.

The performance of any electrical device or machine is always studied by

drawing its electrical equivalent circuit. By simulating an electric circuit, any type of
system can be studied for e.g., mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow,
weather prediction etc.
All control systems are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The
analysis, of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.

Voltage: Potential difference in electrical terminology is known as voltage, and is

denoted either by V or 𝑣. It is expressed in terms of energy (w) per unit charge(Q).
W dw
V= or V =
Q dq
𝑑𝑤 is the small change in energy
𝑑𝑞 is the small change in charge.

Where energy (W) is expressed in Joules (J), charge (Q) in coulombs (C), and voltage
(V) in volts(V). One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule
of energy is used to pass one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

Current: Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons in a conductive or semi

conductive material. It is measured by the number of electrons that flow past a point in
unit time.
Q
I=
t
Where I is the current, Q is the charge of electrons, and t is the time
dq
i=
dt
𝑑𝑞 is the small change in charge
𝑑𝑡 is the small change in time.
In practice, the unit ampere is used to measure current, denoted by A.

Power and Energy: Energy is nothing but stored work. Energy may exist in many
forms such as mechanical, chemical, electrical and so on.

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Power is the rate of change of energy, and is denoted by either P or p. if certain amount
of energy over a certain length of time, then

Power (P) = energy / time= W/t

dw
P=
dt
Were 𝑑𝑤 is the charge in energy and 𝑑𝑡 is the charge in time.
dw dw dq
P= = X
dt dq dt
P= V x I =VI= I2R
w
V= q

W=vq
d(vq) dq
P= =v
dt dt

P=VI Watts
W= ∫ pdt Joules

1.1.1. Elements of an Electric circuit:

An Electric circuit consists of two types of elements

a) Active elements or sources
b) Passive elements or sinks

Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own
and can impart it to other element of the circuit.
Active elements are of two types
a) Voltage source b) Current source

A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of

current flowing through it.

A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage

appearing across it.

1.2 Independent & Dependent sources

If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of current

and the current of the current source is completely independent of the voltage, then the
sources are called as independent sources.
The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends on
some other quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere
in the circuit are called Dependent sources or Controlled sources.

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There are four possible dependent sources.

a) Voltage dependent Voltage source

b) Current dependent Current source
c) Voltage dependent Current source
d) Current dependent Current source

The constants of proportionalities are written as B, g, a, r in which B & a has no

units, r has units ohm & g has units mhos.

Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as battery, a dc

generator & an alternator. But dependent sources are used to represent electrical
properties of electronic devices such as OP-AMPS & Transistors.

1.3 Ideal & Practical sources

An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant
terminal voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load.

An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to
the load, irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.

A Practical source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance r.

The internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in series with it & for a
current source, it is always connected in parallel with it.
As the value of the internal resistance of a practical voltage source is very small,
its terminal voltage is assumed to be almost constant within a certain limit of current
flowing through the load.

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A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current,

irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load connected to it.

Ideal voltage source connected in series

The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V 1 + V2

Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a

single ideal voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together in to
consideration.

Practical voltage source connected in series:

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Ideal voltage source connected in parallel:

When two ideal voltage source of emf’s V 1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what
voltage appears across its terminals is ambiguous. Hence such connections should not
be made.

However if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by V.

In that case also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source
serves the purpose.

Practical voltage sources connected in parallel:

Ideal current sources connected in series:

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When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through
the line is ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible.

However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.

But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose.

Practical current sources connected in series:

Ideal current sources connected in parallel:

Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current
source.

Practical current sources connected in parallel:

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1.4 Source transformation

A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load resistance
and the magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance.

Consider a practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to

the same load resistance RL as shown in the figure.

Fig. a Fig. b

R1’s in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source V S and current
source IS.

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Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal
voltage VL and load current IL. The circuits in figure represents a practical voltage source
& a practical current source respectively, with load connected to both the sources. The
terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their terminals are same. Hence the
practical voltage source & practical current source shown in the dotted box of figure are
equal.

The two equivalent sources should also provide the same open circuit voltage &
short circuit current.

From fig (a) From fig (b)

𝑉𝑠 𝑟
IL = IL = I
𝑅+𝑅𝐿 𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑠 𝑟
∴ 𝑅+𝑅 = I
𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝐿

𝑉𝑠
VS = IR or I =
𝑅

Hence a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance R can be

𝑉𝑠
converted into a current source I = , with its internal resistance R connected in parallel
𝑅

with it. Similarly a current source I in parallel with its internal resistance R can be
converted into a voltage source V = IR in series with its internal resistance R.

1.5 Passive Elements:

The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own.
They receive energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the
inductance and the capacitance. When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element,
it will respond in one and more of the following ways.

If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor.

If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor.

And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor.

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1.5.1 Linear and Non-Linear Elements.

Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its
voltage-current characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin.

For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage
applied through its and the relation is expressed as V ∝ I or V = IR. A linear element or
network is one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., the principle of
homogeneity and additivity.

Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of the linear elements and
their properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit
current.

Non linear element’s V-I characteristics do not follow the linear pattern i.e. the
current passing through it does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage
across it. Examples are the semiconductor devices such as diode, transistor.

1.5.2 Bilateral and Unilateral Elements:

An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage
and current for the current flowing in both directions.

Ex: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance.

The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits.

An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist
between voltage and current when current flowing in both directions. The circuits
containing them are called unilateral circuits.

Ex: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc.

1.5.3. Lumped and Distributed Elements

Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which
simultaneous actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors,
inductors.

Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical
purposes.

For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and
may extend for hundreds of miles.
The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.

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1.6 Voltage Current Relationship for passive elements

Resistance

Resistance is that property of a circuit element which opposes the flow of electric
current and in doing so converts electrical energy into heat energy.

It is the proportionality factor in ohm’s law relating voltage and current.

Ohm’s law states that the voltage drop across a conductor of given length and
area of cross section is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
vœI
VR= RI

𝑣
R= ohms= GV
𝐼

Where the reciprocal of resistance is called conductance G. The unit of resistance

is ohm and the unit of conductance is mho or Siemens.

When current flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the
collision of electrons with other atomic particles. The power absorbed by the resistor is
converted to heat and is given by the expression
P= VI=I2R watts
𝑉 𝑉2
= V( ) = watts
𝑅 𝑅

Where I is the resistor in amps, and V is the voltage across the resistor in volts.

Energy lost in a resistance in time t is given by

t V 2
W =∫0 Pdt = Pt = i2 Rt = t Joules
R

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Resistance in series:

Series: V=V1+V2+V3
V= IR1+IR2+IR3 = I(R1+R2+R3) -------(1)
V = IReq-------(2)
From (1) & (2)
IReq = I(R1+R2+R3)
Req = R1+R2+R3

Resistance in parallel:

Apply KCL at P
I =I1+I2

V V 1 1
I= + =v [ + ] …..(1)
R1 R2 R1 R2
v
I= …..(2)
Req

From (1) =(2)

V 1 1
= v[ + ]
Req R1 R2

1 1 1
= +
Req R1 R2
R 1 R2
R eq =
R1 +R2

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Inductance :

Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes any change

of magnitude and direction of electric current passing through conductor. A wire of
certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic conductor. A change in the
magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic field.

Increase in current expands the field & decrease in current reduces it.A change
in current produces change in the electromagnetic field. This induces a voltage across
the coil according to Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
𝑑𝑖
Induced Voltage V = L 𝑑𝑡

V = Voltage across inductor in volts

I = Current through inductor in amps
1
di = v dt
𝐿
Integrating both sides,
t t
1
∫ di = ∫ vdt
L
0 0

di
Power absorbed by the inductor P = Vi = Li Watt
dt
Energy stored by the inductor
t t di Li2
W=∫0 P dt = ∫0 Li dt =
dt 2

Li2
W= Joules
2

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Conclusions:
di
1) V=L
dt
The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is
constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.

2) For minute change in current within zero time (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage
across the inductor which is physically not at all feasible.

In an inductor, the current cannot change abruptly. An inductor behaves as open

circuit just after switching across dc voltage.

3) The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the
inductor is zero.

4) A pure inductor never dissipates energy, it only stores it. Hence it is also called
as a non–dissipative passive element. However, physical inductor dissipate
power due to internal resistance.

1.) The current in a 2H inductor raises at a rate of 2A/s .Find the voltage across the
inductor & the energy stored in the magnetic field at after 2sec.
di
V=L
dt
= 2X2 = 4V
1 1
W= Li2 = X 2 X (4)2 = 16 J
2 2

Inductance in series:

V(t) = V1 (t) + V2 (t)

𝑑𝑖 di
= L1 + L2
𝑑𝑡 dt
di di
= (L1 + L2 ) = Leq
dt dt
∴ Leq = L1 + L2
In `n` inductances are in series, then the equivalent inductance
Leq = L1 + L2 + ………..+Ln

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Inductances in parallel:

I (t) = I1 (t) + I2 (t)

1 1 1 1
=
L1
∫ vdt + L2
∫ vdt = (L + L ) ∫ vdt
1 2

1
=
Leq
∫ vdt
1 1 1
∴ = ( + )
Leq L1 L2

In `n` Inductances are connected in parallel, then

1 1 1 1
= + + ……….+ Henrys
Leq L1 L2 Ln

Capacitance:

 A capacitor consists of two metallic surfaces or conducting surfaces separated by

a dielectric medium.

 It is a circuit element which is capable of storing electrical energy in its electric

field.

 Capacitance is its capacity to store electrical energy.

 Capacitance is the proportionality constant relating the charge on the conducting
plates to the potential.

Charge on the capacitor q α V

q = CV
Where `C` is the capacitance in farads, if q is charge in coulombs and V is the potential
difference across the capacitor in volts.

The current flowing in the circuit is rate of flow of charge

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dq dv dv
i= =C ∴i= c amps
dt dt dt

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric medium & the physical
dimensions. For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance

€𝐴 𝐴
C= = €0 €r
𝐷 𝐷
A is the surface area of plates
D is the separation between plates
€ is the absolute permeability of medium
€0 is the absolute permeability of free space
€r is the relative permeability of medium

dq dv
I= =C
dt dt

dv i
=
dt c
1
V=
c
∫ idt Volts
dv
The power absorbed by the capacitor P = vi = vc watt
dt
t t dv
Energy stored in the capacitor W = ∫0 Pdt = ∫0 vc dt
dt

t 1
= C∫ vdv =
0
cv 2 Joules
2

This energy is stored in the electric field set up by the voltage across capacitor.

Capacitance in series:

Let C1 , C2 be the two capacitances connected in series and let V1,V2 be the p.ds
across the two capacitors. Let V be the applied voltage across the combination and C,
the combined or equivalent capacitance. For a series circuit, charge on all capacitors is
same but P.d across each is different.

V=V1+V2

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1 1
V= ∫ Idt +C ∫ Idt
C1 2

1 1
V =( + ) ∫ Idt -----(1)
C1 C2
1
V= ∫ Idt -----(2)
Ceq
1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2

C1 C2
Ceq =
C1 + C2

C n series

Capacitance in parallel:

Conclusions:

The current in a capacitor is zero, if the voltage across it is constant, that means
the capacitor acts as an open circuit to dc

1. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite
current through the capacitor, which is physically impossible.

∴ In a fixed capacitor, the voltage cannot change abruptly

∴ A capacitor behaves as short circuit just after switching across dc voltage.

2. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is
zero.

3. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it hence it is called non-
dissipative element.

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V-I Relation of circuit elements

Elements, Power Energy Physical
Voltage Current Basic
Symbol (W) (W) Dimension
(V) (A) Formula
and Units Watts Joules Formula

Resistor R R= WL=
𝜌𝑙
𝑎
(Ohms Ω)
S=Specific
W=I Rt 2
VαI
V=RI I=𝑅
𝑉
P =i2R 𝑉2
Resistivity
= t l= Length of (Ohm’s Law)
𝑅
material
a=area of C.S

Inductor L
𝑁2 𝜇𝑎 −𝑑𝜓
Vα
(Henry H) L=
𝑑𝑖 I 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑙 𝑑𝑡
V=L 1
= ∫ vdt +io
P =Li 𝑑𝑡 WL=2 𝐿𝐼2
𝜇- (Faraday’s
𝑑𝑡 L Second law)
Permeability=𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
(Lenz’s Law)
𝜇0 =4∏x10-7H/m

Capacitor 1
C I=𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 +
𝜀𝐴
(Farad F) v0 C =
where v0 is 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑
I =C 𝑑𝑡 P =C𝑉 𝑑𝑡 WC=2 𝐶𝑉 2 𝜀=Permitivity=𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 qαV
the initial
voltage 𝜀0 =8.854x10-
across
12
F/m
capacitor

Problems:

1. The Current function shown below is a repeating square wave. With this
current existing in a pure resistor of 10Ω, plot voltage V(t) & power P(t)

V(t) = R i(t) P = Vi
= 10X5 = 50 = 50X5 = 250w

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2. The current function for a pure resistor of 5 Ω is a repeating saw tooth

as shown below. Find v(t), P(t).

V(t) = R i(t) = 5 X 10 = 50 V
0‹t‹2ms
𝑖 10
= = 5𝑋103 𝑖 = 5𝑋103 𝑡
𝑡 2𝑋10−3
V=5X5X103t =25X103
P=125X106t2

P (watts) 10V (Volts)

3. A pure inductance L = 0.02H has an applied voltage V(t) = 150 sin 1000t
volts. Determine the current i(t), & draw their wave forms

V(t) = 150 sin 1000t L = 0.02H

1 1
I(t) = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 150 sin 1000tdt
𝐿 0.02

150 –cos 1000𝑡

( )
0.02 1000

∴i(t)= -7.5 cos 1000t Amps

1
P=V(t) i(t) =(-150) (7.5) sin 2000𝑡 = -562.5 sin 2000t
2

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Kirchhoff`s Laws

Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for
solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by the latter.

Kirchhoff`s laws, two in number, are particularly useful in determining the

equivalent resistance of a complicated network of conductors and for calculating the
currents flowing in the various conductors.

1. Kirchhoff`s Point Law or Current Law (KCL):

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point
(or junction) is Zero.

That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving
that junction.
Consider the case of a network shown in Fig

I1+(-I2)+(I3)+(+I4)+(-I5) = 0

I1+I4-I2-I3-I5 = 0

Or I1+I4 = I2+I3+I5

Or Incoming currents =Outgoing currents

2. Kirchhoff's Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL):

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the products of currents and
resistances in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the e.m.f.’s. in that path is zero.

That is, ∑IR + ∑e.m.f = 0 round a mesh

It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the
polarities of the voltage drops.

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That is, if we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh till we come
back to the starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we
started.

Hence, it means that all the sources of emf met on the way must necessarily be
equal to the voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign,
plus or minus.
Determination of Voltage Sign

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be

paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs.

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. That
is, if we go from the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise in
potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. And on the other hand, we go
from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage
should be preceded by a -ve sign.

The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction of the current
through that branch.

(b) Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 2.4). If we go through a resistor in the
same direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows
from a higher to a lower potential.

Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction

opposite to that of thecurrent, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise
should be given a positive sign.

Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig .

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As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will
have the following signs :

I1R1 is - ve (fall in potential)

I2R2 is - ve (fall in potential)
I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
I4R4 is - ve (fall in potential)
E2 is - ve (fall in potential)
E1 is + ve (rise in potential)

Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get

-I1R1 – I2R2 – I3R3 – I4 R4 – E2 + E1 = 0

Or I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 –E2

Assumed Direction of Current:

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow

may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is
not the actual direction, then on solving the question, the current will be found to have
a minus sign.

If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the same as actual direction.
However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the
same should be used throughout the solution of the question.

Kirchhoff's laws are applicable both to d.c. and a.c. voltages and currents.
However, in the case of alternating currents and voltages, any e.m.f. of self-inductance
or that existing across a capacitor should be also taken into account.

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NETWORK REDUCTION TECHNIQUES:

Resistance in series:

If three conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 are joined end on end as
shown in fig below, then they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that
the equivalent resistance between points A & D is equal to the sum of the three
individual resistances.

For a series circuit, the current is same through all the three conductors but
voltage drop across each is different due to its different values of resistances and is
given by ohm`s Law and the sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage
supplied across the three conductors.

∴ V= V1+V2+V3 = IR1+IR2+IR3

But V= IR
where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.

IR = IR1+IR2+IR3
or R = R1 + R2+ R3

The main characteristics of a series circuit are

1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.

2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive

Voltage Divider Rule

In a series circuit, same current flows through each of the given resistors and the
voltage drop varies directly with its resistance.

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Q.) Consider a circuit in which, a 24- V battery is connected across a series

combination of three resistors of 2Ω, 4Ω and 6Ω. Determine the voltage drops
across each resistor?

Ans) Total resistance R = R 1 + R2 + R3= 12 Ω

According to Voltage Divider Rule, voltages divide in the ratio of their resistances
and hence the various voltage drops are

𝑅1 2
𝑉1 = 𝑉 = 24 𝑋 = 4𝑉
𝑅 12
𝑅2 4
𝑉2 = 𝑉 𝑅
= 24 𝑋 12
= 8𝑉
𝑅3 6
𝑉3 = 𝑉 = 24 𝑋 = 12𝑉
𝑅 12

Resistances in Parallel:

Three resistances, as joined in Fig are said to be connected in parallel. In this case

(I) Potential difference across all resistances is the same

(ii) Current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm's Law And
(iii) The total current is the sum of the three separate currents.

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I = I1+I2 +I3 = + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉
I = where V is the applied voltage.
𝑅
R = equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.

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𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
𝑅
= 𝑅1 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
2 3

G = GI + G2+ G3

The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are:

1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit

2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. Branch currents are additive.
4. Conductances are additive.
5. Powers are additive

Division of Current in Parallel Circuits

Two resistances are joined in parallel across a voltage V. The current in each
branch, given by Ohm’s law, is

𝑉 𝑉
I1= and I2=
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝐼1 𝑅2
=
𝐼2 𝑅1
1 1
As = 𝐺1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐺2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐼1 𝐺1
=
𝐼2 𝐺2
Hence, the division of current in the branches of a parallel circuit is directly
proportional to the conductance of the branches or inversely proportional to their
resistances.
The branch currents are also expressed in terms of the total circuit current
𝐼1 𝑅2
Now 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼; ∴ 𝐼2 = 𝐼 − 𝐼1 ∴ = or 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 (𝐼 − 𝐼1 )
𝐼−𝐼1 𝑅12

𝑅1 𝐺1 𝑅1 𝐺1
𝐼1 = 𝐼 =𝐼 and 𝐼2 =𝐼 =𝐼
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2

This Current Divider Rule has direct application in solving electric circuits by
Norton's theorem

Take the case of three resistors in parallel connected across a voltage V

Total current is I=I1+I2+I3

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Let the equivalent resistance be R. Then

V = IR

Also V = I1R, lR = I1R

𝐼 𝑅1 𝐼𝑅
Or = 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 =
𝐼1 𝑅 𝑅1
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R=
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐺1
From …. (i) above, I1 = I[ ] = 𝐼.
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3

𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐺2
I2= I[ ] = 𝐼.
𝑅1 𝑅3+𝑅2𝑅3+𝑅1𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐺3
I3 = I[ ] = 𝐼.
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3

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ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Introduction
Basic Terms used in a Circuit

1. Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current

either flows or is intended flow.
2. Network: A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner.
3. Linear Circuit: A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they
do not change with voltage or current.
4. Non-linear Circuit: It is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or
current.
5. Bilateral Circuit: A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics
are the same in either direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral, because
it can be made to perform its function equally well in either direction.
6. Unilateral Circuit: It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change
with the direction of its operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because
it cannot perform rectification in both directions.
7. Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its
parameters like resistance, inductance and capacitance. These parameters may
be lumped or distributed.
8. Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
9. Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
10. Node: I t is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are
connected together.
11. Branch: It is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.
12. Loop: It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
13. Mesh: It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.

Consider the circuit of Fig. (a).

It has seven branches, six nodes, three loops and two meshes and the circuit of
Fig (b) has four branches, two nodes, six loops and three meshes.

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2. MESH ANALYSIS AND NODAL ANALYSIS

The simple series & parallel circuits can be solved by using ohm`s law &
Kirchhoff’s law.

If the circuits are complex with several sources & a large number of elements,
they may be simplified using star-delta transformation. There are also other effective
solving methods of complex electric circuits.

Mesh current or loop current analysis & node voltage analysis are the two very
effective methods of solving complex electric circuits. We have various network
theorems which are also effective alternate methods to solve complex electrical circuits

1) Mesh current or loop current analysis

2) Node voltage analysis

2.1 Mesh Analysis:

It is combination of KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) and Ohms law

This method which is particularly applied to complete networks employs a

system of loop or mesh currents instead of branch currents as in Kirchhoff`s law. Here,
the currents in different meshes are assigned another path so that they do not split at a
junction in to branch currents. This method eliminates a great deal of tedious work
involved in the branch-current method and is best suited when energy sources are
voltage sources rather than current sources. Basically, this method consists of writing
loop voltage equations by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of unknown loop currents.

If `b` is the number of branches & j is the number of junctions in a given

network, then the total number of independent equations to be solved reduces from `b`
by Kirchhoff`s law to b-(j-1) for loop current method.

Fig. shows two batteries E1 and E2 connected in a network consisting of five resistors.
Let the loop currents for the three meshes be I1, I2 and I3. It is obvious that current
through R4 (when considered as a part of the first loop) is (I1 −I2) and that through R5 is

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(I2 −I3). However, when R4 is considered part of the second loop, current through it is
(I2 − I1). Similarly, when R5 is considered part of the third loop, current through it is (I3
−I2).
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the three loops, we get,
E1 −I1R1 −R4 (I1 −I2) = 0 or I1 (R1 + R4) −I2 R4 −E1 = 0 ……Loop (1)
Similarly, −I2R2 −R5 (I2 −I3) −R4 (I2 −I1) = 0
or I2 R4 −I2 (R2 + R4 + R5) + I3R5 = 0 ……Loop(2)
Also −I3R3 −E2 −R5 (I3 −I2) = 0 or I2R5 −I3 (R3 + R5) −E2 = 0 ….Loop (3)
The above three equations can be solved not only to find loop currents but branch
currents as well.

Example 1: Find the power dissipated in 2Ω resistor in the circuit given below.

Solution:

For mesh (1)

-10+4 I1+2(I1-I2) =0
6I1-2I2=10 ……………….. (1)

For mesh (2)

6 I2+1(I2-I3)+2(I2-I1) = 0
2 I1-9I2+ I3 =0…………………(2)

For mesh (3)

4(I3)+5+1(I3-I2) = 0
I2-5I3 = 5…………………….(3)

From (1), (2), (3)

10=6 I1-2 I2 +0 I3
0=2 I1-9 I2 + I3
5=0 I1+ I2 -5 I3

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By Crammer’s rule

10 6  2 0  I1 
0    2  9 1  I 
     2
5  0 1  5  I 3 

1 2
I1= ; I2=
 

6 2 0
∆= 2  9 1  6(45  1)  2(10)  244
0 1 5

10  2 0
∆1= 0  9 1  10(45  1)  2(5)  430
5 1 5

6 10 0
∆2= 2 0 1  6(5)  10(10)  70
0 5 5

 1 430
I1= =  1.762 A
 244

2 70
I2= =  0.286 A
 244

| I1- I2|= 1.476

P2Ω=(| I1- I2| )2 *2=(1.476)2*2= 4.357 watts

Therefore Power dissipated across 2Ω resistor is 4.357 watts.

Example 2: Find the energy dissipated across 3Ω resistor for the duration of 42
seconds in the given network as shown in fig.

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Solution:
For mesh (1)
-10+2I1+2(I1-I2) =0
2I1- I2=5 ……………………………… (1)

For mesh (2)

3 I2+1(I2-I3)+2(I2-I1)=0
2I1-6I2+I3=0 …………………… (2)

For mesh (3)

I3=-I=-2A

Substituting I3 in (2)
2I1-6I2-2=0
2I1-6I2=2 ……………………… (3)

Solving (1) and (3)

2I1- I2=5
2I1-6I2=2
-----------------------
5 I2 =3
I2 =3/5=0.6 A

Power dissipated across 3Ω resistor is

P= I2R = (0.6)23=1.08 watt

Energy dissipated across 3Ω resistor for 42 seconds is

W=Pt = I2Rt= 1.08 X 42= 45.36 Joules

Therefore energy dissipated across 3Ω resistor for 42 seconds is 45.36 Joules.

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2.1.1 Super mesh method

The super mesh method can be introduced for any given electrical network if any
two meshes are having common current source without parallel resistance (Ideal
current source). Then voltage across ideal current source cannot be defined, for this
condition to determine the mesh currents use super mesh method.

Steps in Solving the networks using super Mesh analysis:

Consider the below circuit as example for Mesh analysis

Step 1: Identify the two meshes where the common current source is present.

Assume the mesh currents as I1, I2,I3. Here mesh1 and mesh2 are having the
common current source.

Step 2: Assume that there is no ideal current source, then apply KVL for mesh 1 and
mesh 2 simultaneously writing one voltage equation.

-V+ I1 R1+ I2R2+( I2 - I3)R3=0

V= I1 R1+ I2 (R2+ R3) - I3R3 ……………………… (1)

Applying KVL for mesh 3

I3R4+ I3R5 +(I3 - I2)R3=0
- I2R3 +( R4+R5+ R3)I3 =0 ………………………… (2)

Step 3: Define common Ideal current source in terms of mesh currents.

i.e, I=(I2 - I1 ) …………………………………………. (3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3) get the values of I1, I2,I3.

Example 4: Find the voltage across 3Ω resistor in the circuit shown below.

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Solution:
Let the mesh currents for three meshes be I 1, I2,& I3
Mesh 1 Mesh 2 are having common Ideal current source then to analyze the circuit
apply super mesh method.
By super mesh method
-10+3I1+2I2+4(I2-I3)=0
10=3I1+6I2-4I3 ………………………… (1)

For mesh (3) by KVL

4I3+20+4(I3- I2) =0
8I3-4I2=-20
I2-2I3=5 ……………………………. (2)
Defining the Ideal current source value
I1-I2 = 2 ……………………………… (3)

By Crammer’s method

10 3 6  4  I 1 
5   0 1  2  I 
     2
2  1  1 0   I 3 

3 6 4
∆= 0 1  2  3(2)  6(2)  4(1)  6  12  4  14
1 1 0

10 6  4
∆1= 5 1  2  10(2)  6(4)  4(5  2)  20  24  28  16
2 1 0

 1  16
I1= = 8/7
  14

Voltage across the 3Ω resistor V3 =R3I1 =3*8/7=3.428V

2.2 Nodal Analysis:

A node is a point in a network, where two or more elements meet. Nodal analysis
is a combination of KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) and ohm’s law.

Steps in solving the networks using Nodal analysis:

Consider the below circuit as example for Mesh analysis

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Step 1: Identify the number of principle nodes in the given circuit. (3 principle
nodes in this case).
Step 2: Assume the node voltage and consider one node as a reference node
which should be connected to the ground (potential as 0V)
Step 3: Apply KCL first and Ohm’s law next at every node, and obtain the current
equations.
At node V1 (assume V1>V, V1>V2)
I1+I2+I3 =0
𝑉1 −𝑉 𝑉1 −𝑉2 𝑉1 −0
+ + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 𝑉2 𝑉
𝑉1 [ + + ] − = ……………………….. (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅1

At node V2 (assume V2>V, V2>V1)

I2’+I4 =I
V2 − V1 V2 − 0
+ =𝐼
R2 R4
1 1 𝑉1
𝑉2 [ + ] − = 𝐼 ……………………….. (2)
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅2

Step 4: Determine V1 and V2 by using the normal method or Matrix method.

Example 5: Find the voltage drop across 3 Ω resistance for a given network as
shown in figure.

Soln: At node V1
I= I1+I2
2= I1+I2
𝑉1 −0 𝑉1 −𝑉2
+ =2
2 3
𝑉1 𝑉1 −𝑉2
+ =2
2 3
1 1 𝑉2
𝑉1 (2 + 3) − =2
3

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5V1-2V2=12 ………………………….. (1)

At node V1
I1’+I2’+I3’ =0
𝑉2 −10−0 𝑉2 −𝑉1 𝑉2 −0
+ + =0
4+2 3 4
1 1 1 10 𝑉1
𝑉2 ( + + ) − − =0
6 3 4 6 3
9𝑉2 − 4𝑉1 = 20……………………….. (2)
From (1) & (2)
20V1-8V2=48
-20V1+45V2=100

37V2=148
V2 = 4 V
From (1)
5V1-8=12
V1 = 4V
Voltage drop across 3 Ω resistor = |V1- V2| =|4-4|=0
Therefore 3 Ω resistor is short circuited and voltage drop across it is zero.

Example 5: Find the resistance value of the ‘R’ for the give circuit.
R

2 V 3
2A 19/6 A
6V 6 12V

Solution: By assuming the unknown principal voltage as V across the 6 Ω resistance

Applying KCL at node ‘V’

𝑉−6 𝑉−0 𝑉−12

+ + =0
2 6 3
1 1 1
𝑉( + + )−3−4 = 0
2 3 6
V(1)=7 ; V=7V
Let i be the current through (R)
At node 12V At node 6V
19/6= (12-6)/R + (12-7)/3 2 = (7-6)/2 + (12-6)/R
6/R = 19/6 – 10/6 6/R = 2- 1/2

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R=4 R=4
Therefore The resistance for the given circuit ‘R’ = 4 Ω

2.2.1 Super node method

If two nodes in any electrical network are having common Ideal Voltage source
(A voltage source without series resistance) then between those two nodes we cannot
define the current, then use the super node to analyze the circuit.
Consider the below circuit as example for Super node analysis.

Step 1: Identify the two nodes which are having common Ideal voltage source.
Step 2: Assume that there is no voltage source in between them, apply KCL at
two nodes write down in common current equation.
Step 3: Define common Ideal voltage source value in terms of unknown nde
voltages.
Step 4: Solve the obtained equations to get the unknown values.

Nodes Va and Vb are having common Ideal voltage source

By KCL at Va and Vb (By considering no voltage source between Va and Vb )

𝑉𝑎 −𝑉1 −0 𝑉𝑎 −0 𝑉𝑏 −𝑉2 𝑉𝑏 −0
+ + + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅3
1 1 1 1 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉𝑎 [ + ]+𝑉𝑏 [ + ]= + ………… (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅4

Define the Ideal voltage source

Va - Vb =V ………………………. (2)
From (1) and (2)solving Va and Vb can be found

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Example 6: Find the value of I for the given circuit shown in the below fig.

Solution:
Let V1 and V2 be the nodes

V1 and V2 have common Ideal Voltage source (12V) By KCL at V1 and V2 writing down in
one equation.

𝑉1 −10 𝑉1 −0 𝑉2 −0
+ + + 2 =0
4 2 4
3 V1 + V2 =2 ………………… (1)

By defining the ideal voltage source

V1 - V2 =12 ……………………… (2)
From (1) and (2)
4 V1=14 V1 = 3.5V
V1 = 12+ V2
V2 = 3.5-12 = -8.5 V
I = V2 /4= -8.5/4 =-2.125 A

2.3. Star - Delta (Y- ∆ ) transformation

The methods of series, parallel and series – parallel combination of elements do not
always lead to simplification of networks. Such networks are handled by Star Delta
transformation.

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Figure a shows three resistances Ra, Rb, Rc connected in star to three nodes A,B,C
and a common point N & figure b shows three resistances connected in delta between
the same three nodes A,B,C. If these two networks are to be equivalent then the
resistance between any pair of nodes of the delta connected network of a) must be the
same as that between the same pair of nodes of the star – connected network of fig b).

1.3.1. Star resistances in terms of delta

Equating resistance between node pair AB

𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑐𝑎
Ra + Rb = Rab // (Rbc + Rca ) = _ (1)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

Similarly for node pair BC

𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑐𝑎 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑏
Rb + Rc = Rbc // (Rca + Rab ) = _ (2)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎
For Node pair CA
𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
Rc + Ra = Rca // (Rab + Rbc ) = _ (3)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

Subtracting 2 from 3 gives

𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑏

Ra – Rb = _ (4)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

Adding 1 and 4 gives

𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑐𝑎
Ra = _ (5)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

Similarly
𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑏
Rb = _ (6)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

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𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
Rc = _ (7)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

Thus the equivalent star resistance connected to a node is equal to the product
of the two delta resistances connected to the same node decided by the sum of delta
resistances.

1.3.2. Delta resistances in terms of star resistances:

Dividing (5) by (6) gives

𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
= ∴ 𝑅𝑐𝑎 =
𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑏

Dividing (5) by (6) gives

𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏𝑐
= ∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑏 =
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑐

Substituting for Rab & Rca in equation (5) simplifying gives

RaRbc RaRbc
Rc Rb
Ra = R R
a bc RaRbc
Rc
+ R +Rbc
b
Rbc2
Ra(R R )
b c
Ra =
R R R
Ra ( Rbc+ Rbc + Rbc )
c b a

Rbc Rbc Rbc Rbc 2

Ra ( + + ) = Ra ( )
Rc Rb Ra Rb Rc

Rbc (Rb Rc +Ra Rc +Ra Rb ) Rbc 2

=
Ra Rb Rc Ra R b Rc

(Rb Rc +Ra Rc +RaRb )

Rbc =
Ra
Rc Ra
= Rb + R c +
Rb
Rc Ra Ra Rb
Similarly Rca = Rc + Ra + and Rab = Ra + Rb +
Rb Rc

Thus the equivalent Delta resistance between two nodes is the sum of two star
resistances connected to those nodes plus the product of the same two star resistances
divided by the third star resistance.

RA RB R1 R2
R1 = RA = R1 + R2 +
RA +RB +RC R3
RA RC R1 R3
R2 = RB = R1 + R3 +
RA +RB +RC R2

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RB RC R2 R3
R3 = RC = R2 + R3 +
RA +RB +RC R1

If all are similar resistors and equal to R

R2 R
R1 = = R A = 3R
3R 3

PROBLEMS:
1.) Convert the following circuit in to star circuit

RA RB
Sol.) R1= =13*12/(13+12+14)=4 ohm
RA +RB +RC
RA RC
R2= =13*14/(13+12+14)=4.66 ohm
RA +RB +RC
RB RC
R3= =12*14/(13+12+14)=4.31 ohm
RA +RB +RC

2.) Convert the following circuit in to delta circuit

R1 R2
Sol.) RA = R1 + R2 + =5+20+5*20/10=35 ohm
R3
R1 R3
RB = R 1 + R 3 + =20+10+20*10/5=70 ohm
R2
R2 R3
RC = R 2 + R 3 + =5+10+5*10/20=17.5 ohm
R1

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GENERATION OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES & CURRENTS

Alternating voltages may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field & by

rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

The value of the voltage generated depends, in each coil, upon the no of turns on
the coil, strength of the field & the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

Equations of alternating voltages & Currents:

2𝜋
E(t) = Em sinθ = Em sin ( 𝑇 )t
2𝜋
I = Im sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = Im sin ( 𝑇 )

T = time – period of alternating voltage or Current = 1/f

∴ Induced emf varies as sine function of the time angle wt & when emf is plotted against
time, a curve simulated below is obtained.

Thus curve varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal.

Terms used for periodic functions

1. Alternating quantity: - It is one which is changing w.r.t time e.g., V(t) , i(t), p(t)
It is period i.e its variation repeats with certain periodicity.

Direct current quantity:

It is constant and is not changing w.r.t time e.g., V,I

2. Wave form or wave shape:

The graphical representation of the variation of ac quantity w.r.t to time

3. Cycle: One complete set of variations of an alternating quantity.

4. Time period (T): It is the time taken for completing one cycle. It is expressed in
seconds (or) radius.

5. Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed in one second is called frequency
& it is expressed in cycles/second or Hertz.
1 1
f= or T=
𝑇 𝑓

1 cycle = 2∏ radians, T sec = 2∏ radians

2∏
1 sec =
𝑇

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6. Angular velocity: Angular traced at in one second is called angular velocity ω

2∏
= 2∏f (θ = ωt at t = 1 then θ = ω)
𝑇

7. Amplitude: The maximum value of alternating quantity is called an amplitude.

Root mean square value:

The R.M.S. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (dc) current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same
time. It is also known as the effective or virtual value of th4e alternating current.

For computing the R.M.S. value, of symmetrical sinusoidal alternating currents,

either mid-ordinate method or analytical method may be used, although for symmetrical
but non – sinusoidal wires, the mid ordinate method would be found more convenient.

Analytical method:

The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is I = I m sin ωt = Im sinθ.

The mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of current over one complete cycle
is (even the value over half a cycle will do).
2𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
= ∫0
2𝜋−0

2𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
The square root of this value is = √(∫0 )
2𝜋

Hence, the r.m.s value of the alternating current is

2𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃 𝐼𝑚 2 2𝜋
I = √(∫0 ) = √( 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ) (put I = Im sin𝜃)
2𝜋

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
Now, cos 2𝜃 = 1- 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 =
2

𝑖 2 2𝜋 𝑖𝑚 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2𝜋
I=√
𝑚
∫0 (1 − cos 2𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 = √( 4𝜋 |𝜃 − | 0)
4𝜋 2

2 2
𝑖𝑚 𝑖 𝐼𝑚
= √( 4𝜋 𝑋2𝜋)= √ 𝑚2 ∴I= = 0.707𝐼𝑚
√2

Hence, we find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current

RMS value of current = 0.707 X max. value of current.
𝐼𝑚 2 1 2
Average heating effect is produced during 1 cycle = I2 R = ( )𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅
√2 2 𝑚

RMS value of a complex wave:

In case of complex wave also either mid – ordinate method (when equation of the
wave is not known) or analytical method ( when equation of the wave is known )

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Let a current equation be given by

π
I =12sin ωt +6 sin (3 ωt – 9/6 ) + 4∫ (125ωt + 3) flow through a resistor of R ohm.

Then, in the time period T second of the wave, the effect due to each component is as
below
12 2
Fundamental – ( ) 𝑅𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
√2

6 2
3rd harmonic - ( ) 𝑅𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
√2

4 2
5th harmonic - ( ) 𝑅𝑇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
√2

∴ Total heating effect of the complex wave, then equivalent heating effect is I 2RT
12 2 6 2 4 2
I2RT = RT [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ]
√2 √2 √2

If I is the rms value of complex wave, then equivalent heating effect is I 2RT.
12 2 6 2 4 2
I2RT = RT [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ]
√2 √2 √2

12 2 6 2 4 2
I = RT √[( ) + ( ) + ( ) ] = 9.74 A
√2 √2 √2

If a direct current of 5 amp flowing of flowing in the circuit also, then the rms value
would have been

12 2 6 2 4 2
√[( ) + ( ) + ( ) + 52 ] = 10.93
√2 √2 √2

∴ For a complex wave --- the rms value of a complex current wave is equal to the
square root of the sine of the squares of the rms value of its individual components.

# Calculate the rms value, form factor & of a periodic voltage having the following
values for equal time intervals changing suddenly from one value to next – 0, 5, 10, 20,
50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, -10 -20 -50-20-10-5-0
02 +52 +102 +202 +502 +602 +502 +202 +102 +52
VRMS =
10

= √965 = 31𝑉
0+5+10+20+50+60+50+20+10+5
VAV = = 23𝑉
10
RMS value 31
FF = = = 1.35
Average value 23

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Average value:

The average value Ia of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current

which transforms across any circuit the same change as is transformed by that
alternating current during the same time.

Hence, in their case, the average value is obtained by adding or integrating the
instantaneous values of current over one half – cycle.

a) Mid – ordinate method

𝑖1+ 𝑖2+ 𝑖3+ 4…+𝑖𝑛
IAV =
𝑛

This method may be used for sinusoidal & non – sinusoidal waves.

b) Analytical method

The standard equation of an alternating current, I = Im sin𝜃

𝜋 𝑖𝑑𝜃 𝐼𝑚 𝜋
Iav = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 ∫ (𝜋−0) 𝜋 0∫
𝐼𝑚 𝜋 𝐼 2𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
[− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = 𝑚 [+1 − (−1)] = =
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋/2

Twice the maximum current

π
𝐼𝑚
Iav = = 0.637 𝐼𝑚
1/2𝜋

[RMS value is always given than average value except in the case of a rectangular wave
when both are equal]

Form factor:
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.707 𝐼𝑚
Kf = = = 1.1
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.637 𝐼𝑚

Crest or peak or Amplitude factor:

maximum value Im
It is defined as the ratio Ka = = =√2 = 1.414(for sinusoidal a.c.
rms value Im /√2

only)
Em
For sinusoidal alternating voltage also Ka = = 1.414
Em /√2

Knowledge of this factor is of importance in dielectric insulation testing, because the

dielectric stress to which the insulation is subjected, is proportional to the maximum or

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Lecture Notes BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

peak value of the applied voltage. The knowledge is also necessary when measuring
iron losses, because the iron loss depends on the value of maximum flux.

Single phase AC circuits:

In dc circuits, voltage applied & current flowing are constant w.r.t time & to the
solution to pure dc circuits can be analyzed simply by applying ohm`s law.

In ac circuits, voltage applied and currents flowing change from instant to instant.

If a single coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, the currents thus induces are
called single phase currents.

A.C. Through pure Ohmic resistance only:

The circuit is shown in Fig Let the applied voltage be given by the equation.
V = Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Let R = Ohmic resistance; I = instantaneous current.

Obviously, the applied voltage has to supply Ohmic voltage drop only. Hence for
equilibrium
V = iR (i)

𝑉𝑚
Putting the value of V from above, we get 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅; 𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ( ii)
𝑅

Current `i` is maximum when sin𝜔𝑡 is unity

∴ Im = Vm/R
Hence, equation (ii) becomes,
I = Im sin 𝜔𝑡
Comparing (i) And (ii), we find that the alternating voltage and current are in phase
with each other as shown in fig. It is also shown vectorially by vectors VR and I in fig

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𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power. Instantaneous power, P = Vi = - 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡
2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 of frequency
2 2

double that of voltage and current waves. For a complete cycle the average of
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 is zero

Hence, power for the whole cycle is

𝑽𝒎 𝑰 𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝟐
= =X
√𝟐 √𝟐

P = VI Watts
Where V = rms value of applied voltage.
I = rms value of the current.

It is seen from the fig that no part of the power cycle becomes negative at any
time. In other words, in a purely resistive circuit, power is never zero. This is so
because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are always either both positive
and negative and hence the product is always positive.

A.C. Through Pure Inductance Alone:

Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a back e.m.f.

is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. As there is no Ohmic voltage drop,
the applied voltage has to overcome this self – induced e.m.f. Only. So at every step

𝑑𝑖
V=L
𝑑𝑡

Now V = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 ∴ 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝑉𝑚
Integrating both sides we get, I = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

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𝑉𝑚
(− cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝐿

𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
(sin 𝜔𝑡 − ) = (sin 𝜔𝑡 − )
𝜔𝐿 2 𝑋𝐿 2

𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Max value of I is 𝐼𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿
when 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜋
Hence, the equation of the current becomes I = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

Clearly, the current lags behind the applied voltage by a quarter cycle (fig) or the
𝜋
phase deference between the two is with voltage leading. Vectors are shown in fig.
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
where voltage has been taken along the reference axis. We have seen that I m = = .
𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿

Here 𝜔𝐿 plays the part of `resistance`. It is called the (inductive) reactance X L of the
coil and is given in ohms if L is in Henry and 𝜔 is in radians/second.

Now, XL = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑙 𝑜ℎ𝑚. It is seen that XL depends directly on frequency of the

voltage Higher the value of f, greater the reactance offered and vice-versa.

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𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power: Instantaneous power = Vi = Vm Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − ) = − sin 2 𝜔𝑡
2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 2𝜋
Power for whole cycle is P = 2
∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0

It is also clear from fig that the average demand of power from the supply for a
complex cycle is zero. Here again it is seen that power wave is a sine wave of frequency
double that of the voltage and current waves. The maximum value of the instantaneous
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
power is 2

A.C. Through pure capacitance alone :

When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is

charged first in one direction and then in the opposite direction. When reference to fig.
V = p.d. developed between plates at any instant.
q = Charge on plates at that instant.
Then q = cv (where C is the capacitance)

= C Vm sin 𝜔𝑡. putting the value of v

Now, current I is given by the rate of flow of charge.

𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
∴i= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
(𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1/𝜔𝑐
cos 𝜔𝑡 = 1/𝜔𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Obviously,𝐼𝑚 = 1/𝜔𝑐
= 𝜔𝑐
∴ 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

The denominator Xc = 1/𝜔𝐶 is known as capacitive reactance and is in ohms if C

is in farad and 𝜔 in radian/second. It is seen that if the applied voltage is given by V =
𝜋
Vm sin 𝜔𝑡, then the current is given by I = I m sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ).

Hence we find that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter
𝜋
cycle as shown in fig. or phase difference between its voltage and current is with the
2

current leading. Vector representation is given in fig. Note that V c is taken along the
reference axis.

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Power Instantaneous power

P = Vm sin𝜔𝑡Im sin (𝜔𝑡 + 900 )

𝟏
= Vm Im sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 = V I sin2
𝟐 m m
𝜔𝑡

Power for the whole cycle

𝟏 2𝜋
= 𝟐 Vm Im ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0

This fact is graphically illustrated in fig. we find that in a purely capacitive circuit.
the average demand of power from supply is zero ( as in a purely inductive circuit).
Again, it is seen that power wave is a sine wave of frequency double that of the voltage
Vm I m
and current waves. The maximum value of the instantaneous power is 2
.

A.C. Through Resistance and inductance:

A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L are shown connected
in series in fig.

Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied Voltage, I = r.m.s. value of the resultant
current VR = IR – Voltage drop across R ( in phase with I), VL = I.XL – voltage drop
across coil (ahead of I by 900)

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These voltage drops are shown in voltage triangle OAB in fig. Vector OA represents
Ohmic drop VR and AB represents inductive drop VL. The applied V is the vector sum of
the two i.e. OB

𝑉
∴ V = √(𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 ) = √[(𝐼𝑅2 + (𝐼. 𝑋𝐿 )2 )] = 𝐼 √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 ,
2 2 2
=𝐼
√(𝑅)2 +𝑋𝐿 2

The quantity √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 , is known as the impedance (Z) of the circuit. As seen from the
impedance triangle ABC (fig,) Z2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
i.e (impedance)2 = (resistance)2 + (Reactance)2

From fig. it is clear that the applied voltage V leads the current I by an angle Ф such
that
𝑉𝐿 𝐼 .𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋𝐿
tanФ = = = = = ∴ ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑉𝑅 𝐼.𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅

The same fact is illustrated graphically in fig.

In other words, current I lags behind the applied voltage V by an angle ∅. Hence, if
applied voltage is given by v = Vm sin ωt, then current equation is
i = Im sin (ωt - ∅) where Im = Vm/Z

IIn fig. I has been resolved in to its two mutually perpendicular components, I cos
Ф along the applied voltage V and I sin Ф in quadrature (i.e. perpendicular) with V.

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The mean power consumed by the circuit is given by the product of V and that
component of the current I which is in phase with V
So P = V X I cos Ф = r.m.s. voltage X r.m.s. current X cos Ф
The term cos Ф is called the power factor of the circuit

Remember that in an a.c. circuit, the product of r.m.s. amperes gives volt
ampere (VA) and not true power in watts. True power (W) = volt amperes (VA) power
factor.
Or Watts = VA cos Ф0 Or

It should be noted that power consumed is due to Ohmic resistance only because
pure inductance does not consume any power.

Now P = VI cos Ф = VI X (R/Z) = V/Z X IR = I2R (∵ cos Ф = R/Z) or P = I2R watt.

Graphical representation of the power consumed is shown in fig.

Let us calculate power in terms of instantaneous values.

Instantaneous power is = vi = vm sin ωt X Im sin (ωt – Ф ) = Vm Im sin ωt sin (ωt – Ф )
1
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф − cos(2ωt – Ф )]

Obviously this consists of two parts

1
A constant part 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 of which contributes to real power

1
A pulsating component 2 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2ωt – Ф ) which has a frequency twice that of the

voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power since its average value over
a complete cycle is zero.

1 Vm I m
Hence, average power consumed 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф = . cosФ = VI cosФ where V and I
2 √2 √2

represent rms values.

Symbolic notation

Impedance vector has numerical value of

Its phase angle with the reference axis is

It may also be expressed in the polar form as

i) Assuming

It shows that current vector is lagging behind the voltage vector by

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The numerical value of current is

ii) However, If we assume that

It shows that voltage vector is a head of current vector is ccw direction as

shown in fig.

Power factor: it may be defined as

i) Cosine of the angle of lead or lag
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ii) The ratio R/Z =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
True power Watts W
iii) The ratio = = =
Apperent power Volt−amp VA

Active and reactive components of circuit current I :

Active component is that which is in phase with the applied voltage V i.e Icos Ф.
It is also known as ‘wattful’ component.

Reactive component is that which quadrature is with . it is also

known as ‘watt less’ or ‘idle’ component.

It should be noted that the product of volts and amperes in an a.c. circuit gives
voltamperes (VA). Out of this, the actual power is and reactive power is
expressing the values in KVA, we find that it has two regular components :

(1) Active component which is obtained by multiplying KVA by and this gives power
in KW.

(2) The reactive component known as reactive KVA and is obtained by multiplying
KVA by . It is written as KVAR(kilovar). The following relations can be
easily deduced.

These relationships can be easily understood by referring to the KVA triangle of

fig.13.10. where it should be noted that lagging KVAR has been taken as
negative.
For example, suppose a circuit draws a current of 1000A at a voltage of 20,000
V and has a power factor of 0.8. Then

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ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER

Let a series circuit draw a current of when an alternating voltage of r.m.s value V is
applied to it. suppose that current lags behind the applied voltage by Ф. The three
powers drawn by the circuit are as under:

i) Apparent power(s): It is given by the product of rms values of applied

Voltage and circuit current.
S = VI = (IZ).I = I2Z volt-amperes (VA)

ii) Active power (P or W): It is the power which is actually dissipated in the
circuit resistance. P = I2R = VI cos Ф watts

iii) Reactive power (Q) : It is t he power developed in the inductive reactance

of the circuit.
Q = I2XL = I2.Z sin Ф = I . (IZ).sin Ф = VI sin Ф volt-amp reactive (VAR)
These three powers are shown in the power triangle of fig. from where it can
be seen that
S2 = P2 + Q2 or √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 .

A.C. Through Resistance and capacitance:

This circuit is shown in fig. here VR = IR = drop across R in phase with I.

As capacitive reactance Xc is taken negative, Vc is shown along negative direction

if Y- axis in the voltage triangle

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The denominator is called the impedance of the circuit. So

Impedance triangle is shown in fig.
From fig. (b) it is found that I leads V by angle such that

Hence, it means that if the equation of the applied alternating voltage is v = V m

sinωt, the equation of the resultant current in the T-C circuit is I = Im sin (ωt + Ф ) so
that current leads the applied voltage by an angle . This fact is shown graphically in
fig.

Example: An A.C. voltage (80+j 600 volts is applied to a circuit and the current
flowing is (-4+j 10 ) amperes. Find (i) inpedance of the circuit (ii) power consumed and
(iii) phase angle.

Solution:

V=

Hence

(iii) Phase angle between voltage and current = 74.90 with current leading as shown.

Vardhaman College of Engineering 54 Department of EEE

Lecture Notes BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in series:

The three are shown in fig. (a) Joined in series across an a.c. supply of r.m.s.
voltage V

Let VR = IR = Voltage drop across R ---- in phase with I

VL = I.XL = Voltage drop across L ---- Leading I by

VC = IXC = = Voltage drop across C ---- Lagging I by

Then the term is known as the impedance of the circuit. Obviously,

(impedance) = (resistance) + (net reactance)2
2 2

Where X is the net reactance (fig)

Phase angel Ф is given by net reactance /resistance
Power factor is

Hence, it is seen that if the equation of the applied voltage is then

equation of the resulting current in an R-L-C circuit is given by

The positive sign is to be used when current lags i,e,

The negative sign is to be used when current lags i.e when
In general, the current lags or leads the supply voltage by an angle Ф such that

Using symbolic notation, we have

Numerical value of impedance

Its phase is

Vardhaman College of Engineering 55 Department of EEE