Evaluation of the stiffness modulus of lightly stabilized granular materials materials from model pavement tank test under

dynamic loading
D.K. Paul & C.T. Gnanendran
School of Engineering & Information Technology, UNSW@ADFA, Australia

ABSTRACT: Use of an accelerated pavement testing (APT) facility has become one of the most popular methods around the world for testing the performance of various types of pavement materials and for determining their characteristics. In the current study using an APT facility, the model pavement structure was simulated in a steel tank of dimension 1.1 m x 1.0 m x 0.6 m. Then a sinusoidal type axial loading (at 3 Hz) was applied on the model pavement structure consisting of layers of granular base material stabilized lightly with cement-flyash overlying compacted subgrade. The consequent tensile strains induced at the bottom and middle of the stabilized base layer and the vertical deformations at various depths of the pavement structure were measured. The model test pavement was analyzed by using dynamic finite difference computer program, FLAC3D, and the stiffness moduli of the two layers used in the APT test were backcalculated. Keywords: Accelerated pavement testing; characterization; Dynamic Finite Difference Analysis; Back-analysis

1. INTRODUCTION Cementitious stabilization has been used as an effective and economic option for the construction and rehabilitation of roads all over the world for the past few decades. Modification of granular materials by using small amount of cementitious binders could be a low cost rehabilitation method that is practically useful for constructing road pavements over expansive and/or weak subgrades and sub-base materials. A lightly stabilized pavement base offers stiffer, more uniform and more water resistant base layer than an unstabilized base and also provides an excellent support for the asphalt layer. Moreover this type of base is less susceptible to shrinkage cracking unlike heavily stabilized layer, which is considered as one of the main disadvantages of stabilization. There are several in-situ testing methods to characterize the pavement materials. California bearing ratio (CBR) testing is one of the oldest and most widely used technique but it only measures the shear strength of the materials and does not necessarily correlate with the stiffness modulus (e.g. Sukumaran et al 2000). On the other hand falling weight deflectometer (FWD) is another type of apparatus used to evaluate the behaviour of the pavement layer in the actual field to a closely simulated traffic condition. However this has also certain limitations and an alternative approach for investigating the behaviour of pavement materials is through accelerated model pavement testing with a loading system which could simulate the traffic loading on pavements reasonably well. On the other hand, back calculation is one of the most popular techniques to evaluate the pavement structure using deflection basins. In this technique, measured surface deflections are attempted to be matched with calculated surface deflections generated from an identical pavement structure using assumed layer stiffness moduli. The assumed layer moduli in the calculated model are adjusted until they produce a surface deflection that closely matches the measured one. The combination of assumed layer stiffnesses that results in this match is then assumed to be the actual in situ moduli for the various pavement layers. Most of such back-calculation computer programs are based on static

assumption, which use only the peak value of the materials responses. However, back-calculation using the dynamic analysis is more appropriate than static back-calculation since it considers dynamic effects of a road pavement and it is the focus of this paper. In this research, an accelerated model pavement tank testing was used to characterize the pavement materials subjected to cyclic loading. The displacements at various key points of interest were monitored with the help of strain gauges and LVDTs. Then the model tank test were analyzed numerically by utilizing dynamic finite difference commercial software FLAC3D to back calculate the stiffness properties of the materials used in the model pavement. The details of the testing conditions, materials used, innovative instrumentation, dynamic numerical analysis and the back-calculation results obtained are presented in this paper.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME In this experimental investigation, a modified base layer of 150 mm compacted thickness was constructed over a 330 mm compacted remoulded clay subgrade. The details of the materials and binder used, preparation and curing of subgrade and modified base layer and sophisticated testing setup employed to measure the pavement response are discussed below. 2.1. Materials 2.1.1. Subgrade materials The subgrade material was derived from Queensland in Australia, known as Queensland black clay. This clay is expansive in nature and it was used as the natural subgrade material layer below the modified granular base layer in the pavement model testing. Fig. 2.1 displays the grading curve of the black clay which had the maximum particle size of 9.5 mm. The Atterberg limits determined on the material passing through Number 325 sieve (425 m) according to the AS 1289 (method 3.9.1 (2002), 3.3.1 (1995), and 3.4.1 (1995)) were: liquid limit (LL) = 93.4%, plasticity index (PI) = 56.4% and linear shrinkage (LS) = 24.4%. The values of maximum dry density (MDD), optimum moisture content (OMC) and California bearing ratio (CBR) of the clay materials are shown in Table 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Particle size distributions (PSD) of subgrade and parent granular base materials

2.1.2. Base course materials For this study, Queensland road (granular) material (QRM) was used as the parent base material. QRM is basically a quarried aggregate extracted from Wagners Wellcamp Quarry situated in Queensland, Australia. This was classified as well-graded sandy gravel with some fines according to the Unified Soil Classification System and satisfied the grading ranges guidelines for type 1 gradation C road base materials according to ASTM D 1241-00 (2005). The details of the particle size distribution are shown in Fig. 1. However, the maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) of the parent material were also determined in this study using ASTM D 698-91 (2007) which is revealed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Physical properties of the materials used in the model pavement Materials Type Subgrade Queensland road materials MDD (kg/m3) 1330 2270 OMC (%) 33.5 8.6 Lab Soaked CBR (sample 1.5 44 prepared at OMC and MDD)

2.1.3. Binder The stabilizers chosen for this experimental investigation were general blend (GB) cement and fly ash. The GB cement and fly ash were used in the ratio of 75% to 25% by dry weight. The granular base road materials were stabilized with 1.5% GB cement fly ash to produce lightly modified base layer for this experimental study. 2.2. Model Pavement Testing Setup The model testing arrangement used in this investigation to characterize the lightly stabilized granular base material placed over the subgrade is shown in Fig. 2.2. Also shown in this figure are the different types of instruments used for monitoring the vertical deformation at different locations and horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the modified base layer. Then, the pavement materials were characterized by numerical modeling (or back-analysis) using the test data derived at different locations of the test tank.

Figure 2.2. Schematic diagram of the model pavement structure and details of instrumentation (from Gnanendran et al 2010)

Initially the black clay material, with water content at its OMC, was placed and compacted in layers at the bottom of the test tank to prepare the subgrade material. Then the granular base material with a small percentage of binder content (i.e. 1.5%) and moisture at OMC was spread over the top of the compacted subgrade (degree of compaction 100%). The base material was compacted using a vibratory compactor in such a way to yield approximately 96% dry density ratio. This was achieved by marking the required compacted thickness on the inside wall of the test Tank using a marker and then placing the calculated mass of the material in the tank evenly and compacting it to the marked level. Then the modified layer were left for 7 days curing by wetting the top surface using saturated hessian. Special settlement-plate type vertical deformation (or strain) measurement devices were embedded while constructing the model pavement structure to determine the stiffness modulus of the base

materials which were also used for evaluating the permanent deformation characteristics. Vertical deformation measurement setups were embedded at two places; one at the bottom and other at the middle of the base layer. A simple settlement-plate type mechanical system made of plastic was utilized in conjunction with an LVDT mounted on the tip of the rod was used to measure the in-depth and surface vertical deformation. This setup consisted of a 3 mm diameter steel rod incased in a copper protection tube to allow free movement of the rod with respect to the deformation at the bottom plate was the monitoring point of interest in the pavement structure, of required height with a big (50 mm diameter) and a small (30 mm) circular plastic disks attached at each end by nuts and washers. The bigger disk was buried in the soil whereas the smaller disk was always just outside the pavement structure, on a top of which the LVDT was mounted vertically. The details of the vertical measurement arrangement are shown in the Fig 2.3.

Figure 2.3. Vertical deformation measuring arrangement (Gnanendran et al 2010)

Figure 2.4. Strain gauges for measuring horizontal tensile strain

The horizontal strain at 75 and 150 mm depth were also measured to have a better understanding of the behavior characteristics of lightly stabilized granular materials in this study. It is noted that the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of stabilized material is one of the most important factors for evaluating its fatigue life. To measure the horizontal strain, the material was instrumented with two KM-50F embedment strain gauges manufactured by Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo Co. Ltd. (Fig. 2.4) at each point of interest.

Details of the instrumentation arrangement adopted for the model pavement structure testing are summarized in Figs. 2.5 and 2.6. Plan view of the instrumentation arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.5 and the view of the instrumentation and the LVDT arrangements used is shown in Fig. 2.6.

Figure 2.5. Schematic of instrumentation layout Plan view

Figure 2.6. Photographic view of the instrumentation and the LVDTs

To simulate the traffic loading on the pavement structure, sinusoidal stress pulse of 1500 kPa at 3 Hz was applied to the loading plate of diameter 110 mm through a servo control actuator assembly (see Gnanendran et al 2010 for further details of the control and data acquisition system). Vertical deformation at the surface was monitored with two LVDTs mounted on the loading plate and the settlement at 75 mm depth and 150 mm depth were monitored using purpose-made settlement plate system by monitoring the tip of the rod with an LVDT (see Figs. 2.2 and 2.5). The horizontal strain at 75 mm and 150 mm depths were monitored with special strain gauges (see Figs. 2.2 and 2.4).

3. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MODEL PAVEMENT TESTING The computer program FLAC3D, developed by Itasca consulting group, based on finite difference algorithms for stress analysis of three dimensional (3D) geotechnical problems was used. In this study, dynamic finite difference analysis (FDA) was carried out to simulate model pavement test and the stiffness properties were back calculated by comparing the deformation responses captured at different locations of the model pavement. The details of the numerical analysis are described below. In this proposed numerical study, a FDA 3D model was developed to analyse the APT tests. Only the

quarter of the test tank had been modelled, as demonstrated by Fig 3.1, because of symmetry in both the directions. Radial gridded cylindrical-shaped mesh was adopted to better represent the stress distribution from the loading plate. The system of coordinate axes was selected in which the x and y axes were in the plane of the models base and the z axis was pointing upward along the edge of the mesh passing through the centre of the loading plate. Moreover, a disk segment of radius 55 mm was used to represent the loading plate. The dimensions of the domain were 550 mm length in the x direction, 500 mm wide in the y direction and 480 mm high in the z direction. The boundary conditions of zero displacement were applied in the x direction at x = 0, in the y direction at y = 0 and in all the x, y and z directions at x = 550 mm, y = 500 mm and z = 0 mm.

Figure 3.1. FDA grid of the model pavement

The model pavement structure consisted of two materials; one was subgrade and the other was stabilized base exactly as in the experimental setup of the accelerated model pavement tank testing. However, a lightly stabilized granular material is neither a fully bound material nor completely unbound granular. It is somewhat in between cemented (concrete-like) bound and unbound granular materials and its performance is complicated and unknown (Paul et al. 2010). Various researchers (e.g. Beer et al. 1989; Reddy et al. 2004) modelled the layers assuming them as elastic in nature. In this study, the subgrade layer as well as base layer was assumed to be elastic materials. In addition to these two layers, a FLAC 3D interface element was introduced to model the interaction between the two materials that allows slip between the subgrade and base layer. The input parameters for black clay and modified base in the elastic model were density, stiffness modulus and Poissons ratio. Among them, the densities were determined from the laboratory physical properties tests. On the other hand Poissons ratio for subgrade and base layer were assumed to be 0.3 and 0.2 (according to AUSTROADS 2004; Gnanendran and Piratheepan 2009) respectively. Whereas the values of stiffness modulus the base layer as well as the modulus, cohesion and internal frictional angle of subgrade layer were the input on trial and error basis to fit the experimental load-deformationtime response. Through this process, elastic properties of base layer and the stiffness properties and strength parameters of subgrade layers were back calculated from the dynamic analysis for the best fit of the experimental load - deformation data.

4. BACKCALCULATED RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fig. 4.1 shows numerical applied vertical stress at the loading plate for a typical complete cycle (10000th cycle). The consequent corresponding vertical deformation is plotted in Figure 4.2 in conjunction with the experimental vertical deformation monitored using the LVDT mounted on the

loading plate. From this comparison of the deformation plot, it could be seen that the dynamic FDA analysis predicted the load-deformation-time response quite accurately with little scatter.

1600

Experimental Dynamic FDA

Applied vertical pressure in KPa

1200

800

400

0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Time in seconds

Figure 4.1. Variation of applied vertical compressive stress

300

Vertical deformation of the oading plate in micron

Experimental Dynamic FDA

200

100

0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Time in seconds

Figure 4.2. Variation of the vertical deformation of the loading plate

In this analysis the magnitude of deformation at the bottom of base layer was also calculated to compare the numerical simulation of the experimental deflection basin. The peak deformation at cycle 10000 at bottom of base was found to be 183 m from the dynamic analysis, which is pretty close to 192 m, obtained in experimental programme. Therefore, it was possible to obtain a reasonably good prediction of the deformation response by the adoption of the isotropic elastic model. As indicated earlier, the corresponding stiffness moduli of the two materials were back-calculated from the numerical analysis. The stiffness modulus of the base layer and subgrade layer were determined as 4210 MPa and 48 MPa respectively from back-analysis. It may be noted that AUSTROADS (2004) suggest the estimation of stiffness modulus from the corresponding UCS value of the stabilised material by multiplying the UCS by 1000-1250. 7 days UCS strength was determined as 1.69 MPa from the same mix while constructing the base layer for the pavement model test. So, the modulus calculated adopting this approach would be 1770-2110 MPa which is much lower than the backcalculated modulus of the modified base layer (i.e. only about 50% of the 4210 MPa determined from this numerical investigation). Design of pavement based on such empirical correlations might be very conservative and uneconomical. Therefore the back-calculation using the data obtained from the model pavement tank testing can provide reliable and practical values of stiffness which is very important in pavement engineering.

5. CONCLUSION To properly characterize pavement materials, dynamic finite difference numerical analyses were carried out to simulate the laboratory model pavement testing. In particular, vertical applied stress and the vertical deformation responses of the whole pavement structure obtained from model testing were used to back calculate the stiffness modulus of both the lightly stabilized granular material and the clay subgrade material under cyclic (or dynamic) loading condition. The conclusions derived from this study are as follows: An excellent match between the load-deformation-time experimental data and the corresponding numerical analysis results were obtained. The stiffness modulus for the two pavement layers were backcalculated from numerical analysis of the model pavement tank test. The back-calculated stiffness modulus of the base layer was found to be double that obtained from the conventional empirical relationship with UCS. This depicts that engineer assumes low stiffness in the field and it could lead to uneconomical and overly conservative design of pavements.
AKCNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to thank Mr. David Sharp and Mr. Jim Baxter for their technical assistance during the experimental work reported in this paper. The authors also acknowledge the Queensland Department of Main Roads, Herston, QLD for providing the QRM material used in this research. REFERENCES AASHTO. (1993). Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, AASHTO, Washington, D.C. AS-1289.3.3.1. (1995). Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes, Method 3.3.1: Soil classification tests Determination of the plasticity index of a soil. Standards Australia. AS-1289.3.4.1. (1995). Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes, Method 3.4.1: Soil classification tests Determination of the linear shrinkage of a soil. Standards Australia. AS-1289.3.9.1. (2002). Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes, Method 3.9.1: Soil classification tests Determination of the cone liquid limit of a soil. Standards Australia. ASTM D 698. (2007). Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN.m/m3)). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM International, Conshohocken, PA, USA. ASTM D 1241-00. (2005). Specification for materials for soil-aggregate subbase, base and surface courses. ASTM International, Conshohocken, PA, USA. AUSTROADS. (2004). Guide to Structural Design of Road Pavements. AUSTROADS, Sydney, AUSTRALIA. Beer, M.D., Horak, E. and Visser, A.T. (1989). The Multidepth Depth Deflectometer (MDD) System For Determining The Effective Elastic Moduli of Pavement Layers. First International Symposium on nondestructive Testing of Pavements and Backcalculation of Moduli. ASTM STP 1026, A.J. Bush III and G.Y. Baladi, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 70 - 89. Gnanendran, C.T. and Piratheepan, J. (2009). Indirect Diametrical Tensile Testing with Internal Displacement Measurement and Stiffness Determination. Geotechnical Testing Journal ASTM, 32:1, 45-54. Gnanendran, C.T., Piratheepan, J. and Ramanujam, J. (2010 in the press). Cyclic Load Testing Facility for Pavement Model Testing. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Physical Modelling in Geotechnics 2010 (ICPMG 2010) to be held from 28 June 2010 to 1 July 2010 in Zurich, Switzerland. Paul, D.K., Gnanendran, C.T. and Jegatheesan, P. (2010- in the press). Determination of Stiffness Properties of Lightly Stabilised Granular Materials from IDT Testing using numerical analysis. Proceedings of 17th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference to be held from 10 May to 13 May 2010 in Taiwan, China. Powell, W.D., Potter, J.F., Mayhew, H.C. and Nunn, M.E. (1984). The structural design of bituminous roads. Report LR1132. Transport and Road Research Laboratory Reddy, M.A., Reddy, K.S. and Pandey, B.B. (2004). Selection of Genetic Algorithm Parameters for Backcalculation of Pavement Moduli. International Journal of Pavement Engineering 5:2, 81-90. Sukumaran, B., Kyatham, V., Shah, A. and Sheth, D. (2000). Suitability of Using California Bearing Ratio Test to Predict Resilient Modulus. FAA Technology Transfer Conference.