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Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study

Language is a fundamental tool of human interaction that serves various purposes in

communication. It is the medium through which individuals articulate their thoughts,

emotions, and intentions. Language enables the sharing of information, the expression of

ideas, and the performance of numerous functions in society. In its many forms: spoken,

written, or signed – language reflects the realities of its speakers and shapes social

behaviours, relationships, and structures. This dual function of language highlights its

complexity; it acts not only as a vehicle for communication but also as a mechanism for

social construction and negotiation.

Language is inherently dynamic and constantly evolving. Its meanings and uses can

change over time, influenced by cultural shifts, technological advancements, and social

interactions. This fluidity allows language to adapt to new contexts and to express

contemporary realities. For example, the rise of digital communication has introduced new

lexicons, such as slang and abbreviations, that reflect the fast-paced nature of modern

interactions. Language also serves as a tool for identity formation, with individuals often

choosing specific dialects, registers, or even languages to align themselves with particular

social groups or cultural identities.

The architecture of language is intricate, encompassing several components that work

together to facilitate communication. At the phonetic level, language begins with the basic

sounds that make up speech. Phonetics and phonology concern themselves with the sounds

and patterns of language, focusing on how sounds are produced, perceived, and organised in
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particular languages. This includes the study of phonemes; the smallest units of sound that

can change meaning – and how these sounds interact in spoken language. Understanding

phonetics is essential for grasping how words are articulated and how variations in

pronunciation can convey different meanings or social identities.

Morphology is the next layer of language, examining the structure of words and their

meaningful components. It involves the analysis of morphemes, which are the smallest units

of meaning, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Morphological rules dictate how

words are formed and modified to convey different grammatical meanings, including tense,

number, and aspect. This component is particularly important in languages with rich

inflectional systems, where the meaning of a word can shift dramatically based on its

morphological structure.

Moving beyond individual words, syntax deals with how these words combine into

phrases and sentences. Syntax governs the rules that dictate word order and sentence

structure, enabling speakers to construct coherent and meaningful expressions. The syntax of

a language determines how subjects, verbs, objects, and other elements are arranged, shaping

not only the clarity of communication but also the nuances of meaning. For instance, the

difference between “The cat chased the dog” and “The dog chased the cat” illustrates how

syntactic arrangements can lead to entirely different interpretations of an event.

At the semantic level, language focuses on the meanings of utterances and the

relationships between words. Semantics encompasses various aspects of meaning, including

literal meanings (denotations), implied meanings (connotations), and the contextual factors

that influence interpretation. The study of semantics allows for an exploration of how

language can express abstract concepts, emotions, and complex ideas. For example, idiomatic

expressions, metaphors, and figurative language add layers of meaning that go beyond the
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literal interpretation of words, revealing the richness and creativity inherent in human

language.

Furthermore, language serves not only as a means of conveying information but also

as a crucial factor in shaping identity and social dynamics. The way individuals use language

—such as their choice of dialect, accent, or register; can signal their social status, cultural

background, and personal identity. In multilingual societies, the ability to switch between

languages or dialects, known as code-switching, allows speakers to navigate different social

contexts and establish their identity within various groups. This adaptability reflects the

social function of language as a tool for inclusion or exclusion, as well as a means of

negotiating power dynamics.

This intricate understanding of language paves the way for the exploration of

pragmatics, the study of how context influences meaning in communication. Pragmatics

examines language in use, focusing on how speakers employ language to achieve

communicative goals and how listeners interpret utterances based on context, background

knowledge, and inferred meanings. While traditional linguistic studies primarily concentrate

on the structural aspects of language—such as syntax, morphology, and phonology—

pragmatics emphasises the performative and interactional nature of language. The pragmatic

approach allows researchers to delve into the dynamics of meaning beyond the sentence

level, especially in interactive settings such as conversations, debates, drama, and other social

engagements. Pragmatics involves several key concepts that are crucial for understanding

how language functions in social contexts. One fundamental principle is that meaning is not

fixed; rather, it is shaped by the interplay between linguistic form, speaker intention,

contextual cues, and shared assumptions. For example, the same utterance can carry different

meanings depending on the context in which it is used. The phrase “It’s cold in here” could
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serve as a simple statement about temperature or function as an indirect request for someone

to close a window, depending on the speaker’s tone and the surrounding circumstances. This

variability in interpretation underscores the need for a pragmatic analysis of language, as it

highlights the importance of context in shaping meaning.

A central concept in pragmatics is the notion of face, which was introduced by

sociologist Erving Goffman and later adapted by linguists such as Brown and Levinson.

Goffman (1967) defines "face" as the positive social value a person claims for themselves

during social interactions. This definition encapsulates the idea that every individual has a

public self-image, which they strive to maintain and enhance through their interactions with

others. The concept of face can be understood as a combination of two dimensions: positive

face and negative face. Positive face refers to the desire to be liked, accepted, and approved

of by others, while negative face pertains to the desire to be autonomous and free from

imposition. Both dimensions are crucial in shaping the dynamics of communication, as they

dictate how individuals perceive their social interactions and how they respond to the actions

and utterances of others.

The management of face is essential in communication and influences how

individuals interact and negotiate their identities within various social contexts. In any

interaction, speakers are constantly aware of the face needs of both themselves and their

interlocutors. This awareness drives them to employ various strategies to uphold face and

avoid face threats. For example, in a conversation where one person is giving constructive

criticism, the speaker must carefully navigate their language to ensure that the listener's

positive face is not undermined. This may involve framing the criticism in a way that

acknowledges the listener’s contributions, thereby softening the impact of the critique.
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Face also plays a critical role in maintaining social harmony. In many cultures,

particularly those that value collectivism and community, face is closely tied to social

identity. Individuals strive to act in ways that uphold not only their own face but also the face

of others. This is evident in the use of honourifics, indirect speech, and polite forms of

address that are prevalent in various languages and cultural practices. Such strategies reflect a

deep-seated cultural understanding that respect for one’s interlocutor is paramount,

particularly in formal or hierarchical contexts.

Moreover, the concept of face is particularly relevant in the analysis of power

dynamics within social interactions. In relationships characterised by inequality; such as

those between authority figures and subordinates, or between men and women; managing

face becomes even more critical. The use of language in these contexts is often laden with

implications of power and status, and speakers must navigate these complexities carefully to

avoid threatening the face of others. In such situations, the potential for face-threatening acts

increases, necessitating the deployment of politeness strategies to mitigate the impact of those

threats.

In the context of dramatic literature, the concept of face becomes even more

significant. Characters often engage in dialogue that is not only functional but also deeply

strategic, as they negotiate their social identities and relationships through language. The

choices they make in their interactions—whether to confront, accommodate, or evade—are

reflective of their understanding of face and its management. For instance, in a dramatic

conflict where two characters have opposing interests, the way they articulate their arguments

can either reinforce or undermine their own face and that of their interlocutor. This dynamic

allows playwrights to explore themes of power, resistance, and social cohesion, as characters

navigate their roles within the societal framework.

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Interactions that threaten the face of either the speaker or the hearer are termed face-

threatening acts (FTAs). FTAs represent a critical concept in the study of pragmatics, as they

encapsulate the ways in which language can jeopardise the social identities of individuals

engaged in communication. These acts can manifest in various forms, including direct

commands, criticisms, refusals, insults, or any utterance that challenges the listener’s self-

esteem, autonomy, or social identity. The occurrence of FTAs can create tension within an

interaction, necessitating a careful navigation of language to mitigate potential negative

consequences.

For instance, when a speaker tells another person that they did a poor job, they

threaten the recipient’s positive face. Positive face relates to an individual’s desire to be liked,

valued, and accepted by others; thus, a statement that undermines someone’s performance

can diminish their self-worth and social standing. Such criticisms not only affect the

emotional state of the hearer but can also lead to defensive reactions, potentially escalating

conflict within the interaction. Therefore, speakers must be acutely aware of the impact their

words may have on the face of others, particularly in hierarchical or sensitive contexts.

Similarly, requests or commands can threaten the negative face of the listener. Negative face

pertains to an individual’s desire for autonomy and freedom from imposition; thus, a request

perceived as demanding infringes upon this autonomy. For example, when a manager insists

that an employee complete a task immediately, it can evoke resistance or resentment, as the

employee may feel their personal agency is being compromised. In this context, the act of

making a request becomes fraught with implications about power dynamics and the

relationship between the individuals involved.

The potential for FTAs to disrupt social harmony prompts speakers to employ a

variety of politeness strategies to mitigate their impact. These strategies are vital for
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preserving face and maintaining the equilibrium of interpersonal relationships. Politeness

strategies can be categorised into several types, as outlined by Brown and Levinson,

including positive politeness, negative politeness, off-record strategies, and bald on-record

strategies. These strategies include positive politeness, which appeals to the hearer’s desire

for approval, and negative politeness, which recognises the hearer’s desire not to be imposed

upon. Additionally, off-record strategies allow speakers to be indirect and leave room for

interpretation, while bald on-record strategies involve direct and unambiguous

communication. Each of these strategies serves as a mechanism for preserving face and

ensuring that interactions remain respectful and harmonious.

The analysis of politeness strategies will be particularly relevant in the context of

dramatic literature, especially in Nigerian plays where cultural norms, social hierarchies, and

political tensions are prominently featured. In such works, the use of language transcends

mere expression; it becomes a powerful tool for persuasion, resistance, manipulation, or

negotiation. Characters navigate complex power dynamics that are often mediated through

their linguistic choices, reflecting their social positioning and communicative competence.

This study will focus on selected Nigerian plays – specifically Wole Soyinka’s Death and the

King’s Horseman, Ahmed Yerima’s Heart of Stone, J.P. Clark’s Wives’ Revolt, and Tess

Onwueme’s Tell it to Women.

Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman is a compelling play by Nigerian

Nobel laureate Wole Soyinka, set in Oyo, Nigeria, during World War II. The narrative

revolves around Elesin Oba, the king’s horseman, who is tasked with committing ritual

suicide following the death of the Yoruba king to ensure the king’s spirit reaches the afterlife.

However, the British colonial authorities intervene, believing they are saving the local

population from what they perceive as barbaric customs. This act of interference brings to
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light the cultural tensions between British and Yoruba traditions. As the story unfolds, it

becomes evident that Elesin, despite being a robust and lively man, grapples with the reality

of fulfilling his duty, leading to a profound exploration of mortality, duty, and cultural

identity. The play’s rich thematic depth and its portrayal of the clash between colonialism and

traditional practices highlight the struggles of individuals caught between two worlds.

Ahmed Yerima’s Heart of Stone presents a gripping exploration of despair and

societal pressures through the character of Musa, who is haunted by his dark thoughts and

contemplating suicide. Musa’s "heart of stone" reflects his emotional numbness, as he

navigates a life filled with familial expectations and personal turmoil. The narrative unfolds

during a significant gathering of family and friends, where Musa's thoughts of escape become

increasingly urgent, particularly in the absence of his grandmother Kaka Patu and fiancée

Amina. As Musa’s internal struggles come to the forefront, he is confronted by the harsh

realities of life and the consequences of societal interpretations of scripture. Yerima’s work

sheds light on the complexities of human emotions and the darkness that can arise from

misinterpretation, ultimately leading to Musa’s tragic fate and revealing the depth of the

human heart amid existential struggles.

Tessa Onwueme’s Tell It to Women is set in a postcolonial African village and

explores the tension between traditional lifestyles and modern influences. The play centers on

the efforts of three women: Yemoja, Daisy, and Ruth; who lead a movement advocating for

women's rights and empowerment in a patriarchal society. The narrative highlights the

conflict between these women and the male figures in their lives, particularly Yemoja’s father

and husband, as they seek to challenge and redefine their roles within the community. The

movement, aimed at elevating the status of women, creates strife and tension, particularly as

Daisy often finds herself in conflict with her husband.

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J.P. Clark’s Wives’ Revolt is a poignant exploration of gender dynamics and social

justice set in the Erhuwaren community. The play centers on the discontent of the women

after an unfair distribution of funds from an oil company, which allocates the majority to the

men and elders while neglecting the women. In protest, Koko and the other married women

abandon their domestic responsibilities, prompting a significant upheaval in traditional

gender roles. As the men struggle to manage household duties, they respond with an absurd

ban on goats, which are vital to the women’s livelihoods, reflecting the underlying misogyny

in their society. The narrative highlights the strength and solidarity of the women as they

assert their rights, ultimately leading to their bold journey to Eyara, where they confront

societal oppression. The climax occurs when Koko returns to confront her husband Okoro,

revealing the harsh realities faced by the women during their protest. This moment catalyzes

a change in perspective for Okoro, who begins to appreciate the women’s struggle for

equality. The play concludes with a resolution that sees reconciliation between the genders,

as the men acknowledge their injustices and lift oppressive laws against the women.

These plays are particularly significant as they originate from different geopolitical

zones within Nigeria, providing diverse representations of the country’s cultural landscape.

Each play addresses critical social issues and themes, offering a fertile ground for exploring

the interplay of language, face, and politeness strategies within specific cultural contexts. By

examining the speech interactions in these selected plays, this study will shed light on how

dramatic dialogue not only advances plot and character development but also reflects broader

societal norms regarding face, politeness, and the management of interpersonal relationships.

Through this analysis, the research will contribute to a deeper understanding of how

pragmatic theories can be applied to literary texts, thereby bridging the gap between linguistic

theory and literary discourse.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Many people perceive language merely as a vehicle for communication and

interaction, often overlooking its potential to inflict harm when used inappropriately. The

subtleties of language, particularly in a culturally rich context like Nigeria, reveal that the

way we speak can significantly impact relationships and social dynamics. Inappropriate and

impolite use of language has led to misunderstandings and conflicts that mar good

relationships, as speakers often prioritize grammatical correctness over the potential

discomfort or offense their words may cause.

In Nigerian plays, characters often find themselves as victims of impolite and

inappropriate language use, which serves as a reflection of broader societal issues. However,

these characters also employ various politeness strategies to mitigate the harm caused by

face-threatening acts, showcasing the importance of tact and sensitivity in communication.

This interplay between impoliteness and the strategic use of politeness highlights a critical

need for individuals to recognize the consequences of their language choices in everyday

interactions. The challenge extends beyond the realm of theatre; it resonates with the broader

society, where many individuals remain unaware of the impact of their communicative

practices. In a world that increasingly values directness and assertiveness, the subtleties of

politeness and the avoidance of face-threatening acts are often neglected. This oversight can

lead to strained relationships, conflict, and a breakdown in effective communication.

Therefore, this study will explore the dynamics of face-threatening acts and politeness

strategies within selected Nigerian plays, with the objective of fostering greater awareness

and understanding among individuals regarding their language use. By analyzing how these

playwrights navigate the complexities of interpersonal communication, this research will

provide valuable insights that can inspire individuals to adopt more constructive and
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considerate language practices in their interactions, ultimately promoting healthier

relationships and social harmony.

1.3 Purpose of the Study/ Objectives

The purpose of the study will be to explore face-threatening acts and politeness

strategies among characters in selected Nigerian plays. The study will have the following

objectives:

1. to examine the use of face-threatening acts in selected Nigerian plays.

2. to investigate the politeness strategies employed by characters.

3. to analyze the relationship between language use and character dynamics.

4. to explore the implications of face-threatening acts and politeness strategies for real-life

communication.

5. to contribute to the existing literature on pragmatics and Nigerian theatre.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study will be significant in several ways. It will contribute meaningfully to the

field of pragmatics by providing a deeper understanding of how face-threatening acts and

politeness strategies operate within Nigerian drama. Through a critical exploration of selected

plays, it will shed light on the pragmatic dimensions of character interaction, which are often

overlooked in literary analysis. This insight will enrich the academic discourse surrounding

language use in literature and offer new perspectives for interpreting dramatic texts.
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Students and scholars of English and Literary Studies will find this study particularly

useful, as it will serve as a reference point for understanding how language functions beyond

grammatical correctness, focusing instead on its social and relational impact. It will also

provide a model for applying pragmatic theories such as face and politeness strategies to

literary texts, thereby bridging the gap between linguistic theory and literary analysis.

Furthermore, the study will be of value to playwrights and creative writers, as it will

demonstrate how language can be deliberately crafted to reflect conflict, power dynamics,

and social harmony within dramatic narratives. It will show how characters use language not

only to express themselves but also to negotiate their identities, assert authority, resist

dominance, and maintain social relationships. This understanding will guide writers in

creating more realistic and psychologically complex characters.

The study will also benefit educators and language instructors by offering them rich,

context-based materials that can be used to teach pragmatic competence and communicative

appropriateness. It will reinforce the need to teach students not just what to say, but how,

when, and to whom to say it in ways that are culturally and socially appropriate.

Moreover, theatre practitioners – especially directors and actors; will gain fresh

insights into the interpretation of dramatic dialogue. By understanding the layers of meaning

behind face-threatening acts and politeness strategies, they will be better equipped to deliver

authentic performances that resonate with audiences. Finally, the general public will find this

study relevant, as it will promote awareness of the power of everyday language. It will

encourage individuals to reflect on how their words affect others and to adopt more

considerate and respectful communication strategies, thereby fostering more harmonious

interpersonal and societal relationships.

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1.5 Scope of the Study

This study will focus on the analysis of face-threatening acts and politeness strategies

as employed by characters in selected Nigerian plays. It will explore how language is used to

express power, assert identity, manage conflict, and maintain social relationships within

dramatic interactions. The plays selected for analysis are Wole Soyinka’s Death and the

King’s Horseman, Ahmed Yerima’s Heart of Stone, J. P. Clark’s Wives’ Revolt, and Tess

Onwueme’s Tell it to Women. These texts have been chosen for their rich linguistic content

and their vivid portrayal of interpersonal and socio-cultural tensions.

The research will be limited to the pragmatic analysis of character dialogues, with a

focus on identifying face-threatening acts and the politeness strategies employed to mitigate

them. It will examine how characters use language in contexts of confrontation, persuasion,

resistance, and reconciliation, and how these linguistic choices reflect broader social, cultural,

and gender dynamics.

This study will be anchored on Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory, with

particular emphasis on the concepts of face (positive and negative), face-threatening acts

(FTAs), and the four major politeness strategies: bald on record, positive politeness, negative

politeness, and off record. These components will serve as analytical tools for exploring how

characters attempt to protect face, navigate social hierarchies, and maintain or disrupt

interpersonal relationships through language. In addition, the study will draw from Erving

Goffman’s theory of face and interactional order, which underscores the importance of

maintaining face during social encounters and the ritualistic nature of interaction. Goffman’s

insights into facework and the management of impressions will complement Brown and

Levinson’s framework by providing a broader sociological perspective on the dynamics of

politeness and social interaction as reflected in dramatic discourse.

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The scope of this research will not extend to the full thematic or structural analysis of

the plays but will concentrate specifically on the pragmatic dimensions of character

interaction. It will isolate scenes rich in verbal conflict, negotiation, and relational tension in

order to illustrate how face and politeness are linguistically performed and managed in

Nigerian drama.

1.6 Research Questions

This study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. How are face-threatening acts used in the selected Nigerian plays?

2. What politeness strategies are employed by characters in the plays?

3. How does language use reflect and influence character dynamics within the plays?

4. What are the implications of face-threatening acts and politeness strategies for real-life

communication?

5. In what ways does this study contribute to existing literature on pragmatics and Nigerian

theatre?
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Chapter Two

Review of Related Scholarship

In this chapter, the researcher will conduct a comprehensive review of the existing

scholarship related to face-threatening acts and politeness strategies. The review will begin

by examining key concepts that underpin the study, including the definitions and significance

of face, politeness, and language dynamics in social interactions. This will be followed by an

exploration of empirical studies that have investigated these phenomena in various contexts,

highlighting the insights gained from previous research and their relevance to the current

study. Additionally, the chapter will outline the theoretical frameworks that inform the

analysis, specifically Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory and Erving Goffman’s theory
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of face. Afterwards, the researcher will conduct a summary of the reviews done in this

chapter.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Face

The concept of face will constitute a foundational aspect of this research, particularly

as it relates to the pragmatic interpretation of communicative interactions within dramatic

texts. Originating from Chinese and broader Asian traditions, the term "face" refers to an

individual's public image, dignity, or social value as perceived by others. In pragmatic

studies, this idea has been popularised by Erving Goffman (1967), who describes face as “the

positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has

taken during a particular contact”. Essentially, face is the image of self each person presents

and strives to maintain in interaction with others. This concept will help this study to

understand how characters within dramatic texts manage their social identities, especially in

moments of tension, conflict, or negotiation.

Face is not a fixed attribute but a socially constructed and interactionally maintained

image. It is dependent on how others perceive an individual during communication. In any

interaction, individuals act in ways that project a particular image of themselves, and they

rely on others to accept and support this projection. When this image is challenged or

undermined, face is said to be threatened. This makes the notion of face inherently fragile and

in constant need of protection or reinforcement. For instance, when a speaker makes a

request, gives an order, or disagrees with another, they potentially threaten the face of the

listener. Conversely, when speakers show respect, offer compliments, or express agreement,

they tend to support or enhance the listener’s face. In this study, such face-sensitive
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behaviour will be examined in order to understand the subtleties of interactional meaning in

selected Nigerian plays.

In linguistic pragmatics, the concept of face has been elaborated upon by scholars

such as Brown and Levinson (1987), who identify two major aspects of face: positive face

and negative face. Positive face refers to the individual’s desire to be liked, appreciated, and

approved of by others. It involves the need for social acceptance and inclusion. Negative

face, on the other hand, refers to the desire to be independent, unimpeded, and free from

imposition. It is concerned with personal freedom and autonomy. These two aspects of face

are universal and operate in all human interactions, although their importance may vary

depending on cultural and situational contexts. This research will rely on these definitions to

interpret how characters navigate social expectations, assert themselves, and preserve their

dignity or autonomy through spoken interactions in drama.

Furthermore, face is closely linked to emotional and psychological needs. Individuals

feel a sense of validation when their face is respected and may feel shame, embarrassment, or

resentment when it is threatened. Because of this, people often engage in behaviours that

protect their own face or that of others. This behaviour, often referred to as facework,

includes strategies such as softening criticism, using polite forms, and offering apologies or

compliments. In drama, such acts are not just reflective of politeness but are deliberate

communicative choices that reveal a character’s intentions, status, and relational stance. This

research will identify and analyse such instances of facework in order to explain the

interactional dynamics of selected plays.

Importantly, face is context-sensitive. What may be considered face-threatening in

one culture or context might be acceptable or neutral in another. Therefore, face is shaped by

cultural norms, social values, and the situational context of interaction. In the Nigerian
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setting, where honour, respect, and community reputation are held in high esteem, face takes

on heightened importance. Characters may be seen using indirect speech, respectful forms of

address, or strategic silences to preserve face, especially in hierarchical or communal

contexts. This study will pay close attention to such culturally influenced patterns of face

concern as expressed in the dialogues and behaviour of dramatic characters.

Beyond its foundational role in interactional dynamics, face will be understood in this

study as a dynamic and negotiable element of communication that can shift depending on

interpersonal goals, speaker intent, and social positioning. As Locher and Watts (2005) argue,

face is not merely about static politeness norms but about ongoing relational work that

unfolds through discourse. They assert that face is co-constructed by participants and subject

to contestation and renegotiation at any point in communication. This dynamic quality

underscores the importance of viewing face as a process rather than a possession. Moreover,

Tracy (2008) contends that face entails a delicate balancing act between expressing oneself

and preserving social harmony. Individuals are constantly navigating the dual need to assert

personal identity and maintain affiliative ties. In dramatic interactions, these tensions are

often heightened, and characters are forced to make communicative choices that reflect either

a defence or surrender of face. Understanding these choices will allow this research to

explore how characters attempt to control impressions, resist subordination, or secure

dominance in ways that mirror real-life interactions. Therefore, face will not merely be

treated as a theoretical construct, but as a practical lens through which the nuanced meanings

embedded in dramatic discourse will be examined.

In all, face refers to an individual’s socially approved image, which they strive to

uphold in interaction with others. It is a key concept in understanding human communication,

as it underlies people’s desire for respect, autonomy, and belonging. This study will use the
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concept of face to analyse how characters in Nigerian drama construct, maintain, and

sometimes lose their social identities through language. By doing so, the research will offer

deeper insight into the interpersonal dimensions of dramatic dialogue and the underlying

pragmatic strategies used by playwrights to portray social relationships and character

motivations.

2.1.2 Acts

The notion of acts will serve as a crucial conceptual framework in this study,

particularly in the interpretation of character utterances as intentional and functionally

significant moves within dramatic discourse. Rooted in speech act theory as proposed by J.L.

Austin (1962) and further developed by John Searle (1969), the term “act” refers to the

communicative functions performed through language. Austin distinguishes between three

types of acts: locutionary acts (the act of saying something), illocutionary acts (the intended

function of the utterance), and perlocutionary acts (the effect the utterance has on the

listener). This framework will enable the study to go beyond surface-level interpretation of

dialogues and focus on what characters do with their words — whether they are

commanding, requesting, threatening, apologising, accusing, or resisting.

Understanding acts as function-oriented performances will allow the research to link

language use with social behaviour and identity construction. In dramatic contexts, every line

of dialogue will be treated as a deliberate action designed to elicit a response, manage

relationships, or shift power dynamics. This view aligns with the performative nature of

drama, where utterances are not just expressions but also tools for achieving goals and

enacting roles. As such, dramatic texts provide rich ground for the analysis of communicative

acts because they present stylised but realistic representations of how individuals navigate

interactional demands.
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Furthermore, the concept of acts will support the investigation of how characters

engage in face-threatening or face-saving behaviours. For example, a command may function

as an illocutionary act that threatens the negative face of the hearer, while a compliment may

serve as a positive face-enhancing act. These pragmatic functions of speech will be central to

analysing how conflict, power, and negotiation unfold in the selected plays. By paying

attention to the intentions and effects embedded in acts, this study will reveal the

interpersonal and societal meanings that underlie character interactions. In essence, acts will

be viewed not merely as linguistic expressions but as social tools — deliberate and strategic

moves through which characters construct meaning, exercise influence, and perform identity.

This perspective will enrich the analysis of the selected Nigerian plays, offering insight into

how playwrights use language to mirror and critique real-world communicative behaviours.

2.1.3 Face-threatening Acts

Human communication is not solely about the exchange of information; it is

intricately linked to the management of relationships and identities. Communication, in its

essence, involves maintaining a balance between expressing one's thoughts and preserving

the social identities of those involved in the interaction. The concept of Face-threatening Acts

(FTAs) arises from this delicate balance, highlighting the ways in which speech acts or

behaviors challenge, damage, or threaten an individual's social identity, often referred to as

"face." Face is the image that an individual presents to others during social interaction, and it

plays a crucial role in maintaining harmonious relationships within a society. FTAs can occur

in various forms, such as criticism, commands, requests, or dismissals, all of which may

jeopardize the self-image of the person being addressed. In this study, Face-threatening Acts

will serve as a central concept for analyzing how characters in Nigerian plays navigate their

social roles, power dynamics, and relational boundaries through language. By examining the
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language choices characters make, this research will shed light on how FTAs are strategically

deployed in response to interpersonal tensions and conflicts within the dramatic world.

Brown and Levinson (1987) first introduced the concept of Face-threatening Acts,

arguing that these acts arise when speech acts challenge or threaten an individual's positive or

negative face. Positive face pertains to an individual's desire to be liked, accepted, or

appreciated by others, while negative face concerns the desire for autonomy, freedom, and

protection from imposition. FTAs occur when speech acts, such as criticism, rejection, or

directives, directly violate these fundamental desires, thereby threatening the individual’s

social identity. The impact of FTAs can disrupt the social harmony that exists between

individuals, potentially leading to conflict or distance. While FTAs are a common aspect of

communication, their consequences depend on how individuals handle them. This study will

draw on Brown and Levinson's framework to analyze how characters in Nigerian plays use

language to challenge or defend face, and how these language choices shape the development

of relationships and plot progression. FTAs are not merely instances of impoliteness; they are

pivotal in signaling social and power struggles, revealing the intricate social structures and

hierarchies that underlie human interactions. Therefore, understanding the strategic use and

consequences of FTAs will be vital to the analysis of character dynamics in Nigerian drama.

Not all Face-threatening Acts have the same degree of impact; the severity of an FTA

depends on various factors, including the social context, the relative power between the

participants, and the perceived intensity of the threat. Spencer-Oatey (2005) emphasizes that

FTAs are not merely breaches of politeness norms, but are also vital indicators of

interpersonal tension. The act of threatening someone’s face can be both an expression of

power and a catalyst for conflict. In dramatic texts, FTAs are often used to highlight the

struggles for dominance, control, or resistance between characters. For instance, characters
 22

may assert their authority through critical speech acts, or they may challenge existing power

structures by confronting the social identities of others. The performance of FTAs in the

context of Nigerian plays will reveal how characters negotiate their power, status, and

relationships within the larger social order. By focusing on how FTAs function as tools for

power negotiation, this study will explore the role of language in reinforcing or subverting

social hierarchies, offering insight into the broader socio-political and cultural tensions that

underpin the narratives.

Furthermore, Culpeper (1996) expands the notion of FTAs by suggesting that these

acts are not always accidental or impulsive; they are often strategically employed, especially

in situations involving power struggles or conflict. In many cases, characters intentionally use

FTAs to provoke, insult, or manipulate others. For example, a character may use harsh

criticism or an indirect command to assert dominance or challenge authority. FTAs, when

used strategically, serve as weapons of power that can destabilize social relations or assert

control over others. This study will investigate how FTAs are used deliberately by characters

to express their power, manipulate others, or resist domination. By examining the strategic

use of FTAs in Nigerian plays, this research will highlight the intricate ways in which

language functions as both a tool of resistance and a mechanism for asserting authority within

the dramatic world. Characters who intentionally deploy FTAs create tension and conflict,

driving the plot forward and contributing to the development of character relationships.

The context in which an FTA occurs significantly influences how it is perceived and

responded to. Watts (2003) argues that whether an act is considered threatening depends

largely on its social and cultural context. What may be interpreted as a mild or even neutral

act in one cultural or social setting could be perceived as an aggressive or deeply insulting act

in another. This context-dependent nature of FTAs is particularly important when analyzing

 23

Nigerian plays, where cultural norms and social expectations play a central role in how

communication is understood. For instance, in some Nigerian cultural contexts, certain

speech acts may be more acceptable within familial or hierarchical settings, while in others,

they may be seen as highly disrespectful or inappropriate. This study will approach FTAs not

as universal phenomena, but as acts shaped by the specific social, cultural, and interpersonal

dynamics present in the Nigerian dramatic context. By examining the nuances of context in

Nigerian plays, this research will deepen the understanding of how characters perform,

perceive, and respond to FTAs within the boundaries of their social worlds.

In addition to the broader social and cultural context, Haugh (2007) emphasizes that

FTAs can be perceived differently by the speaker and the listener. What one participant might

consider a harmless or routine interaction may be interpreted as an aggressive attack by the

other. This discrepancy in perception often leads to tension and conflict in communication,

especially in situations where characters feel that their social identity is being threatened. In

this research, Haugh’s perspective will be utilized to explore how characters in Nigerian

plays perceive and react to FTAs, and how these differing perceptions drive the narrative

forward. Discrepancies in perception are critical in understanding how characters negotiate

their relationships and the power dynamics within the play. This study will investigate how

characters’ reactions to FTAs either exacerbate conflict or lead to its resolution, offering a

deeper understanding of the complexities of social interaction in the dramatic world.

Furthermore, the varying responses to FTAs will be explored to show how characters use

language to either reinforce or challenge their social identity, contributing to the broader

theme of power and social negotiation.

Blum-Kulka (1987), in her cross-cultural study of FTAs, highlights that the strategies

employed to manage face-threatening acts can differ widely across cultures. Different cultural
 24

norms influence how individuals approach FTAs and the strategies they use to mitigate or

deflect the threat posed to face. While this study will focus on Nigerian plays, Blum-Kulka’s

insights into cultural variation will be used to understand how Nigerian cultural norms shape

the expression and management of FTAs. The way characters handle FTAs in Nigerian

drama may differ from the strategies used in other cultures, reflecting unique socio-cultural

dynamics. For example, in some Nigerian contexts, direct speech acts may be seen as a sign

of respect or authority, while in others, indirectness and politeness may be preferred. This

research will explore how Nigerian plays reflect these cultural nuances in their portrayal of

FTAs, offering insight into how language is shaped by and reflects societal values. By

examining the management of FTAs in these plays, the study will provide a detailed analysis

of how cultural and social norms influence character interactions and power dynamics.

In all, Face-threatening Acts are an inevitable part of communication, occurring

whenever individuals express themselves in ways that challenge or damage another’s social

identity or public image. These acts, whether critical, dismissive, controlling, or directive,

play a pivotal role in shaping relationships and social dynamics, especially in dramatic

contexts. In everyday communication, individuals often use various strategies to mitigate the

threat posed by FTAs, but in drama, FTAs become powerful tools for conflict, character

development, and the expression of power dynamics. This study will analyze how FTAs

function in Nigerian plays, using them as a framework to understand how characters navigate

their relationships, power, and status through language. By examining how characters

confront, challenge, or reinforce social hierarchies and relational boundaries, this research

will provide valuable insights into the role of FTAs in Nigerian theatre, highlighting the ways

in which language shapes social interaction and conflict. Through this analysis, the study will

offer a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between language, power, and identity

in Nigerian drama.
 25

2.1.4 Politeness Strategies

Human communication is governed not only by the exchange of information but also

by a deep desire to maintain social harmony, preserve relationships, and safeguard the dignity

of others. The concept of politeness strategies is central to understanding how individuals

manage Face-threatening Acts (FTAs) while navigating social interactions. These strategies

refer to the various methods employed by speakers to minimize the potential threat to the

face, whether positive or negative, of the hearer during communication. Politeness strategies

are thus a means through which speakers can mitigate the risk of offending others and

preserve mutual respect, especially when performing speech acts that could otherwise

challenge social harmony. It is not only about saying the right things but about saying them in

the right way, considering the relationship between the interlocutors, the social context, and

the potential consequences of the communication act. Politeness strategies function as vital

tools in avoiding conflict, promoting cooperation, and maintaining peaceful interaction in all

aspects of human discourse.

Scholars in pragmatics recognize that communication is not merely about information

exchange; it is intricately linked to the management of social identity and the maintenance of

relationships. The ability to use politeness strategies effectively determines how individuals

negotiate power, status, and social roles during interaction. In societies where hierarchy and

social structures play significant roles, these strategies become even more essential, as the

balance of power between interlocutors often dictates how communication is structured.

These strategies are pivotal in situations where the social contract between interlocutors

might be at risk, such as in hierarchical structures, conflicts, or delicate personal matters.

Thus, understanding politeness strategies is essential for analyzing social dynamics in

communication, as they reflect the speaker's awareness of the listener’s status, emotions, and
 26

relationship context. This awareness shapes not only how speech acts are carried out but also

how they are received and interpreted.

The foundational theory of politeness strategies was introduced by Brown and

Levinson (1987), who developed a framework that distinguished between several strategies

that can be used to mitigate the impact of FTAs. According to their theory, speakers can

choose from bald-on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness, and off-record

strategies, depending on the level of threat involved and the social context of the interaction.

These strategies are not always mutually exclusive, and speakers may shift between them

depending on the context, making the theory flexible and applicable to a variety of scenarios.

This framework remains influential, but as subsequent scholars have argued, it requires

adaptation to account for cultural and contextual variations. While Brown and Levinson’s

model provides a solid starting point, it does not fully capture the complex ways in which

politeness operates in different cultures, particularly in non-Western contexts. Researchers

have expanded on this theory to make it more applicable to diverse social settings, reflecting

the evolving understanding of politeness as a dynamic and multifaceted phenomenon.

Bald-on-record refers to a direct or unambiguous approach where the speaker makes a

statement or request without attempting to soften the impact. This strategy is typically used

when the social distance between the participants is minimal, or when there is a significant

power imbalance that makes politeness unnecessary or unimportant. In cases where a speaker

uses bald-on-record strategies, they may expect little resistance or challenge from the listener.

For instance, in a parent-child relationship, a parent may use a bald-on-record strategy like

“Do this now” without expecting much objection from the child. This strategy is rooted in the

power dynamics of the relationship, highlighting the imposition of authority and a lack of

need for mitigation. Bald-on-record is common in interactions where one party holds
 27

significant power over the other, and the need for politeness is deemed irrelevant or

redundant. While this strategy may be perceived as harsh or direct, it can also convey a sense

of urgency or clarity that bypasses potential misunderstandings.

On the other hand, positive politeness is used when speakers want to emphasize the

listener’s positive face, that is, their desire to be liked, admired, or accepted. Brown and

Levinson (1987) argue that this strategy is intended to make the listener feel good about

themselves and to show solidarity with them. Positive politeness strategies often include

compliments, expressions of agreement, or showing interest in the listener’s well-being. For

example, positive politeness might involve saying, “I really appreciate your help with this.

It’s been so valuable to me,” which acknowledges the listener's positive attributes while

making the request. By doing so, the speaker highlights the listener’s positive identity,

reinforcing social bonds and minimizing the impact of the request. This strategy is typically

used in situations where the relationship between the interlocutors is friendly or cooperative,

and the speaker wants to foster goodwill or solidarity. It strengthens social ties by making the

other person feel valued and respected, reducing the likelihood of a defensive or

confrontational response.

Negative politeness, in contrast, focuses on the listener’s negative face, that is, their

desire to be left alone, to be free from imposition, or to be autonomous. Negative politeness

strategies are commonly used when the speaker perceives a potential threat to the listener’s

independence. These strategies may include hedging, using indirect language, or employing

apologies. For example, instead of directly commanding someone to do something, a speaker

might say, “I’m sorry to trouble you, but could you possibly...?” This type of language

reduces the threat to the listener’s autonomy by acknowledging the potential intrusion and

requesting permission for action. Fraser (1990) adds that negative politeness is often
 28

employed in unequal power relationships, where the speaker wishes to minimize the

imposition. This strategy is particularly important in maintaining the balance of power in

interactions where the speaker holds a position of lesser authority or where the listener’s

autonomy is crucial to the interaction's success. It also reflects a cultural sensitivity to the

listener’s comfort and desire for space.

Off-record politeness strategies involve the use of indirectness or ambiguity to allow

the listener to interpret the meaning of the speech act. These strategies provide a way for

speakers to hint at their desires or intentions without explicitly stating them, thus allowing the

listener to interpret the meaning at their discretion. For instance, rather than directly asking

someone to lend them money, a speaker might say, “I’ve been having a hard time making

ends meet lately.” The use of off-record strategies creates space for the listener to decide

whether to offer help without feeling coerced. This indirectness allows for face-saving in

cases where the speaker might be uncertain about the listener's willingness or where a direct

request could cause discomfort. The indirectness in off-record strategies highlights the role of

social norms in the management of imposition and face protection. Scholars like Gumperz

(1982) have emphasized that off-record strategies can reflect cultural values, such as

deference and modesty, especially in contexts where directness may be perceived as rude or

presumptive. In some cultures, off-record strategies are the norm, as they reflect the

importance of humility, modesty, and respect for personal boundaries.

Politeness strategies are crucial in managing relationships in all forms of

communication, especially in interactions where there is a high risk of face-threatening

behaviour. In this respect, Geoffrey Leech (1983) adds another layer of understanding to

politeness theory with his Politeness Principle. Leech argues that politeness strategies are

motivated by a desire to maintain social harmony and reduce friction between interlocutors.
 29

For Leech, politeness is not just a matter of superficial manners; it is a fundamental aspect of

how individuals negotiate power, solidarity, and face within their relationships. Leech’s

Maxims of Politeness provide a more nuanced view, emphasizing that politeness operates as

a social contract, where speakers must balance competing desires: the desire to make requests

and the need to protect the listener’s face. Leech's theory, therefore, brings an additional level

of depth to our understanding of politeness by showing how it works within the larger

framework of social interaction, where balance is key to ensuring smooth communication.

Furthermore, Fraser and Nolen (1981) emphasize the role of social expectations in

determining what counts as a polite act. They argue that politeness operates as a social

contract, a set of unspoken rules that govern how individuals should behave in various

contexts. Violating these rules can result in social disapproval, and the use of politeness

strategies becomes a way to navigate these societal expectations. This notion will be

important in examining the ways politeness strategies function within Nigerian plays, where

cultural norms and societal expectations may influence the types of strategies characters

employ. In Nigerian contexts, there may be particular expectations surrounding politeness

and respect, especially in interactions between individuals of different social standing or

gender. These expectations shape how characters in the plays use language to navigate

complex power dynamics and negotiate social roles.

An important consideration in the study of politeness strategies is the concept of

facework, which refers to the efforts individuals make to manage and protect their own and

others' faces during interaction. Goffman (1967) first introduced the concept of facework as a

means of protecting one’s face in social interactions, which includes using politeness

strategies to ensure that one’s social identity is not damaged. Facework becomes particularly

important in situations of conflict or power negotiation, where the use of politeness strategies
 30

can either preserve or disrupt social harmony. Brown (1995) further elaborates on facework,

suggesting that the manipulation of politeness strategies enables individuals to maintain their

social identity and reputation even in challenging situations. By adopting appropriate

strategies, speakers can prevent conflict, reduce tension, and preserve the dignity of both

parties, thus maintaining social equilibrium even in difficult interactions.

In sum, politeness strategies are crucial for understanding how individuals maintain

social relationships, express respect, and navigate the delicate balance of face in

communication. These strategies, which range from direct to indirect approaches, enable

speakers to manage face-threatening acts and preserve mutual respect in interpersonal

communication. By examining how characters use politeness strategies in their interactions,

this study will offer insights into how language becomes a tool for negotiating power, status,

and identity in Nigerian plays. The integration of these strategies in character dialogue

reveals not only interpersonal dynamics but also deeper societal values and norms that govern

social interactions. Through the careful analysis of politeness strategies in Nigerian drama,

the research will shed light on how cultural, social, and power-related factors influence the

ways in which language is used to protect face and preserve harmony in complex social

exchanges.

2.1.5 Characters

The concept of characters in drama is essential for understanding the dynamics of

social interaction, identity negotiation, and the cultural norms that govern communication. In

dramatic texts, characters serve as the primary agents through whom the plot unfolds, and

their dialogues and actions reflect not only individual motives but also broader societal values

and expectations. Characters are not mere narrative tools; they are complex representations of

the interplay between individual agency and social structure. Through their actions,
 31

dialogues, and decisions, characters help portray the underlying themes of the play, making

them central to the audience’s understanding of the text. Their behaviors and interactions

offer insights into human nature and social organization, reflecting the norms and challenges

faced by individuals within a given society. The evolution of characters across the narrative

also provides the audience with a lens through which to view how individuals navigate their

roles within social hierarchies. In examining characters, scholars not only explore how

personal motivations and goals drive the plot but also how these characters interact with

others within a social framework, adhering to or challenging the societal norms of their

respective worlds.

The term "character" in drama refers to a fictional individual whose actions,

dialogues, and decisions drive the plot. Aristotle (350 B.C.), identifies character as one of the

essential components of drama, alongside plot, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle.

Aristotle emphasizes that characters must be consistent in their behaviors, as the audience’s

understanding of their motives depends on this consistency. A well-developed character will

act in ways that are believable within the context of the story, with actions that align with

their personality and social standing. This consistency helps form a connection between the

character and the audience, making the narrative more impactful. Aristotle’s contribution laid

the groundwork for modern character studies in drama, influencing how scholars and

playwrights continue to think about the role of characters in shaping the meaning of a play. In

contemporary discourse, characters are seen not only as narrative vehicles but also as

representations of deeper philosophical and social themes. Their development is often linked

to the challenges they face within the societal frameworks they inhabit, reflecting the ongoing

struggle between individual desire and social conformity.

 32

Scholars have expanded upon Aristotle’s framework by discussing the role and

function of characters in more detail. J.L. Austin’s theory of speech acts (1962) offers a

crucial insight into how characters function within dialogue. Austin argues that language is

not merely a medium for conveying information but is also a form of action. In his view,

speech acts, such as assertions, requests, or promises, are not passive utterances but active

components of social interaction. Through their speech, characters not only convey meaning

but also perform actions that contribute to the interpersonal dynamics of the play. This

perspective allows for a more nuanced understanding of character development, as it

positions characters as agents who actively shape the unfolding narrative. By analyzing

speech acts within the dialogue of a play, scholars can explore how characters’ words reflect

their social roles, desires, and power dynamics with others. Austin’s theory illuminates how

characters’ speech acts can either affirm or challenge social structures, highlighting the

tension between individual agency and societal expectations. This framework becomes

especially useful when analyzing how characters perform roles in dramatic works that center

around complex social interactions, such as those involving conflict, hierarchy, or authority.

Similarly, John Searle (1969) extends Austin’s theories by introducing the idea of

illocutionary acts, which go beyond the literal meaning of words to focus on the intentions

behind them. In his framework, characters do not simply speak words; they perform acts that

carry social implications. These acts reveal the character’s objectives, values, and relationship

with other characters. Searle’s concept of illocutionary acts highlights the deeper layers of

communication, where the character’s intentions are as important as their words. For

instance, when a character issues a command or makes a request, the social context—such as

their role in a hierarchy, their relationship with the listener, or their intentions—determines

how the action is interpreted. In drama, these illocutionary acts can serve as key turning

points in the narrative, as characters' intentions and their ability to communicate those
 33

intentions successfully can drive the plot forward. Moreover, the understanding of

illocutionary acts allows scholars to examine the complexities of character interaction,

focusing on the subtle ways in which characters influence and manipulate each other through

language. This insight into the subtleties of character communication is vital when exploring

how characters assert or challenge their social positions within the narrative structure.

Characters in drama do not exist in isolation; they are social beings whose actions and

speech are influenced by the roles they occupy within the social structure of the narrative. A

character’s role is the identity they adopt in relation to other characters, shaped by social

expectations, norms, and values. These roles, which may include being a child, leader,

worker, or authority figure, dictate how characters interact with one another and how they

navigate their facework strategies. The social roles that characters perform often serve as a

lens through which the audience can interpret their behavior. For example, a leader may

exhibit assertiveness and control in their interactions, while a subordinate may demonstrate

deference and obedience. The roles played by characters in a drama often carry cultural and

societal connotations, making them central to the thematic exploration of power dynamics,

social stratification, and identity. Characters’ roles are not static; they evolve throughout the

play, reflecting the shifts in the social dynamics they face. This fluidity allows the audience

to track the development of characters in response to external pressures, such as changing

social norms or personal crises. As the characters’ social roles evolve, their interaction with

others also shifts, further contributing to the narrative’s exploration of social relationships

and identity negotiation.

The concept of face, as defined by Erving Goffman (1955), is crucial in understanding

the social roles that characters embody. Goffman explains that face refers to the social

identity that individuals present in their interactions, a concept central to understanding how
 34

individuals negotiate their personal and social boundaries. Face is an integral aspect of all

communication, and characters in drama are continually engaged in the management of their

face. This means that characters must navigate the delicate balance of maintaining their self-

image while simultaneously responding to the face needs of others. The concept of facework

becomes especially relevant in dramatic texts, as characters often find themselves in

situations where their face is threatened by others’ actions or words. Goffman’s theory helps

explain how characters use various communication strategies to mitigate the impact of face-

threatening acts (FTAs), such as indirectness, politeness, or confrontation. By analyzing

characters’ facework strategies, scholars can better understand how individuals manage their

social identities within the narrative context and how these strategies contribute to the

development of the plot. In drama, facework plays a critical role in the negotiation of power,

authority, and social harmony, as characters constantly adjust their communication to protect

or enhance their face.

For example, a character in a position of power may use direct speech acts that assert

their authority, while a character in a subordinate role may adopt more indirect forms of

communication to avoid face-threatening situations. These strategies are shaped by the

cultural context of the drama, as different societies have varying expectations for how

individuals in particular roles should behave. In formal settings, characters may adopt more

respectful, polite speech acts, while in more informal or intimate contexts, they may use

language that reflects closeness and solidarity. The negotiation of face in these interactions is

not just about individual identity but also about social roles and expectations. The way

characters protect or threaten their own face—and that of others—becomes a powerful tool

for understanding the dynamics of social interaction within the drama. By examining how

characters manage face in their dialogues and actions, scholars can gain insight into the

broader cultural and societal values that inform communication and interaction.
 35

In the study of Face-threatening Acts (FTAs), characters play a pivotal role in

demonstrating how linguistic and social norms govern their speech acts and the consequences

of those actions. Brown and Levinson (1987) argue that all communication involves a

facework negotiation, where individuals perform acts that either support or threaten the social

identities (positive or negative face) of others. FTAs occur when a character’s speech acts

challenge or threaten the face of another character. These threats may take several forms,

including criticism, orders, or requests, and can have significant implications for the

relationships between characters. The response to these FTAs often involves the use of

politeness strategies, which serve as a means of mitigating the potential damage caused by

face threats. Characters may choose to employ positive politeness strategies, which aim to

affirm and enhance the other person’s positive face, or negative politeness strategies, which

aim to minimize imposition and protect the listener’s autonomy. The choice of strategy

depends on the social context of the interaction, including the relationship between the

characters and the perceived threat to face. By analyzing how characters use these strategies

in response to FTAs, scholars can uncover the underlying social dynamics and power

structures that shape communication within the drama.

The use of politeness strategies in response to FTAs is influenced by both the social

roles characters occupy and the cultural context of the narrative. Politeness is inherently

culturally specific, as different societies have varying codes of acceptable behavior and

linguistic practices. In some cultures, indirectness and formality are valued as signs of

respect, while in others, directness and clarity are preferred. Therefore, the way characters

negotiate their facework strategies is deeply influenced by the cultural norms governing

communication in the narrative world. In a formal setting, for example, characters may be

more likely to use negative politeness strategies to maintain distance and respect social

hierarchies. In contrast, in a more informal setting, characters might use positive politeness
 36

strategies to establish closeness and show affection. These strategic choices reflect the social

expectations and norms of the characters’ cultural context, which influence how they

negotiate their relationships with others. Thus, by examining how characters manage their

interactions through politeness strategies, this study will offer valuable insights into the social

fabric of the play and the cultural assumptions that underpin communication. Characters do

not merely serve as plot devices but as representations of the larger social forces at play

within the dramatic world.

2.1.6 Nigerian Plays

In literary studies, a play is generally understood as a form of drama written to be

performed by actors on a stage, typically structured around dialogue and action. Bentley

(2000) defines a play as an artistic composition that portrays human experiences through

characters and dialogue, encapsulating conflicts, emotions, and societal interactions. Plays are

distinctive in that they rely on both spoken word and physical action to convey a narrative,

often engaging the audience both intellectually and emotionally. Plays function as a medium

for exploring societal norms, challenges, and values, using performance to reflect and critique

the world (Brockett, 2010).

The concept of Nigerian plays emerges from this broader tradition but is shaped by

the country's unique cultural and historical context. Nigerian plays are a blend of indigenous

African performance traditions and Western dramaturgical forms, an evolution that began

during the colonial period and continued through the post-colonial era. Traditional African

performances, including oral storytelling, masquerades, and music, were deeply communal,

designed to preserve history and reinforce cultural values. As Falola (2009) notes, these

traditional forms served as both entertainment and social functions within African

communities. However, with the introduction of Western theatre structures, Nigerian

 37

playwrights began to integrate indigenous African practices with modern dramaturgy. This

fusion created a distinct form of Nigerian drama that retained the cultural essence of African

traditions while incorporating elements of Western playwriting.

The thematic focus in Nigerian plays is deeply embedded in the socio-political

realities of the country. Nigerian playwrights have long used the stage to critique political

structures, reflect on social justice, and explore the tension between modernity and tradition.

According to Ogunyemi (2005), Nigerian plays serve as mirrors to society, reflecting its

triumphs and failures. They frequently address themes such as political corruption, social

inequality, and the struggles of national identity in a post-colonial context. These plays

provide a space for dialogue on the nation's political, economic, and cultural issues,

questioning existing power structures and societal norms.

Language plays a central role in Nigerian plays, where it functions not only as a

medium of communication but also as a marker of social identity and cultural context.

Adejunmobi (2007) highlights how Nigerian playwrights frequently use bilingualism,

blending English with indigenous languages to reflect the diverse linguistic landscape of the

country. This linguistic hybridity serves as a commentary on the tension between indigenous

cultures and Western influences. It also offers a nuanced exploration of social status, power

relations, and cultural heritage, emphasizing how language can shape characters' identities

and relationships.

The concept of politeness strategies and face-threatening acts (FTAs) is especially

relevant when examining Nigerian plays, given the centrality of social hierarchies, respect,

and power dynamics in Nigerian society. According to Goffman (1959), face refers to the

social identity an individual projects in interactions, and maintaining face is crucial in many

African cultures, including Nigeria. Nigerian plays often portray characters navigating these
 38

complex social dynamics, employing different strategies to maintain or threaten each other's

face. Brown and Levinson’s (1987) theory of politeness provides a useful lens for

understanding how characters use language to manage social relationships, either by showing

deference (positive politeness) or maintaining distance (negative politeness).

In Nigerian plays, face-threatening acts often serve as pivotal moments of conflict.

These acts, which directly challenge an individual's social identity, can have serious

consequences, as the threat to one's face is seen as a challenge to their authority or status. In a

society where respect for elders and authority is paramount, the use of FTAs in Nigerian

plays often creates tension and highlights the fragility of social identities. Characters might

engage in FTAs either intentionally or unintentionally, and these moments become crucial in

advancing the narrative and examining the social structures of Nigerian society. By focusing

on how politeness strategies and FTAs are employed, one can gain deeper insights into the

power dynamics, respect, and authority that shape the interactions between characters in

Nigerian drama.

The relevance of Nigerian plays to this study lies in the way these dramas offer a rich

exploration of social hierarchies, language, and power dynamics, all of which are central to

the study of politeness strategies and face-threatening acts. Nigerian plays provide a unique

context in which these concepts can be explored, as they reflect the complexities of

navigating relationships in a society where respect for hierarchy, elders, and authority is

deeply ingrained. Through examining these plays, one will gain a deeper understanding of

how politeness and facework function in real-world social interactions, particularly in a post-

colonial context where the clash of tradition and modernity often plays out in dramatic and

significant ways. This exploration is essential to understanding the broader socio-political and

cultural issues that shape Nigerian society and the characters within these plays.
 39

2.2 Empirical Studies

Olayinka (2019) conducted a study titled Politeness Strategies and Face-Threatening

Acts in Contemporary Nigerian Drama, focusing on the use of politeness strategies and face-

threatening acts (FTAs) within Nigerian plays. The study sought to understand how speech

acts functioned in interpersonal interactions and reflected social norms in Nigerian society.

Using Brown and Levinson's (1987) Politeness Theory, the research explored both positive

and negative politeness strategies and their roles in managing social harmony. The

methodology involved a qualitative content analysis of four Nigerian plays, where speech

acts were identified and categorized. Olayinka found that Nigerian plays often employed both

positive and negative politeness strategies, with FTAs serving as pivotal moments of conflict,

particularly in interactions involving authority figures. The study concluded that Nigerian

playwrights strategically use FTAs and politeness strategies to portray social negotiation and

the management of power dynamics.

Ikwue (2017) investigated the use of facework in Nigerian drama, particularly

focusing on how face-threatening acts operate within the social hierarchies depicted in these

works. The study aimed to understand the connection between politeness strategies, FTAs,

and social hierarchies in Nigerian drama. Adopting Goffman’s (1959) face theory as the

theoretical framework, Ikwue examined how characters navigate their social identities and

the power dynamics within interactions. A qualitative approach was employed, analysing

dialogues from two Nigerian plays to identify FTAs and politeness strategies. The findings

revealed that negative politeness strategies were more frequently used in hierarchical

interactions, such as those between authority figures and subordinates, while positive

politeness strategies were common in more informal or familial settings. Ikwue concluded
 40

that facework and FTAs were central to the depiction of social power and tension in Nigerian

drama, providing a rich insight into societal structures.

Chukwu (2020) examined how politeness strategies and face-threatening acts function

in Nigerian drama, with the aim of understanding how language choices reflect social

negotiation and relationship management. The study was grounded in Brown and Levinson’s

(1987) Politeness Theory, specifically focusing on how FTAs were used to manage social

conflict. Chukwu analysed four Nigerian plays using a discourse analysis approach,

identifying speech acts and categorizing them by politeness strategies. The study found that

FTAs were common in hierarchical relationships, particularly in scenarios involving power

imbalances such as between elders and younger characters. The use of politeness strategies,

such as hedging and indirectness, was identified as a means of mitigating face threats and

maintaining social harmony. The study concluded that politeness strategies and FTAs play an

important role in navigating complex social relationships, with Nigerian playwrights using

these elements to explore power and social conflict.

Udo (2018) focused on the role of face-threatening acts in Nigerian drama,

specifically investigating how these acts reflect social norms and power dynamics. Udo's

research aimed to understand how politeness strategies and FTAs were used to negotiate

relationships and resolve social conflicts in Nigerian drama. The theoretical framework was

based on Goffman’s (1959) face theory and Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory,

which guided the analysis of how characters navigate their social identity through language.

A qualitative approach was used, analyzing five Nigerian plays for FTAs and politeness

strategies. Udo discovered that FTAs were particularly prevalent in conflicts involving

authority figures and were often mitigated by politeness strategies to prevent social face loss.
 41

The study concluded that FTAs were not merely narrative devices, but essential tools for

exploring societal issues such as power, conflict, and social harmony.

Akpan (2016) conducted a study to investigate how face-threatening acts (FTAs) are

used in Nigerian plays to portray power dynamics and social control. Akpan’s research

focused on understanding the relationship between FTAs and authority, examining how

politeness strategies function in hierarchical relationships depicted in Nigerian drama. Using

Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Akpan analyzed the speech acts in three

Nigerian plays to identify and categorize FTAs. The findings revealed that FTAs were

especially prevalent in authoritative contexts, such as between parents and children or

employers and employees. Negative politeness strategies, like indirectness and hedging, were

found to be most common in these settings, as they helped to mitigate the directness of the

face threats. Akpan concluded that Nigerian plays use FTAs to explore social tensions and

power struggles, and politeness strategies serve to maintain face and avoid overt

confrontations in these interactions.

Sulaimon (2021) explored how politeness strategies were used in Nigerian drama to

negotiate social identity and maintain social cohesion, particularly in situations where face-

threatening acts were involved. The purpose of the study was to examine how characters in

Nigerian plays employ politeness strategies to maintain social relationships and navigate

power structures. Using Goffman’s (1959) face theory alongside Brown and Levinson’s

(1987) Politeness Theory, Sulaimon analyzed speech acts in five Nigerian plays to

understand the role of FTAs and politeness strategies. The study found that negative

politeness strategies were more frequently used in formal or hierarchical interactions, while

positive politeness strategies dominated informal or familial exchanges. The study concluded
 42

that Nigerian playwrights strategically use these language features to depict complex social

interactions, emphasizing the role of FTAs in navigating power and identity.

Okoro (2019) conducted a pragmatic analysis of facework in Nigerian drama,

focusing on how FTAs and politeness strategies were used to manage social relationships and

conflicts. The study sought to examine the role of facework in the negotiation of social

interactions and the resolution of conflict in Nigerian plays. Drawing on Brown and

Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Okoro analysed dialogues from three Nigerian plays to

identify and categorize FTAs and politeness strategies. The research revealed that FTAs were

most frequently used in conflicts involving social hierarchies, such as interactions between

political figures or parents and children. Politeness strategies like indirectness, hedging, and

formal address were used to soften the impact of FTAs and maintain face. Okoro concluded

that facework is an essential tool in Nigerian drama for depicting the dynamics of social

power and resolving interpersonal conflicts.

Eze (2020) aimed to investigate how speech acts, politeness strategies, and FTAs

were employed in Nigerian drama to reflect the negotiation of social relationships. Eze

identified a gap in the research on how FTAs and politeness strategies shape character

interactions in Nigerian plays. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, the

study analyzed the dialogues from five Nigerian plays, categorizing speech acts by politeness

strategies. Eze found that FTAs were predominantly used in formal and hierarchical settings,

where characters interacted with figures of authority. In contrast, positive politeness

strategies were used in more intimate or informal settings, like family relationships. The

study concluded that FTAs are central to the thematic structure of Nigerian plays, where they

serve not only as conflict points but as tools for exploring power, social identity, and

interpersonal negotiation.
 43

Okoro (2020) examined the pragmatic use of politeness strategies and FTAs in

Nigerian drama, with a focus on how these elements reflect social values and power

structures in Nigerian society. Okoro’s research explored how characters use speech acts to

navigate complex social relationships and manage face threats in various interactions. The

study, based on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, involved qualitative

analysis of five Nigerian plays, identifying FTAs and categorizing them by politeness

strategies. The findings showed that negative politeness strategies were most frequently used

in formal or authoritative interactions, while positive politeness strategies dominated in

informal or close-knit social settings. Okoro concluded that Nigerian plays rely heavily on

FTAs to depict social conflict, and politeness strategies are key tools for resolving these

conflicts while maintaining social order.

Emeka (2018) explored how FTAs and politeness strategies function in Nigerian

plays, particularly in the context of social status and power relations. The study sought to

understand how these linguistic features contribute to the dynamics of social interaction in

the works of prominent Nigerian playwrights. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness

Theory, Emeka analyzed the dialogues in four Nigerian plays, focusing on the ways in which

characters navigate hierarchical relationships. The study revealed that negative politeness

strategies, such as hedging and indirectness, were commonly used in interactions involving

authority figures, while positive politeness strategies, like solidarity and mutual respect, were

prevalent in familial or peer-based interactions. Emeka concluded that Nigerian drama

utilizes FTAs and politeness strategies as key mechanisms to reflect societal values and the

negotiation of power.

Nwankwo (2015) conducted a study on politeness strategies and face-threatening acts

in Nigerian political drama. The research aimed to examine how these linguistic elements are
 44

used to represent political power dynamics and negotiations in Nigerian society. Drawing on

Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Nwankwo analysed political plays from

Nigerian playwrights such as Wole Soyinka and Ahmed Yerima. The study found that FTAs

were common in political discourse, especially in interactions between political leaders and

their subordinates. Negative politeness strategies were frequently employed to mitigate the

directness of power struggles, while positive politeness strategies were used to foster

alliances and build rapport. Nwankwo concluded that Nigerian political drama effectively

uses FTAs and politeness strategies to highlight the complexities of power relations.

Olu (2021) examined the role of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian domestic

drama, focusing on how these linguistic features are used to navigate familial hierarchies and

social roles. The study aimed to analyse how characters manage face-threatening situations

within family structures, such as between parents and children or between spouses. Utilizing

Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Olu analyzed dialogues from three Nigerian

plays. The research revealed that FTAs were often employed in familial conflicts, with

characters using both negative and positive politeness strategies to maintain face. Negative

politeness strategies, such as deference and indirectness, were more common in interactions

involving authority figures, while positive politeness strategies were used to express affection

and solidarity in close relationships. Olu concluded that Nigerian domestic drama provides

valuable insights into the negotiation of family roles and social identity.

Okonkwo (2017) explored the use of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian

theatre, with a particular focus on the portrayal of gender roles and power relations. The

study aimed to understand how these linguistic features are employed to reflect societal

norms regarding gender and authority. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness

Theory, Okonkwo analyzed four Nigerian plays that depict gender-based interactions. The
 45

study found that FTAs were often used to depict power struggles, particularly in patriarchal

settings where women interacted with male authority figures. Negative politeness strategies,

such as indirectness and hedging, were employed to avoid direct confrontation, while positive

politeness strategies were used to maintain relationships. Okonkwo concluded that Nigerian

theatre uses FTAs and politeness strategies to challenge traditional gender roles and reflect

social tensions.

Akinyele (2019) focused on the pragmatic use of FTAs and politeness strategies in

Nigerian plays, specifically looking at how these strategies function in rural and urban

settings. The study aimed to explore how language reflects the power dynamics between rural

and urban characters in Nigerian drama. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness

Theory, Akinyele analyzed dialogues from Nigerian plays that depict rural and urban life.

The study found that FTAs were particularly prominent in urban settings, where power

dynamics were more complex and characterized by social hierarchies. Negative politeness

strategies, such as formality and deference, were more common in rural settings, where

respect for elders was emphasized. Akinyele concluded that Nigerian drama uses FTAs and

politeness strategies to portray the contrasts between rural and urban life, highlighting the

challenges of social mobility and cultural change.

Ogun (2018) investigated how FTAs and politeness strategies are used in Nigerian

plays to explore issues of social class and economic disparity. The study aimed to examine

how language functions to negotiate social roles and status in the context of economic

inequality. Drawing on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Ogun analysed

three Nigerian plays that address themes of poverty and class struggle. The research found

that FTAs were often employed in interactions between characters of different social classes,

with negative politeness strategies used to mitigate the potential threat to social harmony.
 46

Positive politeness strategies, on the other hand, were used to create solidarity and support

between characters in similar social positions. Ogun concluded that FTAs and politeness

strategies are crucial tools for addressing issues of social class and economic inequality in

Nigerian drama.

Ademola (2016) conducted a study on the role of FTAs and politeness strategies in

Nigerian plays, with a focus on how these elements reflect social expectations of respect and

authority. The study aimed to analyze how politeness strategies are used to maintain social

harmony and negotiate power dynamics in Nigerian society. Using Brown and Levinson’s

(1987) Politeness Theory, Ademola analysed the dialogues in four Nigerian plays that depict

interactions between authority figures and subordinates. The research found that FTAs were

commonly used in hierarchical relationships, with negative politeness strategies being

employed to avoid direct confrontation. Positive politeness strategies, such as shared goals

and mutual respect, were used to foster cooperation. Ademola concluded that Nigerian plays

use FTAs and politeness strategies to portray the complexities of social respect and authority.

Ogbonna (2020) explored the use of politeness strategies and FTAs in Nigerian

drama, focusing on how they are employed to navigate complex interpersonal relationships.

The study aimed to understand the role of language in managing face and maintaining social

order. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Ogbonna analyzed dialogues

from five Nigerian plays to identify and categorize FTAs and politeness strategies. The study

found that negative politeness strategies, such as indirectness and hedging, were most

frequently used in formal interactions, while positive politeness strategies were used in more

informal, familial contexts. Ogbonna concluded that Nigerian playwrights use FTAs and

politeness strategies as tools for depicting power, social negotiation, and conflict resolution.
 47

Anyanwu (2018) analyzed the use of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian

plays, specifically focusing on the impact of cultural norms on language use. The study aimed

to explore how Nigerian playwrights use language to reflect cultural values and social

expectations. Drawing on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Anyanwu

examined dialogues from four Nigerian plays to identify the politeness strategies used by

characters. The research revealed that FTAs were commonly used in situations involving

cultural taboos, such as those related to marriage or family hierarchy. Negative politeness

strategies were used to mitigate the threat of social face loss, while positive politeness

strategies fostered solidarity within close-knit communities. Anyanwu concluded that

Nigerian drama effectively employs FTAs and politeness strategies to reflect the importance

of cultural norms in interpersonal communication.

Nnadi (2017) conducted a study on the pragmatic aspects of FTAs and politeness

strategies in Nigerian drama, with an emphasis on how these elements function in the

negotiation of social identity. The study sought to understand how characters in Nigerian

plays use politeness strategies to navigate social expectations and maintain face. Using

Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Nnadi analyzed the dialogue in three

Nigerian plays to identify speech acts and categorize them by politeness strategies. The study

found that FTAs were employed to depict social tension and conflict, particularly in

interactions involving authority and subordination. Negative politeness strategies were used

to avoid direct confrontation, while positive politeness strategies were used to maintain

rapport. Nnadi concluded that politeness strategies are essential tools for managing face and

social identity in Nigerian drama.

Adebayo (2019) investigated the use of face-threatening acts and politeness strategies

in Nigerian plays to understand how language mediates power and authority in interpersonal
 48

relationships. The study aimed to analyze the pragmatic functions of FTAs in the interactions

between dominant and subordinate characters in Nigerian drama. Using Brown and

Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Adebayo analyzed several plays, focusing on the

linguistic devices employed by characters to either protect or threaten social faces. The study

found that FTAs were prominent in hierarchical interactions, with negative politeness

strategies being employed to avoid conflict, while positive politeness strategies were used to

enhance social bonds. Adebayo concluded that Nigerian plays effectively use FTAs to reflect

the complexity of social structures and power dynamics.

Ifeoma (2020) examined the role of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian

dramatic texts, focusing on how characters use language to negotiate social roles and

relationships. The study sought to analyze the ways in which FTAs and politeness strategies

are used to maintain or challenge social authority in the context of Nigerian culture. Drawing

on Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Ifeoma analyzed several plays for their

depiction of politeness and face management strategies. The study revealed that FTAs were

frequently used to signify authority, while politeness strategies were employed to mitigate or

enhance social roles. Ifeoma concluded that politeness strategies in Nigerian drama offer

insight into the negotiation of power and social identity in everyday life.

Oluwaseun (2021) explored how FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian plays

reflect social norms, particularly in relation to respect, authority, and hierarchy. The study

focused on the pragmatics of face management in different social contexts. Using Brown and

Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Oluwaseun analyzed Nigerian plays, concentrating on

the forms of politeness strategies and FTAs in the interactions of characters from various

social classes. The study found that negative politeness strategies, such as indirectness, were

predominantly used in interactions involving authority figures, while positive politeness

 49

strategies, such as solidarity, were prevalent in interactions between peers. Oluwaseun

concluded that Nigerian plays illustrate how language can be used to maintain social order

and reinforce respect for hierarchy.

Chijioke (2018) examined the pragmatic use of FTAs and politeness strategies in

Nigerian theatre, focusing on their role in representing cultural attitudes towards power,

status, and social interaction. The study used Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory

to analyze the dialogue in Nigerian plays. Chijioke found that FTAs were primarily used to

depict the conflict and tension inherent in power relationships, especially in interactions

between rulers and their subjects. The study concluded that Nigerian playwrights use FTAs

and politeness strategies to reflect the cultural significance of social respect, authority, and

interpersonal negotiation.

Ezekiel (2017) analysed the use of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian plays,

particularly in the context of family dynamics. The study aimed to explore how these

elements function to mediate relationships between parents and children, spouses, and other

family members. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Ezekiel examined

the dialogue in four Nigerian plays, revealing that FTAs were used to convey power

imbalances and familial tensions. Negative politeness strategies were more common in

interactions involving parents and authority figures, while positive politeness strategies were

used to reinforce family bonds. Ezekiel concluded that Nigerian plays provide insight into the

ways language is used to maintain or challenge family hierarchy and relationships.

Tolu (2020) explored the intersection of FTAs, politeness strategies, and gender

dynamics in Nigerian plays, focusing on how language reflects gender roles and power

relations. The study used Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory to analyze the

language used by male and female characters in Nigerian plays. The research found that
 50

FTAs were employed to depict gender-based power struggles, with women often using

negative politeness strategies to avoid direct confrontation with male authority figures. Tolu

concluded that Nigerian playwrights use FTAs and politeness strategies to highlight gender

inequalities and the social negotiation of gendered identities.

Chuka (2018) investigated the linguistic use of FTAs and politeness strategies in

Nigerian drama, with a focus on the role of language in social mobility. The study aimed to

examine how language functions as a tool for negotiating social and economic status in

Nigerian society. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Chuka analyzed

dialogue from Nigerian plays to identify how FTAs and politeness strategies mediate social

roles. The research found that FTAs were used to express the tension between social classes,

while negative politeness strategies were used to navigate hierarchies and avoid conflict.

Chuka concluded that Nigerian drama utilizes FTAs and politeness strategies to critique

societal norms related to class and status.

Abiola (2020) studied the use of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian plays,

focusing on their role in addressing political power dynamics. The study explored how

Nigerian playwrights use language to reflect political struggles, power negotiations, and

resistance. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Abiola analysed political

drama, uncovering the ways in which FTAs were used to portray authority figures and

subordinates. The study found that negative politeness strategies were used to avoid direct

confrontation with those in power, while positive politeness strategies were used to build

rapport and alliances. Abiola concluded that FTAs and politeness strategies are essential tools

for the depiction of political power struggles in Nigerian drama.

Ajibola (2021) focused on the use of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian plays

that deal with the theme of conflict resolution. The study aimed to analyze how language is
 51

used as a tool for managing interpersonal conflicts and negotiating social roles. Drawing on

Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Ajibola examined the dialogue in several

Nigerian plays, finding that FTAs were employed to signify tension and conflict, while

politeness strategies were used to mitigate or resolve these tensions. The study concluded that

Nigerian plays provide an important reflection of the linguistic strategies employed to

negotiate and resolve conflicts in Nigerian society.

Ifeoma (2019) examined the linguistic strategies of FTAs and politeness in Nigerian

plays, specifically focusing on how they are used to express respect, solidarity, and social

cohesion. The study employed Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory to analyze

interactions in Nigerian drama. The research revealed that FTAs were used to represent social

conflict, while politeness strategies were employed to maintain harmony and reinforce social

bonds. Negative politeness strategies were often used in interactions involving authority,

while positive politeness strategies were used to reinforce group solidarity. Ifeoma concluded

that FTAs and politeness strategies are central to the portrayal of social relationships in

Nigerian drama.

Uche (2020) conducted a study on politeness strategies and FTAs in Nigerian plays,

focusing on their role in maintaining social norms and authority. The study used Brown and

Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory to analyze the linguistic dynamics between authority

figures and their subordinates in Nigerian theatre. Uche found that FTAs were often used to

portray power struggles and social hierarchies, while politeness strategies were employed to

avoid conflict and maintain relationships. The study concluded that Nigerian drama uses

FTAs and politeness strategies to reflect societal norms and the complexities of power

dynamics.
 52

Emeka (2016) examined the role of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian

theatre, focusing on their impact on interpersonal communication in different social settings.

The study analyzed Nigerian plays using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory.

Emeka found that FTAs were used to depict power struggles, while politeness strategies were

used to mediate these conflicts. Negative politeness strategies, such as deference, were found

to be common in interactions between authority figures and subordinates, while positive

politeness strategies were prevalent in family interactions. The study concluded that FTAs

and politeness strategies are essential in reflecting social norms and relationships in Nigerian

drama.

Ayodele (2019) focused on how Nigerian playwrights employ FTAs and politeness

strategies to portray themes of conflict and resolution in their works. Using Brown and

Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Ayodele analyzed dialogues from Nigerian plays,

finding that FTAs were employed in situations of conflict, while politeness strategies were

used to ease tension and facilitate reconciliation. The study revealed that negative politeness

strategies were more common in confrontational dialogues, while positive politeness

strategies were used to repair relationships. Ayodele concluded that Nigerian drama uses

FTAs and politeness strategies to explore the dynamics of conflict and its resolution.

Nnena (2021) investigated the role of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian

plays, particularly in the context of intergenerational communication. The study aimed to

explore how language reflects generational differences and power structures in Nigerian

society. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Nnena analyzed the

dialogues of various Nigerian plays. The study found that FTAs were frequently used in

intergenerational conflicts, with negative politeness strategies employed to manage face

 53

threats. The study concluded that Nigerian plays use FTAs and politeness strategies to

highlight generational power struggles and social expectations.

Sola (2020) examined the use of FTAs and politeness strategies in Nigerian plays to

understand how social identity is negotiated through language. Using Brown and Levinson’s

(1987) Politeness Theory, Sola analyzed dialogues from Nigerian plays, focusing on the

strategies characters used to navigate their social identities. The study found that FTAs were

used to highlight social differences, while politeness strategies were used to either preserve or

challenge social roles. Sola concluded that Nigerian drama employs FTAs and politeness

strategies to reflect the social complexities of identity and power dynamics.

Chinonso (2021) conducted a study on politeness strategies and FTAs in Nigerian

plays, with a particular focus on how language is used to maintain or challenge social

hierarchies. Using Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Theory, Chinonso analyzed

several Nigerian plays, finding that FTAs were often employed in contexts where characters

negotiated authority and status. The study concluded that Nigerian plays use FTAs and

politeness strategies to reflect the social and cultural norms that govern interpersonal

relationships.

This study will fill a crucial gap in the existing body of research by examining the

dynamics of Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs) and politeness strategies within Nigerian plays,

with a particular focus on how these concepts manifest in selected plays from Nigeria's

diverse regions. The researcher intentionally selected four plays from the East, West, North,

and South of Nigeria to provide a comprehensive analysis of the varied ways language,

power, and social dynamics interact across the country's rich cultural and linguistic

landscape. This regional focus is essential, as it ensures that the study captures the full

breadth of Nigeria’s socio-cultural complexity, highlighting the different cultural nuances and
 54

communication styles that exist within the country. To the best of the researcher’s

knowledge, no previous studies have examined Nigerian plays from all four geopolitical

zones in this manner. This makes the study unique in its approach and will offer a more

inclusive perspective on the use of language in Nigerian theatre, ensuring that regional

differences and local practices are thoroughly explored.

Additionally, the study will delve into the implications of inappropriate language use

in relationships, a persistent issue in Nigerian society. Misunderstandings and conflicts often

arise due to a lack of awareness regarding the impact of language, particularly impolite

language, on personal relationships. In many cases, inappropriate language has not only

strained interpersonal connections but has also contributed to broader societal tensions. This

study will explore how characters in Nigerian plays navigate the delicate balance between

maintaining their face and managing their interpersonal relationships through language. It

will illustrate how, when face-threatening acts are not properly managed, they can lead to

significant relational breakdowns, while also demonstrating how politeness strategies can

help foster mutual respect and understanding.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This study will be guided by two interrelated theoretical frameworks: Politeness

Theory and the Theory of Face, both of which offer valuable insights into the intricacies of

communication, particularly in the context of Nigerian plays. These frameworks will provide

a lens through which to examine how characters in the selected plays navigate their social

relationships through the use of language, focusing on how they manage face-threatening acts

and employ various politeness strategies to mitigate potential conflict and maintain social
 55

harmony. The application of these theories will allow for a deeper exploration of the

linguistic choices made by characters and how these choices reflect broader societal norms,

values, and cultural expectations.

Politeness Theory, as proposed by Brown and Levinson (1987), is concerned with

how individuals manage their social identity and self-image, or "face," in their interactions

with others. It posits that communication is not just about exchanging information but about

maintaining face, which is central to how individuals negotiate their social roles and

relationships. Brown and Levinson categorize face into two main types: positive face, which

refers to the desire to be liked and respected, and negative face, which reflects the desire for

autonomy and freedom from imposition. The theory suggests that politeness strategies are

employed to protect these faces during communication, especially when a speaker's words

could potentially threaten the self-image of themselves or others. This theory is highly

relevant to the present study because it helps to frame how characters in Nigerian plays

employ various politeness strategies, such as indirectness, hedging, and the use of

euphemisms, to avoid confrontation and maintain social harmony. By focusing on the use of

these strategies in the context of Nigerian theatre, the study will offer insights into how

politeness and face are integral to the construction of social order within these plays, and how

language use reflects the complex power dynamics and cultural norms that shape

interpersonal communication in Nigerian society.

The Theory of Face, which forms a core part of Politeness Theory, provides further

depth to the understanding of face management in communication. According to Brown and

Levinson (1987), face can be threatened by any communicative act that challenges an

individual’s self-image or social standing, such as insults, disrespect, or demands that

infringe on a person’s freedom. A face-threatening act (FTA) occurs when a speaker's

 56

utterance risks damaging another person’s positive or negative face, leading to potential

conflict or breakdown in communication. This theory is particularly relevant in the context of

Nigerian plays, where characters often navigate complex social hierarchies, power relations,

and cultural expectations. In these plays, characters may face frequent threats to their face

due to issues such as disrespect, social imposition, or challenges to their authority. The use of

language in these situations becomes a strategic tool for managing face, with characters often

deploying indirect speech acts, deference, or mitigation strategies to protect both their own

face and that of others. By applying the Theory of Face, the study will analyze how

characters in Nigerian plays manage these face-threatening situations, exploring the various

strategies they use to preserve their dignity, assert authority, or avoid conflict.

Both Politeness Theory and the Theory of Face are integral to understanding the

nuanced dynamics of language use in Nigerian plays, where social interactions are often

fraught with tension due to power imbalances, gender roles, and cultural expectations. These

theories offer a comprehensive framework for examining how characters navigate the

complexities of interpersonal communication, especially in contexts where the threat to face

is imminent. The theories provide the necessary tools to explore how politeness strategies are

employed to mitigate the impact of FTAs, maintain social harmony, and resolve conflicts. In

Nigerian plays, where communication often reflects broader societal issues such as class,

gender, and authority, these frameworks will help to illuminate how language functions as a

tool for negotiating power, respect, and social order. By focusing on these theories, this study

will contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of language in Nigerian theatre and its

broader implications for communication in everyday life.

The relevance of these theoretical frameworks to the present study is clear. They offer

a lens through which to explore the social dynamics within Nigerian plays, providing insights
 57

into how language shapes relationships and resolves conflicts. The study will use these

frameworks to examine how face-threatening acts are mitigated through politeness strategies,

highlighting the importance of language in maintaining social harmony. Furthermore, by

applying these theories to Nigerian theatre, the study will provide a deeper understanding of

how cultural norms and social expectations influence communication in this context. In doing

so, the study will contribute to the broader field of sociolinguistics and pragmatics, offering

new perspectives on the role of language in shaping social interactions, both in the realm of

theatre and in real-life communication. The findings will be particularly valuable for scholars,

educators, and practitioners interested in understanding the cultural and social dimensions of

communication in Nigerian society, as well as for anyone seeking to improve their own

interpersonal communication skills in a culturally sensitive manner.

2.4 Summary of Review

The literature review for this study outlines the theoretical frameworks of Politeness

Theory and the Theory of Face, which are essential for understanding how language operates

in social interactions. Politeness Theory, developed by Brown and Levinson (1987), explains

how individuals use language to maintain their social identity, or "face," and mitigate face-

threatening acts (FTAs) that could damage their social relationships. The Theory of Face, on

the other hand, delves into how face can be threatened by certain speech acts and how

speakers manage these threats through politeness strategies to preserve harmony in

communication. The review also highlights the role of language in Nigerian plays,

particularly in the portrayal of social dynamics and relationships. Language in Nigerian plays

often reflects the cultural complexities of the society, where face-threatening acts are

common, and characters employ various politeness strategies to manage their social

interactions. The study asserts that while previous research has examined politeness in
 58

language, few studies have specifically explored its use in Nigerian plays, especially with

regard to how these strategies are used to navigate interpersonal conflicts and power

dynamics within the Nigerian context.

A crucial gap identified in the literature is the lack of studies that specifically focus on

Nigerian plays from the four major geopolitical zones—East, West, North, and South. The

researcher intentionally selected plays from each of these regions to ensure a comprehensive

representation of the diverse social, cultural, and linguistic practices across Nigeria. To the

best of the researcher’s knowledge, no prior studies have explored Nigerian plays within this

broader regional context, making this study unique in its approach. By analysing plays from

these four geopolitical zones, the research will offer a more inclusive understanding of how

language is used in Nigerian plays to manage face-threatening acts and employ politeness

strategies across different cultural settings. This study will fill the gap by focusing on the

interplay between face-threatening acts and politeness strategies in Nigerian plays, with the

added contribution of regional diversity. The findings will contribute to the fields of

pragmatics and Nigerian play studies by offering fresh insights into the role of language in

shaping social interactions and power structures across Nigeria's diverse cultural landscape.

By filling this gap, the study will provide a deeper understanding of the linguistic and social

dynamics in Nigerian theatre, helping to bridge the gap between linguistic theory and the

socio-cultural realities of Nigerian society.

Chapter Three

Research Design and Methodology

 59

3.1 Research Design

The proposed study will adopt a qualitative research design. This design will be

appropriate for the study because it will allow for the in-depth examination of language use,

with particular attention to Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs) and politeness strategies within

Nigerian plays. The choice of a qualitative design is informed by the nature of the research

questions, which seek to explore how characters in Nigerian plays navigate interpersonal

relationships and maintain face through language. The qualitative approach will enable the

researcher to analyse textual data contextually, drawing on the theoretical frameworks of

Politeness Theory and the Theory of Face to interpret characters’ communicative behaviours

and their broader socio-cultural implications.

3.2 Methodology

The study will be carried out using textual analysis as the primary method. Since the

research involves the analysis of selected plays, the methodology will focus on interpreting

language use in literary texts. The study will involve a close reading of the selected texts,

guided by the theories of politeness and face, in order to uncover patterns of face-threatening

acts and the politeness strategies used to mitigate them. The study will adopt a descriptive

and interpretive approach to account for the cultural, social, and interpersonal dimensions

reflected in the language of the selected plays.

3.2.1 Population

The population for this study will comprise of Nigerian plays that reflect various

socio-cultural contexts across the country. Specifically, the focus will be on plays written by

Nigerian playwrights that depict diverse interpersonal and communal interactions through

dialogue and dramatic conflict. These texts serve as representations of the broader Nigerian
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society and are rich sources of pragmatic data for the analysis of face-threatening acts and

politeness strategies.

3.2.2 Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample for this study will consist of four selected Nigerian plays: Death and the

King’s Horseman by Wole Soyinka (South-West), Heart of Stone by Ahmed Yerima (North),

Wives’ Revolt by J.P. Clark (South-South), and Tell it to Women by Tess Onwueme (South-

East). The plays will be purposively selected to represent the four major geopolitical zones in

Nigeria, thereby offering a balanced and comprehensive insight into the sociolinguistic

practices across regional and cultural lines. The purposive sampling technique is deemed

suitable because it will allow the researcher to deliberately select texts that best address the

objectives of the study and are thematically relevant to the research problem.

3.2.3 Method of Data Collection

The data for this study will be collected from the textual content of the selected plays.

Specifically, the researcher will extract and document dialogues and scenes where face-

threatening acts are evident and where characters employ various politeness strategies to

manage interpersonal interactions. The texts will be read multiple times to identify recurring

patterns, themes, and instances of pragmatic phenomena. Notes and coding sheets will be

used to organise and categorise the data systematically.

3.2.4 Validation of Instrument

As this study will rely on textual analysis of published plays, the data will be

inherently validated through the authenticity and credibility of the selected texts. However, to

ensure analytical validity, the coding framework for identifying FTAs and politeness
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strategies will be reviewed by academic experts in the fields of pragmatics and African

drama. Their feedback will help refine the criteria for identifying relevant linguistic features

and ensure that the analysis is consistent, rigorous, and aligned with established theoretical

principles.

3.2.5 Method of Data Analysis

The method of data analysis will be content analysis, focusing on the thematic and

pragmatic interpretation of the selected texts. The researcher will apply concepts from

Politeness Theory and the Theory of Face to interpret how language is used to threaten or

preserve face, how characters negotiate social relationships, and how politeness strategies are

employed. The analysis will involve identifying specific instances of FTAs, categorising the

types of politeness strategies used (such as positive politeness, negative politeness, off-record

strategies, and bald-on-record strategies), and interpreting their functions within the context

of the plays. Attention will also be given to the cultural implications of these strategies and

how they reflect broader social and regional norms.

Through this analytical process, the study aims to generate insights into the interplay

between language, power, and culture, contributing to the understanding of pragmatic

features in Nigerian dramatic literature.