Characteristics of Later Mughals Period (1707–1761):

Re-emergence of regional identities due to weakening central control.

Nobility feuds became common in the Mughal court, weakening unity.
Frequent foreign invasions, especially by Nadir Shah (1739), led to massive plunder.
Mughal rulers remained nominally supreme, but real power declined significantly.
Rise of autonomous states like Awadh, Hyderabad, Bengal, and Marathas.
Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)
Also known as: Mu’azzam, Shah-i-Bekhabai
Accession
Eldest son of Aurangzeb; ascended throne after war of succession.Real power held by PM
Zulfiqar Khan.
Policies & Administration
Adopted a conciliatory approach towards regional powers.Tolerant of Hindus but jizya not
abolished.Lavish grants to nobles worsened finances.
Relations with Powers
Marathas: Released Shahu, gave Sardeshmukhi (not Chauth).Rajputs: Recognized
autonomy of Marwar & Mewar.Sikhs: Initially friendly with Guru Gobind Singh; later fought
Banda Bahadur, defeated him at Lohgarh.Allied with Jat Churaman & Bundela Chhatrasal
against Sikhs.Died in 1712 during a campaign against Sikhs.​

Jahandar Shah (1712–1713)

First Puppet Mughal EmperorBacked by Zulfiqar Khan (Irani Party), the real power behind
the throne.
Accession & Rule
He won the throne after Bahadur Shah’s death with Zulfiqar Khan’s support. It marked the
rise of “kingmaker nobles”; the emperor was a figurehead.
Key Policies
Abolished jizya → showed religious leniency.
Adopted pacifying approach towards Marathas, Rajputs, and Hindu chiefs.
Granted Chauth & Sardeshmukhi to Maratha ruler Shahu in the Deccan.
Administration=Introduced Ijarah (Revenue Farming): let contractors collect taxes,
damaging long-term stability.Attempted reforms by reviewing jagir and office grants.Court
culture deteriorated — dominated by Lal Kanwar, a former dancing girl.killed by Farrukhsiyar
(another Mughal claimant) with help from Sayyid Brothers.

Farrukh Siyar (1713–1719)

Came to power after defeating Jahandar Shah at Agra with help from the Sayyid Brothers
(Abdullah Khan & Hussain Ali Khan).Sayyid Brothers became kingmakers; held real power
after killing Zulfiqar Khan. Religious tolerance: Abolished jizya and pilgrimage tax in several
regions. Tried to reconcile with Marathas, Jats, and Rajputs; continued suppression of Sikh
rebellion. Banda Bahadur, Sikh leader, was executed during his reign. 1717 Farman:
Granted East India Company customs-free trade rights in Bengal. Power struggle developed
between Farrukh Siyar and the Sayyid Brothers. 1719, he was killed by the Sayyid Brothers
with help from Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.​
First Mughal emperor to be assassinated by his own nobles.​
Rafi-us-Darajat (1719)Puppet ruler installed by Sayyid Brothers.Reigned for 4 months,
died due to excessive drinking.Faced a revolt by Nikusiyar (Aurangzeb’s grandson), who
briefly took Agra with help from Mitrasen (Nagar Brahmin).Rafi-us-Daula / Shah Jahan
II (1719) Succeeded Darajat; also placed by Sayyid Brothers. Nikusiyar was captured and
imprisoned by Hussain Ali Khan.Ruled briefly; died of TB, worsened by opium use.

Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)

Also known as Roshan Akhtar and nicknamed “Rangeela” for his indulgent lifestyle.

Accession & Court Politics

• Placed on the throne by Sayyid Brothers.Later colluded with Nizam-ul-Mulk to eliminate the
Sayyid Brothers (1720).Known for weak leadership; neglected state affairs (Tarikh-i-Hind).

Administrative Developments:Nizam-ul-Mulk appointed Wazir, later founded Hyderabad as

an autonomous state.

Other semi-independent statesemerged:Awadh under Saadat Khan,Bengal under Murshid

Quli Khan

Maratha Activities:Bajirao I raided Delhi in 1737, marking Maratha northern expansion.

Foreign Invasions:1739 – Nadir Shah (Persia) invaded India; Defeated Mughals in Battle of
Karnal, imprisoned Muhammad Shah. Peacock Throne, Kohinoor, and Darya-i-Noor
looted. Annexed territories west of the Indus, including Kabul.Became de facto Mughal
emperor for 57 days.• Ahmed Shah Abdali began raids into India during his reign.

Ahmad Shah (1748–1754)

Son of Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.​

An incompetent ruler who delegated power to his mother, Udham Bai (Qibla-i-Alam).​
Udham Bai, lacking political skill, ruled with the influence of her paramour, Javid Khan (a
eunuch).​
Ahmad Shah Abdali (ruler of Afghanistan) invaded India twice during his reign.​
Ahmad Shah surrendered Punjab and Multan to appease Abdali.​
The Marathas seized control of Malwa and Bundelkhand.​
Imad-ul-Mulk became wazir and de facto ruler; he later blinded and imprisoned Ahmad Shah
in Salimgarh.​
His reign marked the growing influence of nobles and decline of central authority.​

Alamgir II (1754–1759)

Second son of Jahandar Shah; placed on the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk after deposing
Ahmad Shah.​
A weak ruler dominated by his wazir Imad-ul-Mulk, who later assassinated him in
1759.​
Battle of Plassey (1757) occurred during his reign, marking the rise of British power
in Bengal.​
Faced repeated invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1757 and 1759.​
In 1757, Abdali captured Delhi, recognized Alamgir II as emperor, and appointed
Najib-ud-Daula as Mir Bakshi and his Supreme Agent in India.​
In 1758, Raghunath Rao (Maratha chief) expelled Najib-ud-Daula from Delhi and
captured Punjab (earlier ceded to Abdali).​
After Alamgir II’s assassination, Shah Jahan III was placed on the throne by
Imad-ul-Mulk but was also ineffective.​

Shah Alam II (1760–1806)

Born: Ali Gohar / A.B. Gauhar — Son of Alamgir II

Installed as Emperor in 1760 by Marathas (Sadashivrao Bhau), replacing Shah Jahan III.
Could not return to Delhi until 1772, under the protection of Mahadaji Shinde (Maratha
general). His reign saw key events marking Mughal decline and British rise.

Key Events:

●​ Third Battle of Panipat (1761):

○​ Fought between Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali (with Rohillas &
Shuja-ud-Daula).
○​ Maratha defeat crushed their imperial ambitions.
○​ Abdali recognized Shah Alam II as Mughal Emperor via a royal firman.​

●​ Battle of Buxar (1764):​

Shah Alam II allied with Shuja-ud-Daula and Mir Qasim against the British East India
Company (EIC).Defeat forced him to submit to British authority.​

●​ Treaty of Allahabad (1765):​

Granted Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the EIC.Became the first
Mughal pensioner of the British.​
Resided in Allahabad under Company protection (1765–1772).Returned to Delhi in
1772 under Maratha escort.His reign symbolized the end of Mughal sovereignty and
the rise of British power.

Akbar Shah II (1806–1837)

Second son of Shah Alam II

●​ A symbolic figurehead with no real power due to growing British dominance.

●​ Granted the title of “Raja” to Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who was sent to England to
appeal for better pension terms.
 ●​ Founded the Phool Walon Ki Sair, a Hindu-Muslim unity festival. In 1835, the EIC
stopped recognizing the Mughal emperor as their sovereign:​
Removed his name from coins.​
Stopped referring to itself as his subject.

Bahadur Shah II (Zafar) (1837–1857)

Last Mughal Emperor

●​ Aged 62 when he ascended the throne.

●​ Renowned Urdu poet with pen name “Zafar”.
●​ Became a symbolic figurehead in the Revolt of 1857, declared Emperor by Indian
rebels.
●​ After the revolt’s failure:​
Captured by the British.​
Exiled to Rangoon (Burma), where he died in 1862.​
On 1st November 1858, Queen Victoria officially ended the Mughal Empire,
marking the start of British Crown Rule in India.
Invasion by Nadir Shah (1739) and later Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the empire.​
The 1857 Revolt marked the symbolic end of Mughal authority.The British East
IndiaCompany took control, leading to the formal end of the empire in 1858.

Deccan Policy Attempt to extend control over Deccan states• Resulted in continual werfore•
Heavily strained Mughal administration

Rise of Regional States in 18th Century India

The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century gave rise to Successor States, New
States, and Independent States.

Among the Successor States, Hyderabad was founded in 1724 by Qlich Khan
(Nizam-ul-Mulk), who defeated Mubariz Khan in the Battle of Shaker-Kheda. Notable battles
include Palkhed (1728) and Kharda (1795), both against the Marathas.

In Carnatic, the Mughal subah came under the Nizam of Hyderabad. Nawab Saadatullah
appointed his nephew Dost Ali without Nizam’s consent, leading to Maratha invasion in
1740, which killed Dost Ali and imprisoned his son-in-law Chanda Sahib in Satara. This
instability invited European interference, resulting in the Carnatic Wars.

In Bengal, autonomy began under Murshid Quli Khan in 1717, who was both Diwan and later
Subahdar, introducing the Malzamani revenue system. Alivardi Khan seized power after
defeating Sarfaraz Khan in the Battle of Gheria, establishing Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa as
sovereign. He was succeeded in 1765 by his grandson Siraj ud-Daula.

In Awadh, Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk) became Subahdar in 1722, aiming for

independence. His successors, Safdar Jung and Shuja ud-Daula, expanded and
consolidated Awadh’s autonomy by 1764 despite frequent rebellions.

Among New States, the Maratha Kingdom, founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji in the 17th
century, evolved into a confederacy under Balaji Vishwanath Peshwa. The hereditary post
passed to his son Baji Rao, under whom the Marathas expanded with regional
branches—Gaekwads (Baroda), Bhosle (Nagpur), Holkar (Indore), Scindia (Gwalior), and
Peshwa (Poona). Baji Rao also took Bassein and Salsette from the Portuguese. The Third
Battle of Panipat (1761) was fought against Abdali, with Marathas acting as Mughal
protectors under Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb).

The Sikh Confederacy, formed in resistance to Mughal suppression, consisted of 12 Misls. It

transformed into the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh of the Sukerchakia Misl, a former
Afghan governor, who became Maharaja of Punjab, initiating a new era of Sikh dominance.

Among Independent States, Mysore evolved from a Vijayanagar viceroyalty into a kingdom
under the Wodeyars, later overtaken by Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan in the late 18th century.
In Kerala, Martanda Varma founded an independent state with Travancore as its capital,
expanding from Kanyakumari to Cochin. The Jats, under Churaman and Badan Singh,
established the kingdom of Bharatpur, which peaked under Suraj Mal. In the north, Ali
Muhammad Khan used post-Nadir Shah chaos to form Rohilkhand, a petty kingdom in North
India.
CHAPTER 3=Advent of Europeans and consolidation of british
power in india

Prelude to European Arrival in India

Why a Sea Route to India

(i) Spirit of renaissance in 15th-century Europe.

(ii) European economy growing rapidly, leading to prosperity and demand for luxury goods;
increase in the supply of meat requiring spices for preservation.

(iii) Capture of Constantinople in 1453, and Syria and Egypt later by the Ottoman Turks
calling for a new route to reach India without dealing with Arabs and Turks.

(iv) Venice and Genoa too small to stand up to the Turks

.(v) Spain and Portugal aided with money and men by the NorthEuropeans and by ships and
technical knowledge by theGenoese.

(vi) The Portuguese the pioneers followed by the Dutch, English,Danes and the French
respectively to reach India.

(vii) Spices

Age of Discovery
●​ Expeditions aimed at reaching Asia via the sea.
●​ Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Divided the world between Spain and Portugal.
●​ 1519: Ferdinand Magellan’s fleet began the first circumnavigation of the globe.

European Trade in India

●​ By the 17th century, Europeans had coastal trading posts in India.
●​ Trade done via existing networks, using bullion.
●​ Trade favored India and boosted its economic growth.

European Rivalry & British Dominance

●​ Competition for monopolies and territories.
●​ By 1750s, the British East India Company became dominant.

Major European Powers in India

 Power Arrival Year

Portuguese 1498

Dutch 1602

English 1608

Danes 1616

French 1664

The Portuguese in India (1498–1961)

Background to the Search for a Sea Route
●​ After the 7th century, Arabs dominated trade routes between India and Europe via
the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.
●​ The fall of Constantinople (1453) made traditional land routes to Asia inaccessible to
Europeans.
●​ High demand for Indian goods such as spices, textiles, and gems pushed European
powers to explore sea routes.​
Renaissance and Maritime Expansion
●​ The Renaissance encouraged curiosity, scientific innovation, and exploration.
●​ Technological improvements in navigation, shipbuilding, and armaments (like
cannon-mounted ships) made long voyages possible.
●​ Portugal led the maritime race due to Genoese expertise and state sponsorship
under Prince Henry the Navigator.
●​ The Papal Bull (1454) and the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) legitimized Portuguese
claims over the East.​
Discovery of the Sea Route to India
●​ Bartholomew Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.
 ●​ Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498, guided by an Indian pilot. Initial trade was
disrupted by hostility from Arab merchants.​
Establishment of Portuguese Power
Early Settlements

●​ Cabral established the first short-lived factory at Calicut in 1500.

●​ Lasting factories were set up at Cochin (1503) and Cannanore (1505).
●​ These trading posts became fortified bases to control trade.

Estado da Índia

●​ Formed in 1503–04 to administer Portuguese possessions in Asia.

●​ Marked a shift from commercial enterprise to imperial ambition.
●​ Governed by a viceroy and backed by military and missionary efforts.

Expansion and Governance

Early Portuguese Encounters on the Malabar Coast

1.​ Abdul Majid: Indian Pilot​

●​ Vasco da Gama’s 1498 voyage succeeded with help from Abdul Majid, a Gujarati
Muslim pilot, who guided him across the Arabian Sea to Calicut, initiating direct
Indo-European maritime contact.​

2.​ Zamorin’s Reception​

●​ Zamorin of Calicut welcomed the Portuguese, seeing them as potential trade

partners.
●​ His approach was shaped by Calicut’s role as a trading entrepôt, unaware of
Portuguese colonial ambitions.​

3.​ Cabral’s Retaliation (1500)​

●​ After locals attacked the Portuguese factory at Calicut, Pedro Cabral retaliated:
○​ Burned Arab ships, killed hundreds, and bombarded Calicut.
●​ This marked a shift from trade to violence, leading Portugal to ally with Cochin and
Cannanore.​

4.​ Vasco da Gama’s Return (1501)

●​ On finding that the Zamorin refused to expel Arab merchants, Vasco da Gama:​

○​ Attacked Arab shipping, seized cargo, and executed crew.

His actions reflected a mix of commercial greed and religious hostility, laying the foundation
for coercive colonialism.​

Francisco de Almeida (1505–1509)

●​ First Viceroy implemented the Blue Water Policy for naval dominance.
●​ Introduced the Cartaz system, requiring all ships to carry Portuguese-issued passes.
●​ Victory at the Battle of Diu (1509) secured Portuguese control over Indian Ocean
trade.

Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515)

●​ Captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultan in 1510, establishing a permanent base.
●​ Expanded to Malacca, Ormuz, and East Africa.
●​ Promoted intermarriage with locals, abolished sati, and integrated Indians into the
administration.
●​ Strengthened the Cartaz system and encouraged agriculture and infrastructure.

Nino da Cunha (1529–1538)

●​ Transferred capital from Cochin to Goa.

●​ Acquired Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat (1534).
●​ Extended influence into Bengal, establishing Hooghly as a settlement.

Territorial Spread
●​ Goa and nearby regions formed the core.
●​ Coastal presence from Diu to Mumbai and Mangalore to Calicut.
●​ Outposts in eastern India at San Thome and Hooghly.
●​ Strong naval control from the Persian Gulf to Southeast Asia.​
Administrative Structure
●​ Viceroy: Supreme authority, generally appointed for three years.
●​ Vedor da Fazenda: Managed revenue and cargo.
●​ Captains and Factors: Oversaw local governance and customs collection.​
Religious Policy and Indo-Portuguese Relations
●​ Initially tolerant, but later introduced the Goa Inquisition (from 1560).
●​ Forced conversions and temple destruction strained relations with locals.
●​ Jesuit missions to the Mughal court under Akbar were unsuccessful in converting him
but increased theological exchange.​
Impact on Indian Maritime Trade
●​ Introduced the Cartaz system, enforcing control over Indian Ocean trade routes.
●​ Disrupted Arab and Indian trade networks through piracy, coercion, and tribute
demands.
●​ Established naval hegemony and trade monopolies using superior firepower and
strategic fortresses.
Initiation of European Colonialism
●​ First European power to establish territorial control in India (Goa, 1510).
●​ Model of fortified trade posts and political rule later emulated by Dutch, English, and
French.
●​ Set the precedent for combining military, trade, and missionary objectives.

Coercion vs. Diplomacy: Portuguese and English

Comparison

Factor Portuguese English

Entry Strategy Military conquest Commercial diplomacy

Trade Method Monopolistic, enforced Competitive trade with

Cartaz system Indian rulers

Local Relations Forced conversions and Avoided interference in

conflicts religion

Governance Style Centralized under viceroys Chartered company rule

Cultural and Technological Contributions

●​ Introduced European art, printing, and Western musical instruments.
●​ Printed Christian texts in Kannada and Malayalam.
●​ Brought crops like tobacco, cashew, and pineapple.
●​ Introduced matchlocks, artillery, and Western shipbuilding techniques.

Decline of Portuguese Power

●​ Military defeats by Dutch (Malacca, Sri Lanka) and English (Battle of Swally, 1612).
●​ Maratha expansion led to loss of Bassein and Salsette in 1739.
●​ Religious intolerance alienated local allies.
●​ Administrative corruption and neglect by the Portuguese crown.
●​ Union with Spain (1580–1640) weakened focus on Indian affairs.
●​ Mughal action: Siege of Hooghly in 1632 following Portuguese piracy.
Final Phase
●​ Retained only Goa, Daman, and Diu by the 18th century.
●​ Continued as a minor colonial outpost until India annexed these territories in 1961
during Operation Vijay.

Significance of Portuguese Presence in India

1.​ Pioneers of European Colonialism in Asia: Set a precedent for territorial control and
military-backed trade that others followed.
2.​ Monopolization of Maritime Trade: Displaced traditional Indian and Arab maritime
powers and restructured Indian Ocean trade.​
Introduction of Naval Warfare in Indian Waters: Naval supremacy became a key
factor in future European power struggles in India.
3.​ Cultural Exchange and Hybridization: Facilitated the fusion of European and Indian
cultural, linguistic, and artistic elements.
4.​ Religious Conflict Legacy: Their intolerance and missionary zeal left long-term
tensions between colonial rulers and local populations.
5.​ Decline Marked Transition: Their fall highlighted the shift from aggressive military
colonization to more commercial, diplomatically nuanced models adopted by the
British.​

Timeline Summary

Year Event

1498 Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut

1503 First lasting factory at Cochin

1509 Battle of Diu – Portuguese naval supremacy

1510 Capture of Goa by Albuquerque

1534 Treaty of Bassein with Bahadur Shah

 1580 Union of Portugal with Spain

1612 English defeat Portuguese at Battle of

Swally

1632 Mughal siege of Hooghly

1739 Marathas capture Salsette and Bassein

1961 Goa, Daman, and Diu annexed by India

The Dutch in India

Entry into Eastern Trade

●​ Driven by commercial enterprise and rivalry with Catholic Spain and Portugal, the
Dutch ventured into the East.
●​ Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach India in 1596, landing at
Sumatra and Bantam.
●​ By 1600, the Dutch had established a robust Eastern trade network stretching from
the Persian Gulf to Japan, specializing in the redistributive trade—transporting goods
between regions (e.g., Indian textiles to Indonesia; spices back to Europe).

Dutch East India Company (VOC) – Formation & Powers

●​ In 1602, the States-General of the Netherlands merged several competing

companies to form the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) or the Dutch
East India Company.
●​ The VOC had quasi-sovereign powers: the right to wage war, conclude treaties,
acquire territory, and build fortresses.

Economic Motives & Trade Policy

●​ Primary interest lay in the Spice Islands (Indonesia) rather than India. However, the
Dutch soon discovered the strategic need for Indian goods:
○​ Indian textiles were in high demand in Southeast Asia.
○​ In return, Indian markets required pepper and spices.

Thus, the Dutch were the first to systematically make “Indian cloth” an export commodity,
laying foundations for India’s export-oriented textile trade.
​
Dutch Settlements and Factories in India

●​ 1605: First factory established at Masulipatnam under the Sultan of Golconda.

●​ Other early factories:
○​ Nizampatnam (Pettapoli)
○​ Pulicat (1609) – became their initial headquarters in India after a treaty with
the King of Chandragiri.​

■​ Here, they minted gold coins called Pagodas.

●​ 1690: Headquarters shifted from Pulicat to Nagapattinam, captured from the
Portuguese.
●​ Other major factories:​

○​ Surat (1616)
○​ Bimlipatam (1641)
○​ Karaikal (1645)
○​ Chinsura (1653)
○​ Baranagar, Kasimbazar, Balasore, Patna, Cochin (1663)

Trade Commodities

●​ Exports from India: textiles (from Bengal, Gujarat, Coromandel), silk, indigo (Yamuna
Valley, Central India), saltpetre (Bihar), opium and rice (Ganga valley).​
These were redistributed to Malay Archipelago and beyond, forming part of an
elaborate intra-Asian trade network.

Administrative Structure

●​ Factory heads were called factors, categorized as traders.

●​ The Dutch followed a cooperative or cartel-based trade model, coordinating pricing
and trade volume across factories to maintain monopolistic control.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry

Causes

●​ As the English East India Company began expanding in the East, commercial rivalry
with the Dutch intensified.
●​ Both vied for dominance over lucrative Asian trade routes, especially the spice trade.​

Major Conflict: Amboyna Massacre (1623)

●​ Took place in Amboyna (Indonesia)—the Dutch captured it from the Portuguese in

1605.
●​ Dutch killed 10 Englishmen and 9 Japanese, accusing them of conspiracy.
●​ This strained relations permanently; the Dutch focused on Indonesia, while the
English turned to India.
Later Clashes

●​ Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–74) disrupted communications between Surat and

Bombay.
●​ Dutch forces captured three English ships in the Bay of Bengal.
●​ Battle of Hooghly / Battle of Chinsura / Battle of Bedara (1759):English retaliated and
defeated the Dutch near Hooghly, crushing Dutch ambitions in India.

Decline of Dutch in India

●​ Focus Shift: The Dutch diverted resources to the Malay Archipelago, finding it far
more profitable.
●​ The defeat in 1759 and their lack of political ambitions in India led to their eventual
retreat.
●​ Unlike the Portuguese, the Dutch were not interested in empire-building, remaining
primarily commercial.

Analytical Themes (For UPSC Mains Enrichment)

●​ Portuguese vs. Dutch Approach:

○​ Portuguese used religious conversion and naval coercion.
○​ Dutch emphasized commercial networks, treaties, and redistribution-based
trade.​

●​ Legacy:
○​ Early model of cartel-based trade, textile export orientation, and strategic
factory placement.
○​ Helped integrate India into a wider Asian maritime trade economy.

​
The English

East India Company: Early Expansion in India

Charter of Queen Elizabeth I (1600)

📌 Formation of East India Company – Short Notes

●​ 1599: ‘Merchant Adventurers’ form a trading company.​

●​ 1600 (Dec 31): Queen Elizabeth I issues a charter to the “Governor and Company of
Merchants of London trading into the East Indies.”​

●​ Monopoly: 15-year exclusive trade rights east of the Cape of Good Hope (extended
indefinitely in 1609).​

●​ Initial Focus: Spice Islands (Indonesia).​

 ●​ Shift to India: Due to Dutch dominance in Southeast Asia.​

●​ Contextual Background:​

○​ Boost in naval confidence post:​

■​ Francis Drake’s circumnavigation (1580).​

■​ Defeat of Spanish Armada (1588).​

Early English Settlements in India

Here’s a concise table summarizing the Early English Settlements in India across different
regions:

Region Year Event

Western India (Surat) 1608 Captain William Hawkins

arrived at Jahangir’s court
(ship: Hector)

1609 Hawkins secured farman but

had to leave due to
Portuguese intrigues

1612 Captain Thomas Best

defeated Portuguese at
Battle of Swally

1613 Factory at Surat established

by royal farman

1615–19 Sir Thomas Roe obtained

factory rights at Agra,
Broach, Ahmedabad
Southern India (Coromandel 1611 Temporary factory at
& Deccan) Masulipatnam

1616 First permanent factory in

south at Masulipatnam

1632 Golden Farman from

Golconda: duty-free trade
(500 pagodas/year)

1639 Francis Day leased Madras

from Chandragiri Raja →
Fort St. George built

1690 Fort Devanapatnam

purchased; renamed Fort
David

1658 Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,

Coromandel under Fort St.
George control

Bombay (West Coast) 1662 Gifted to Charles II as dowry

from Portugal

1668 Transferred to Company for

annual rent of £10

1687 Bombay becomes

Company’s western
headquarters
Eastern India (Bengal & 1633 First factory on southeastern
Orissa) coast at Balasore, Orissa

1651 Factory at Hugli with Shah

Shuja’s permission (Rs
3,000/year)

1667 Aurangzeb’s farman granted

trade rights

1686 Conflict with Mughals;

Company retaliated

1690 Job Charnock returned to

Sutanuti

1691 Imperial farman: duty-free

trade in Bengal

1697 Fortification at Sutanuti →

Fort William

1698 Zamindari of Sutanuti,

Kalikata, Gobindapur
acquired

1700 Calcutta becomes Eastern

Presidency HQ (Sir Charles
Eyre)

Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans (1717): The “Magna Carta” of

the Company
 ●​ Mission led by John Surman to the Mughal court.
●​ Farrukhsiyar’s farmans consolidated and expanded previous privileges:

Bengal

●​ Complete customs exemption on English trade (in return for Rs. 3,000/year).
●​ Right to issue dastaks (trade passes) – later widely misused by private traders.
●​ Right to rent additional land around Calcutta.

Madras and Hyderabad

●​ Confirmed existing privileges of duty-free trade in Madras.

●​ Allowed to continue paying only the prevailing rent for Madras.

Surat and Gujarat

●​ Trade was exempted from all duties for Rs. 10,000/year.

Currency

●​ Company’s Bombay-minted coins were to be accepted as legal tender throughout the

Mughal Empire.

Rivalry and Company Consolidation

●​ The Portuguese lost influence after the 1612 Battle of Swally and Bombay’s 1662
transfer.
●​ The Dutch, after the Amboyna massacre (1623), focused on Indonesia, abandoning
Indian ambitions.
●​ In 1688, Whig opposition to the Company’s monopoly led to the creation of a rival
company.
●​ In 1708, both companies merged to form the United Company of Merchants of
England Trading to the East Indies.
●​ The unified company had a court of 24 directors who managed operations via
specialized committees.

Mains-Oriented Themes & Analysis

Diplomacy over Coercion

●​ English gained trade rights through ambassadors like Hawkins, Roe, and
Surman—unlike Portuguese reliance on naval power and coercion.

Strategic Site Selection

●​ Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta were coastal, easily defensible, and commercially
viable.
●​ Forts (St. George, William) enabled military protection and local influence.
Charters and Farmans as Tools of Empire

●​ Royal charters and Mughal farmans were the legal foundations for Company trade.
●​ Farmans like those of 1717 gave the Company institutional leverage to dominate
Indian commerce.

From Trade to Political Power

●​ Fortification and administrative consolidation transformed trading posts into centers

of governance, laying groundwork for colonial control.

Abuse of Dastaks

●​ Post-1717, Company servants misused dastaks for private trade, evading taxes,
leading to Indian merchant resentment and loss of state revenue.

The French

1. Foundation of French Centres in India

●​ Late Arrival: French came last among Europeans to India; formed French East India
Company (1664) under Colbert during Louis XIV’s reign.
●​ Charter: Given 50-year monopoly in Indian and Pacific Oceans; granted Madagascar
and any territories they could conquer.​

●​ Initial Settlements:​

○​ Surat (1667): Led by Francois Caron.

○​ Masulipatnam (1669): Founded by Persian, Mercara.
○​ Chandernagore (1673): Township granted by Shaista Khan (Bengal).
○​ Pondicherry (1674): Granted by Sher Khan Lodi (Bijapur); developed by
Francois Martin.
○​ Other factories: Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, Qasim Bazar.

2. French Consolidation & Setbacks

●​ Early Setbacks:
○​ War with Dutch: Dutch seized Pondicherry (1693); returned via Treaty of
Ryswick (1697).
○​ War of Spanish Succession: French lost Surat, Masulipatnam, Bantam.
○​ Death of Francois Martin (1706) weakened leadership.
●​ Reorganisation (1720): Rebranded as Perpetual Company of the Indies.​

○​ Governors Lenoir and Dumas (1720–1742) revived strength.

○​ Support from French Indian Ocean colonies (Mauritius, Reunion).

3. Anglo-French Rivalry in India

●​ Reflected global France-England rivalry; culminated in Carnatic Wars.

4. First Carnatic War (1740–48)

●​ Background: Linked to Austrian War of Succession.

●​ Trigger: English navy seized French ships; France retaliated by capturing Madras
(1746) with help of Admiral La Bourdonnais.​

●​ Battle of St. Thome (1746):​

○​ Small French force defeated Nawab Anwar-ud-din’s army at River Adyar.

○​ Revealed: Superiority of disciplined European troops over large Indian
armies.
●​ Result: Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748); Madras returned to English.
●​ Significance: Naval power and European military tactics became key to supremacy in
India.

5. Second Carnatic War (1749–54)

●​ Causes:​

○​ Death of Nizam-ul-Mulk; succession disputes in Hyderabad and Carnatic.

○​ Dupleix supported Muzaffar Jang (Hyderabad) & Chanda Sahib (Carnatic).
○​ English supported Nasir Jang & Muhammad Ali respectively.
●​ Battle of Ambur (1749): Anwar-ud-din killed; French-backed claimants won.​

●​ Key Events:​

○​ Dupleix became governor of Mughal territories south of Krishna.

○​ Robert Clive’s raid on Arcot (1751) with 210 men turned tide.
○​ Siege of Trichinopoly (1752) failed; Chanda Sahib executed.

6. Rise and Fall of Dupleix

●​ Profile:​

○​ Governor of Chandernagore (1730), later Governor-General of French India

(1741).
○​ Conferred titles by Mughal emperor & Muzaffar Jang.​

●​ As Administrator:
○​ Balanced budget, improved defence, expanded trade despite French
constraints.​

●​ As Diplomat:
○​ Used Nawab to delay English attack; didn’t fulfil promises to him.
○​ Originated subsidiary alliance (e.g., French troops in Hyderabad).
○​ Interfered in Indian succession to install friendly rulers.​

●​ Failure:
 ○​ Recalled (1754) due to high costs, lack of battlefield leadership, autocratic
style.
○​ Replaced by Godeheu, who signed treaty with English (mutual
non-interference).​

●​ Significance:
○​ Marked decline of French political ambition in India.

7. Third Carnatic War (1758–63)

●​ Global Context: Linked to Seven Years’ War (1756–63).

●​ Course:​

○​ The French under Lally captured St. David and Vizianagaram.

○​ English counterattacked; defeated French navy at Masulipatnam.​

●​ Battle of Wandiwash (1760):​

○​ Decisive battle: Eyre Coote defeated Lally; Bussy captured.

○​ Pondicherry fell (1761) after an 8-month siege.​

●​ Result:​

○​ Treaty of Paris (1763): French restored commercial factories but lost political
power.
○​ Marked end of French imperial ambitions in India.

8. Significance of Anglo-French Struggle

●​ Turning Point: Battle of Wandiwash ended French political challenge.

●​ Post-War: French, like Portuguese and Dutch, reduced to trading enclaves.

9. Comparative Analysis: French vs English in India

Aspect English French

Nature Private enterprise → quick State-controlled →

decisions bureaucratic delays

Trade Centres Calcutta, Bombay, Madras Only Pondicherry

Navy Superior; disrupted French Weaker; isolated French
supply lines settlements

Financial Policy Commercial focus Over-prioritized territorial

maintained conquest

Leadership Multiple leaders: Clive, Only Dupleix notable

Coote, Lawrence

Political Strategy Cautious, adaptive Over-ambitious, rigid

Support System Resources from Bengal & Dependent on land supply

Europe or limited fleet

10. Analytical Themes for Mains

●​ Dupleix’s Legacy: Though ultimately a failure, Dupleix laid the foundation for
European political intervention in India.
●​ Military Lessons: Battles like Adyar and Arcot demonstrated the declining relevance
of large but poorly organized Indian forces.
●​ Naval Superiority: British command of sea lanes ensured uninterrupted reinforcement
and supply.
●​ Shift in Power: The French dependence on European wars (e.g., Seven Years’ War)
made them vulnerable to treaty politics.
●​ Decline of Indian Autonomy: Nawabs and Nizams became clients of European
powers, marking the erosion of Mughal authority.

​
The Danes

Danish in India (Danish East India Company)

●​ Establishment: Formed in 1616, under Danish monarchy.
●​ Key Settlements:​

○​ Tranquebar (1620): Near Tanjore, eastern coast.

○​ Serampore: Near Calcutta; principal settlement.
●​ Significance:​
 ○​ Limited commercial success; factories not strategically important.
○​ Known more for missionary activity (e.g., Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, first
Protestant missionary in India).​

●​ Exit: Sold all Indian holdings to British in 1845.

●​ Analytical Note: The Danish lacked naval strength, commercial ambition, or
sustained state backing compared to other colonial powers, which limited their
impact.

Why the English Succeeded Over Other European

Powers
1. Structure & Nature of Trading Companies

Feature English East India French/Portuguese

Company (EIC) Companies

Ownership Private shareholders Mostly state-owned

Governance Board of Directors, annual Directors nominated by

elections monarch

Accountability Shareholders actively Passive shareholders due to

involved guaranteed returns

Decision-making Responsive and Bureaucratic, feudalistic,

business-focused and slow

​
Impact: The EIC’s capitalist and flexible model enabled quick decisions, effective risk
management, and greater public investment.

2. Naval Superiority

●​ British Royal Navy: Largest, most advanced (notable victories: Spanish Armada,
Trafalgar).
●​ In India:
○​ Outmaneuvered Portuguese and French fleets.
○​ Mastery over sea routes ensured faster reinforcements and supplies.
 ●​ Learning Curve: British adopted and improved upon Portuguese naval practices.​

UPSC Mains Angle: The ability to control sea lanes gave Britain decisive strategic superiority
in both military and commercial terms.

3. Industrial Revolution

●​ Early Industrialisation:​

○​ Innovations: Spinning Jenny, Steam engine, Power loom.

○​ Boosted textile and metallurgy output.​

●​ Comparative Edge:​

○​ Arrived earlier in Britain than in France, Portugal, or Spain.

○​ Enabled better weapons, logistics, and economic scale.​

Analytical Point: Industrialization allowed Britain to maintain military dominance and

economic resilience during prolonged global conflicts.

4. Military Skill & Discipline

●​ British troops were:

○​ Highly trained and disciplined.
○​ Well-equipped with modern technology.
○​ Led by innovative strategists (e.g., Robert Clive, Eyre Coote).
●​ Examples: Small English detachments defeated larger Indian-French armies (e.g.,
Arcot, Wandiwash).

UPSC Insight: Military success was not due to numbers, but due to organisation, leadership,
and adaptation.

5. Stable Government & Political Environment

●​ Britain:​

○​ Stable post-Glorious Revolution (1688).

○​ Parliamentary monarchy ensured policy continuity.​

●​ Other European Powers:​

○​ France: Revolution (1789), Napoleonic Wars.

○​ Portugal/Spain: Decline post-80 Years’ War.
○​ Dutch: Financial and political instability, especially post-1830.
○​ Italy: United only in 1861.​
Conclusion: British stability fostered long-term planning and consistent colonial policy, unlike
volatile continental powers.

6. Lesser Zeal for Religion

●​ British colonialism:
○​ Focused on commerce and control, not conversion.
○​ Less religious interference made British rule more acceptable to Indian elites
and masses.
●​ Contrast:​

○​ Portuguese & Spanish pursued aggressive Christianization.

○​ Dutch/French backed missionary activity more than British.

7. Financial Innovation: Use of Debt Market

●​ Bank of England (est. 1694):​

○​ Raised money via government bonds.

○​ Allowed Britain to outspend France and Spain in wars.
●​ France:​

○​ Lacked centralized debt mechanisms.

○​ Faced bankruptcy (multiple times) between 1694–1812.

UPSC Analytical Angle: Britain’s early financial capitalism was a key enabler of imperial
military expansion and colonial sustainability.

Mains-Focused Analytical Summary

●​ British success was a result of:​

○​ Structural efficiency (private, accountable trading company).

○​ Technological and military edge from industrialisation.
○​ Naval supremacy and global reach.
○​ Strategic financial planning via debt markets.
○​ Political stability unlike revolutions in Europe.
○​ Pragmatism over religious zeal, allowing broader acceptability.​