*Definition of Computer Graphics: *CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Display:

Computer Graphics is the field of study that deals with generating, manipulating, *Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm.
-Technology: Uses electron beams and a phosphor-coated screen.
and displaying visual images using computers. It involves techniques for creating 1. Input radius r and center (xc, yc)
-Size and Weight: Bulky and heavy.
and rendering 2D and 3D images, animations, and interactive visual content. 2. Set x = 0, y = r, p = 1 - r
-Power Consumption: High power usage.
*Major Applications in Real-World Domains: 3. While x ≤ y:
-Image Quality: Good color and contrast; no native resolution.
Entertainment & Media – Used extensively in movies, video games, and animation a. Plot 8 symmetric points using (x, y)
-Viewing Angle: Excellent from all directions.
to create realistic visual effects and characters. b. If p < 0:
-Response Time: Very fast; good for motion display.
User Interfaces (UI) – Powers graphical user interfaces (GUIs) in operating x=x+1
-Burn-in: Less prone to burn-in.
systems, applications, and mobile devices. p = p + 2x + 1
-Applications: Used in old televisions and monitors.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) – Utilized in engineering, architecture, and Else:
*LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):
product design to visualize and simulate models before actual production. x=x+1
-Technology: Uses liquid crystals and a backlight to produce images.
Medical Imaging – Enhances visualization in CT scans, MRIs, and surgical y=y-1
-Size and Weight: Thin and lightweight.
simulations for better diagnosis and planning. p = p + 2x - 2y + 1
-Power Consumption: Very energy-efficient.
Scientific Visualization – Helps in visualizing complex scientific data like weather *Advantages:
-Image Quality: Sharp images; limited contrast without LED enhancements.
patterns, molecular structures, or space simulations. -Uses only integer operations (no square roots or trigonometry).
-Viewing Angle: Limited; improves with IPS technology.
Virtual Reality (VR) & Augmented Reality (AR) – Core to immersive experiences -Efficient and fast.
-Response Time: Moderate; may show motion blur.
used in training, gaming, and education. -Can be easily extended to draw ellipses and arcs.
-Burn-in: Minimal risk.
Education and Training – Used in interactive tutorials, simulations, and e-learning *Cohen-Sutherland:
-Applications: Widely used in monitors, TVs, laptops, and smartphones.
platforms to enhance engagement and understanding. Uses region codes and bitwise tests.
*Plasma Display:
Simulation and Modeling – Enables realistic simulations in fields like aviation, Less efficient; may require multiple iterations.
-Technology: Uses electrically charged ionized gases (plasma) to emit light.
military, and automotive testing. Less precise due to repeated subdivision.
-Size and Weight: Thinner than CRT, heavier than LCD.
*Raster Scan Display System: Logical (bitwise) operations.
-Power Consumption: High, especially for bright scenes.
-Uses a systematic left-to-right, top-to-bottom scanning pattern to display images. Classifies endpoints into outcodes.
-Image Quality: Excellent contrast and color depth.
-Commonly used in TVs and monitors; suitable for pixel-based displays. Simpler logic, easier to implement.
-Viewing Angle: Wide viewing angles.
-Image is formed as a grid of pixels (bitmap), refreshed line-by-line. Good for quick rejection/acceptance.
-Response Time: Fast; good for action scenes.
-Ideal for realistic images, photographs, and complex graphics. Gives clipped line segment via iteration.
-Burn-in: Susceptible to screen burn-in.
-Easily supports color and shading through pixel manipulation. *Liang-Barsky:
-Applications: Used in large TVs and commercial displays (now largely
-Fixed resolution; image quality depends on pixel density. Uses parametric line equations.
discontinued).
-Requires a frame buffer to store pixel data for the entire screen. More efficient; fewer calculations and comparisons.
*Working of LCD (Explained in 8 Points):
-Slower for drawing lines or vectors as each pixel must be addressed. More precise with exact intersection points.
-Basic Structure: Consists of two polarized panels with liquid crystal
-Less flickering due to high refresh rates. Mathematical (arithmetic) calculations.
material in between.
-Generally cheaper and widely used in modern displays. Uses parameter values u for entering/exiting.
-Backlight: A fluorescent or LED backlight provides illumination from
*Random Scan Display System (Vector Display): Slightly more complex but faster.
behind.
-Electron beam directly draws only the required lines or shapes on the screen. Better for performance-critical applications.
-Polarizers: The light first passes through a polarizing filter that aligns light
-Used in early vector monitors and oscilloscopes. Computes directly using parametric endpoints.
waves in one direction.
-Constructs images using a sequence of straight-line segments. -Liquid Crystals: Electric currents manipulate liquid crystals to control
-Ideal for line drawings, CAD, and wireframe models. light passage.
-Difficult to display rich colors or shading; mostly monochrome. -Orientation: Crystals twist light as it passes, depending on voltage applied
-High resolution for lines and curves, not pixel-based. *Scan-Line Polygon Fill Algorithm*
to each pixel. The Scan-Line Polygon Fill Algorithm is a method used in computer
-Requires less memory since it stores drawing commands, not pixel data. -Color Filters: RGB filters on each pixel allow for the creation of full-color
-Faster for line-based images but not suitable for detailed pixel graphics. graphics to fill the interior pixels of a polygon efficiently by processing
images. the polygon one horizontal line (scan-line) at a time.
-More prone to flickering, especially with complex images. -Control Grid: A matrix of transistors (TFTs) controls each pixel
-More expensive and rare in modern use due to limitations. How it Works:
individually. Scan-line processing:
-Display Output: The light passes through the front polarizer, producing [Link] algorithm moves from the bottom to the top of the polygon,
visible images based on how the liquid crystals modulate it. processing one horizontal line (scan-line) at a time.
[Link] Table (ET):Precompute and store all polygon edges sorted by
their minimum y-coordinate.
*Aliasing in Computer Graphics: *Sutherland-Hodgman Polygon Clipping Algorithm Each entry stores: y min,y max,x at y min,slope −1
-Aliasing is the visual distortion or jagged edges seen in -Clips polygons against each edge of the clipping window sequentially. [Link] Edge Table (AET):
digital images. -Works well with convex clipping windows (usually rectangular). For each scan-line, maintain a list of edges that intersect it (active
-Occurs when high-resolution detail is sampled at too -Outputs a new polygon after clipping against each edge. edges).
low a resolution. -Handles convex and concave polygons as input. Update this list as the scan-line moves up.
-Examples:-Jagged edges on diagonal lines or curves -Simple and easy to implement. [Link] Intersections:
(also called "jaggies"). -Not efficient for complex polygons or concave clipping windows. Calculate x-intersections of active edges with the current scan-line.
-Happens because pixels are square and cannot -May produce incorrect results if clipping polygon is concave. Sort intersections by increasing x.
perfectly represent angled lines. -Mainly used for convex clipping regions. [Link] Pixels:
-Makes images look less smooth and realistic. *Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping Algorithm Fill pixels between pairs of intersections (inside the polygon).
*How Anti-Aliasing Reduces Visual Impact: -Designed to clip polygons against complex (concave) clipping windows. Generally, fill between pairs 1 & 2, 3 & 4, etc.
-Smoothing Edges:Anti-aliasing smooths out jagged -Uses vertex lists and linked structures to store input and clipping polygons. [Link] x-values:
edges by blending colors at boundaries. -Can handle both concave and convex polygons for subject and clipping For the next scan-line, update x-intersections using the inverse slope.
-Supersampling (SSAA):Renders the image at a higher polygons. *Handling Complex Polygons:
resolution, then downscales it for smoother edges. -Traces the polygon edges and outputs clipped polygons by following [Link]-intersecting or concave polygons:
-Multisampling (MSAA):Samples multiple points per intersection points. -The algorithm uses the even-odd parity rule:
pixel, improving edge quality with less processing. -More complex to implement than Sutherland-Hodgman. -While scanning, it toggles a flag each time it crosses an edge.
-Fast Approximate AA (FXAA):A quick post- -Efficient for clipping polygons with holes or self-intersecting polygons. -Pixels between pairs of crossings are filled.
processing filter that smooths edges after rendering. -Can generate multiple output polygons if clipping results in disconnected [Link] with holes:
-Alpha Blending:Uses transparency to blend edge parts. -Similar approach; the parity rule ensures holes are not filled.
pixels with the background for a smoother look. -Preferred when clipping against arbitrary polygonal clipping regions. -When entering and exiting the polygon or hole boundaries, the fill
-Visual Improvement:Results in cleaner, more natural toggles accordingly.
images, especially for text and 3D graphics. [Link] sharing vertices:Special handling to avoid counting shared
vertices twice, preventing double fills.
*Principles of Animation:
These are the core ideas that make animation appear natural and
*What is GKS?
GKS (Graphical Kernel System) is the first ISO standard for low-level expressive. Based on Disney’s 12 principles, some key ones include: *What is Perspective Projection?
computer graphics. It defines a device-independent interface for 2D vector [Link] and Stretch – Shows flexibility and volume. Perspective projection is a 3D-to-2D transformation that simulates how objects
graphics, allowing programs to be portable across different hardware systems. [Link] – Prepares the viewer for the action. appear smaller as they get further from the viewer — just like in real life.
-Main Features of GKS: [Link] – Clear presentation of the action. It gives a sense of depth and realism.
Device-independent graphics programming [Link] – Controls the speed and rhythm. Unlike parallel projection, lines converge at a vanishing point.
Supports 2D graphics only (GKS-3D extended to 3D) [Link]-through and Overlapping Action – Adds realism. *Derivation of Perspective Projection Matrix (1-point perspective)
Provides a standard set of graphics functions and primitives [Link] in and Ease out – Smooth acceleration and deceleration. Assume:
Allows interaction with multiple output/input devices (workstations) [Link] – Movement follows curved paths, not straight lines. Projection on the z = d plane (viewing plane).
Serves as a bridge between application software and graphics hardware [Link] Action – Adds depth to main actions. A 3D point: P(x,y,z)
-GKS Standards: [Link] – Highlights emotions or actions. Eye or center of projection at(0,0,0)
Standardized by ISO/IEC 7942 and ANSI X3.124 [Link] – Ensures characters and scenes are engaging. By similar triangles:
Defines: *Types of Animation
-Output primitives,Input primitives,Attribute functions,Transformation and 1. Scripting Animation
viewing,Workstation management,Segments and storage Animation is defined using scripts or code.
-GKS Primitives: Languages: JavaScript (Web), MEL (Maya Embedded Language)
[Link] Used for interactive or parameter-driven animations.
Draws a connected sequence of straight line segments. Example: HTML5 canvas animations, Blender scripts.
Defined by a set of points (x1,y1),(x 2,y2),... 2. Procedural Animation
Example: Used to draw borders, graphs, curves (approximated) Animation generated by algorithms or rules.
[Link] Useful for simulating natural phenomena (like water, fire, or
Draws symbols (markers) at specified coordinate points. physics-based movement).
Marker types include dot, plus, asterisk, etc. No need to animate each frame manually.
Example: Representing data points in a scatter plot Example: Particle systems, ragdoll physics.
[Link] Area 3. Representational Animation
Fills the interior of a closed polygonal area. Based on modeling real-world behavior.
Used to fill shapes like rectangles, polygons, etc. Often used in scientific or medical visualizations.
Fill styles: solid, hatch, pattern Realistic motion derived from mathematical or physical models.
[Link] Example: Simulating a mechanical arm or joint motion.
Outputs character strings at given positions. 4. Stochastic Animation
Attributes: font, size, orientation, alignment Uses randomness or probability to create variation.
Adds natural variability and unpredictability. *Perspective Projection (8 points)
Example: Labels in graphs or diagrams Lines converge at a vanishing point.
-Role of GKS Workstations: Example: Simulating crowds, rain, or flocking birds using
randomness. Far objects appear smaller.
A GKS Workstation is a logical interface between the GKS system and a Realistic and natural-looking.
physical device (like a screen, plotter, or printer). Used in games, 3D movies, and simulations.
Workstation roles: Depth is clearly visible.
[Link] input/output with a physical device. Non-linear projection.
[Link] multiple devices (e.g., CRT display, hardcopy device). Needs more calculations (divide by z).
[Link] how GKS functions are mapped to the specific device. Supports 1-point, 2-point, or 3-point views.
[Link] simultaneous use of multiple devices (multi-workstation mode). *Parallel Projection (8 points)
[Link] device attributes, such as resolution, color support, and coordinate Lines remain parallel.
systems. Objects stay the same size, even if far.
Looks less realistic.
Used in engineering and CAD drawings.
No depth perception.
Linear and simple projection.
Faster to compute.
Includes orthographic and oblique types.