EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is a tremor of the Earths surface. It is usually triggered by the release of underground stress along fault lines. This release causes movement in masses of rock. It results in shock waves. In spite of extensive research and sophisticated equipment, it is not possible to predict an earthquake, although experts can estimate the likelihood of an earthquake occurring in a particular region.

In 1935, American seismologist CHARLES RICHTER developed a scale that measures the magnitude of seismic waves. This scale is called the Richter scale. It rates tremors on a scale from 1 to 9, with 9 being the most powerful. Each number represents an increase of ten times the energy over the previous number. According to this scale, any quake that is higher than 4.5 can cause damage to stone buildings. Quakes rated a magnitude of 7 and above are considered very severe.

Italian seismologist GIUSEPPE MERCALLI devised a scale to measure the severity of an earthquake in terms of its impact on a particular area and its inhabitants and buildings. This scale is less-known.

Some earthquakes are too small to be felt. But they can cause movement of the earth, opening up holes and displacing rocks. Shock waves from a very powerful earthquake can trigger smaller quakes hundreds of kilometres away from the epicenter.

Approximately 1,000 earthquakes measuring magnitude 5.0 and above on the Richter scale occur yearly. Earthquakes of the greatest intensity happen about once a year and major earthquakes (7.0-7.9) occur about 18 times a year. Strong earthquakes (6.0-6.9) occur about 10 times a month. Moderate earthquakes (5.0-5.9) happen more than twice daily. Most earthquakes are not even noticed by the general public, since they happen either under the ocean or in unpopulated areas. Sometimes an earthquake under the ocean can be so severe that it will cause a tsunami, responsible for far greater damage.

The greatest danger of an earthquake comes from falling buildings and structures and flying glass, stones and other objects.

Elastic Rebound Theory American seismologist Harry Fielding Reid in 1911 proposed the elastic rebound theory. It explained the generation of earthquakes that occur near the boundaries of different tectonic plates, and in tectonic areas. According to this theory, During an earthquake, the rocks under strain suddenly break creating a fracture along a fault. When a fault slips, movement in crustal rock causes vibrations. The slip changes the local strain out into the surrounding rock. The change in strain leads to aftershocks. Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that occur after the initial earthquake. Aftershocks are produced by further slips of the main fault or adjacent faults in the strained region. The slip begins at the focus and travels along the plane of the fault. It radiates waves along the rupture surface. On each side of the fault, the rock shifts in opposite directions. The fault rupture travels in irregular steps along the fault. These sudden stops and starts of the moving rupture give rise to the vibrations that propagate as seismic waves.

Typical Moment Magnitude Maximum Modified Mercalli Intensity 1.0 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.9 4.0 - 4.9 5.0 - 5.9 6.0 - 6.9 7.0+ I II - III IV - V VI - VII VII - IX VIII or higher

Generally not felt by I. Instrumental people unless in favorable conditions. Felt only by a few people at best, especially on the II. Weak upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing. Felt quite noticeably by people indoors, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Many III. Slight do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated. Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few IV. Moderate people during the day. At night, some awaken. Dishes, windows, doors

disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rock noticeably. Dishes and windows rattle alarmingly. Felt outside by most, may not be felt by some outside in non-favorable V. Rather Strong conditions. Dishes and windows may break and large bells will ring. Vibrations like large train passing close to house. Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors, walk VI. Strong unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken; books fall off shelves; some heavy furniture moved or

overturned; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight. Difficult to stand; furniture broken; damage negligible in building of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built VII. Very Strong ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed by people driving motor cars. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable VIII. Destructive in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory

stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture moved. General panic; damage considerable in specially designed structures, well designed frame IX. Violent structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Some well built wooden structures destroyed; X. Intense most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundation. Rails bent. Few, if any masonry XI. Extreme structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent

greatly. Total destruction Everything is destroyed. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves XII. Cataclysmic or ripples. Large amounts of rock move position. Landscape altered, or leveled by several meters. In some cases, even the routes of rivers are changed.