LATER MUGHALS (1707-1858)

The Mughal emperors following the Aurangzeb were known as the Later Mughals. The
great Mughals began to fall from grace in the first half of the eighteenth century. The Mughal
era in India came to an end during Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707). It turned out to be the
beginning of the end. It is said that the empire collapsed due to Aurangzeb's bad policies. It was
further accelerated by the poor authority of later Mughals. The rise of regional identities during
the time from around 1707 CE and approximately 1761 CE revealed a terrible situation for the
formerly mighty Mughals.

Bahadur Shah Ⅰ / Shah Alam / Muazzam (c. 1707 – 1712 CE)

• Prince Muazzam was the eldest son of Aurangzeb.
• Muazzam ascended the throne and assumed the title of Bahadur Shah, at the age of 63.
• He was given the title Bahadur Shah following a nearly two-year-long war of succession,
he had assassinated his brothers Muhammad Azam and Kam Bakhsh.
• He followed a liberal policy towards the nobles, granted them the territories of their
preferences and promoted them. This led to the worsening of the state finances.
• He showed a tolerant attitude towards Hindus, though he never abolished jizya.
• During his reign, the independence of Marwar and Mewar was acknowledged. However,
the settlement could not restore these states to become fully committed warriors for the
Mughal cause.
• His policy towards the Marathas was also half-hearted reconciliation. He did not
recognize Shahu (whom he released) as the rightful Maratha king. He granted Maratha
the sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, but failed to grant the Chauth and thus could not satisfy
them fully. Marathas, thus, continued to fight among themselves as well as against the
Mughals.
• Jat chief Charuman and the Bundella chief Chattrasal joined him in his campaign against
the Sikhs. High mansab was granted to the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. He,
however, had to face rebellion from Banda Bahadur and it was during the course of his
campaign against Banda Bahadur that he died (in c. 1712 CE).
• Title of “Shah-i-Bekhabar” given by Mughal historian Khafi Khan.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

• After the death of Bahadur Shah, a new form of politics emerged in the Mughals’
political sphere wherein the nobles became ‘king makers’ and the king’s
mere ‘puppets’ in their hands.
 • Jahandar Shah was the first puppet ruler in Mughal India. He was supported by Zulfiqar
Khan (wazir) who had the reins of the executive in his hands.
o Zulfiqar Khan built friendly relations with the Marathas, the Rajputs and different
Hindu chieftains. He abolished jizya and gave the title of “Maharaja” to Ajit Singh
(Marwar) and Mirza Raj Sawai to Jai Singh of Amber. He also granted the Chauth
and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan to Shahu. However, the old policy of suppression
was continued against Banda Bahadur and the Sikhs.
o Zulfiqar also tried to improve the financial situation of the empire by checking
reckless grants of jagirs and offices. He also made mansabdars maintain the official
quota of troops.
o However, he is infamous in history for introducing the evil practice of Ijarah
(revenue farming). He encouraged ijarah or revenue farming, which resulted in
oppression of the peasants.
• Jahandar Shah’s favourite lady, Lal Kanwar (a dancing girl) dominated the court.
• He was defeated by Farrukh Siyar supported by Saiyad brothers.

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

• Farrukh Siyar defeated his brother Jahandar Shah at Agra in c. 1713 CE.
• He ascended the throne with the support of the Saiyad brothers (the kingmakers) – Saiyad
Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). The Saiyad brothers killed
Zulfiqar Khan and appointed themselves to key positions.
• The Saiyad brothers tried to make peace with the Marathas, the Jats, the Rajputs and were
also successful in suppressing the Sikh revolt. It was during this time that Banda
Bahadur, the Sikh leader, was executed.
• In c. 1717 CE, Farrukh Siyar granted many trading privileges to the East India
Company and also exempted customs duties for its trading through Bengal.
• The Saiyad brothers completely did away with jizya and also abolished pilgrimage tax at
a number of places.
• Due to the overwhelming powers of the Saiyad brothers, differences grew between
Farukh Siyar and the Saiyad brothers. The emperor plotted thrice against the brothers, but
failed to overpower them.
• In c. 1719 CE, the Saiyad brothers forged an alliance with Balaji Vishwanath (Maratha
ruler) and with the help of Maratha troops, the Saiyad brothers killed Farrukh Siyar.
Saiyad Brothers

• Saiyad brothers Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali Khan, were popularly known as ‘king makers’ for their
role in enthroning and dethroning kings at will.

• Their influence in administration increased substantially. They tried to save the empire from rebellions
and administrative disintegration but failed due to court intrigues.
Rafi-Ud-Darajat (1719)

• Rafi-Ud-Darajat, the son of Rafiush-Shan, became the Mughal Emperor after Farrukh
Siyar.
• Rafi-Ud-Darajat was very intelligent but was absolutely controlled by the Sayyid
brothers, who carried on the administration in his name.
• Rafi-ud-Darajat was succeeded by his brother, Rafi-ud-daulah.
o Rafi-ud-daulah is also known as Shah Jahan II, after his death in June 1719.
• Grandson of Aurangzeb, Nikusiyar revolted during his reign and occupied the throne at
Agra with the support of Mitrasen (a Nagar Brahmin).

Rafi-us-Daula ( 1719 CE)

• Hussain Ali Khan (the Saiyyad brother) marched upon Agra and imprisoned Nikusiyar.
• Rafi-us-Daula was titled as Shah Jahan Ⅱ. He ruled for a very short period and died of
consumption (Tuberculosis).

Muhammad Shah (1719-48)

• Muhammad Shah Rangeela ascended to the Peacock Throne in 1719 which he occupied
till his death in 1748. His name was Roshan Akhtar and was the grandson of Bahadur
Shah I.
• Brother of Jahan Shah who was fond of dancing and was himself an
expert Kathak dancer.
• In c. 1720, he successfully dislodged the Saiyyad brothers with the help of Nizam-ul-
Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan and his father’s cousin Muhammad Amin Khan. He appointed
Muhammad Amir Khan, who killed Hussain Ali Khan, as wazir under the title of Itmad-
ud-Daula. However, independent states emerged during his reign, the Deccan under
Nizam-ul-Mulk, Awadh under the leadership of Saadat Khan and Murshid Quli Khan
reigned Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
• He neglected administration of the empire.
• He himself indulged in court intrigues.
• Area of effective control under the empire declined during his reign.
• Nadir Shah invaded India during his reign. The weakness of the Mughal empire was
exposed when Nadir Shah invaded India, imprisoned the Mughal emperor and looted
Delhi in c. 1739 CE.
Invasion of Nadir Shah (c. 1739 CE)

• Nadir Shah was the Emperor of Iran. He was a national hero there who drove the Afghans
out of Iran.

• Reasons for invasion:

o When Nadir Shah came to power in c. 1736 CE, Muhammad Shah Rangeela
withdrew his ambassador from the Persian court and snapped all diplomatic ties
with that country. Nadir Shah sent three envoys to the Mughal court and his third
envoy was detained by Rangeela which enraged him.

o When Nadir Shah invaded Afghanistan, some of the Afghan nobles took shelter
under Rangeela.

o Also, Saadat Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk invited Nadir Shah to invade India.

• Course of invasion:

o He captured Jalalabad, Peshawar (c. 1738 CE) and then Lahore in c. 1739.

o Battle of Karnal (c. 1739 CE)

o Upon hearing of the advancing Persian army, Muhammad Shah marched his
forces out of Delhi in order to meet the invading army and prevent their
entry into his capital.

o The two forces met at Karnal for battle (about 120 km north of Delhi). The
Persian soldiers wreaked havoc on the Mughal army.

o Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah surrendered and he had to take Nadir

Shah to his capital. The entire treasury was looted and the soldiers indulged
in a gruesome massacre of the general population including women and
children at Delhi.

o The sack of Delhi lasted for several days, after which Nadir Shah asked his
men to cease. In May c. 1739 CE, Nadir Shah and his troops left the city.

o Muhammad Shah was retained as the emperor of the Mughal empire but
was compelled to cede to him all the provinces of the empire falling west of
the river Indus.

o Nadir Shah almost emptied the treasury and also took away the
famous Kohinoor and the Peacock throne.
 o Nadir Shah’s invasion caused an irreparable loss of prestige and exposed the
weaknesses of the empire to the Maratha Sardars and the foreign trading
companies as well.

Ahmad Shah (1748-54)

• Son of Muhammad Shah Rangeela and Kudsiya Begum (a dancing girl).

• Ineffectual Mughal emperor of India from 1748 to 1754, who has been characterized as
good-natured but incompetent and without personality, training, or qualities of leadership.
• Twice during his reign, the Afghan Ahmad Shah Abdali plundered the northwest Punjab
area, extorting money and land from him.
• The Marathas snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand.
• His wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, blinded him and imprisoned him at Salimgarh.

Alamgir II (1754-59)

• He was the second son of Jahandar Shah and was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk
after he deposed Ahmad Shah.
• Had to face repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• The famous Battle of Plassey ( 23 June c. 1757 CE) was fought during his tenure. The
Battle of Plassey helped the British East India Company to seize control of Bengal.
• He was also murdered by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.

Shah Alam II / Ali Gauhar (1759-1806)

• During his reign, the Mughal power was so depleted that it led to a saying in
Persian “Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dili ta Palam”, meaning “The kingdom of Shah Alam
is from Delhi to Palam,” Palam being a suburb of Delhi.
• Due to his conflict with the wazir, he fled to Awadh (c. 1761 – 1764 CE). He returned to
Delhi when Marathas re-established their hold and invited him to the capital.
o Shah Alam spent his last years under the protection of the Maratha chief Sindhia,
and, after the Second Maratha War (1803-05), of the British.
• The third Battle of Panipat (c. 1761 CE) was fought during his reign between the
Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• The Battle of Buxar was fought in c. 1764 CE between the forces under the command of
the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro and the combined armies of Mir
Qasim (Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam Ⅱ. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad (c. 1765 CE)
under which Diwani rights (right to collect land revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
were granted to the British East India Company.
 • He was the first Mughal ruler who became an East India Company pensioner.
o He was called ‘King of Delhi’ by the British, who issued coins bearing his name
for 30 years after his death.

Akbar Shah / Akbar Ⅱ (1806-1837)

• He was the second son of Shah Alam II and the father of Bahadur Shah II.
• He sent Ram Mohan Roy as an ambassador to Britain and gave him the title of Raja.
• During his regime, in 1835, the East India Company (EIC) discontinued calling itself
subject of the Mughal Emperor and issuing coins in his name.
• He was a great poet and is credited with the introduction of the Hindu-Muslim unity
festival Phool Walon Ki Sair.

Bahadur Shah II / Zafar (1837-1858)

• He was the last Mughal emperor of India who reigned 1837-58. He was an accomplished
poet and his pen name was Zafar (victory).
o He was a poet, musician, and calligrapher, more an aesthete than a political leader.
• For most of his reign he was a client of the British and was without real authority.
• He was chosen as nominal leader of the revolt of 1857. After the rebellion was put down
by the British, he was exiled to Burma (Myanmar) with his family.

Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire

• Responsibility of Aurangzeb:
o Under the rule of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire reached its territorial zenith. But
it expanded beyond the control of the central authority. To control such a vast
Empire at the time when means of communication was undeveloped was beyond
the capabilities of weak successors of Aurangzeb.
o Moreover, the religious policies of Aurangzeb created discontent in the Empire. It
led to rebellions by the Sikhs, Jats, Bundelas etc. His Rajput policy alienated the
Rajputs. His policy of aggressive imperialism against the Deccani states and the
Marathas drained the resources of the Empire.
• Weak Successors and Nobles:
o A centralised rule like that of Mughals needed strong Emperors to control it. But
the weak successors of Aurangzeb, who gave importance to luxurious life and
ignored the administration, exposed the limitations of the centralised rule. The
military too was ignored. This resulted into rebellions, rise of regional powers and
strengthening of powers like the Marathas. It also led to foreign invasions which
plundered the Empire of its resources.
 o The nobles followed the example of their weak Emperors. They either took to
luxurious life or carved out independent states for themselves. They also played the
role of ‘king-makers’ in the war of succession by organizing themselves in various
factions. This factionalism was so strong that the nobles failed to unite even during
foreign invasions.
• Military Weaknesses:
o The organization of the army on the feudal basis had its own limitations. The
soldiers held mansabdar as their chief rather than towards the emperor. This defect
assumed alarming proportion during the later Mughals.
o Also, the military lacked discipline, cohesion and modern equipment. The Mughal
army was unwieldy to manage in wars. The military officials were infamous for
changing sides. Due to financial crises soldiers remained unpaid a number of
times. Such military without coherence and loyalty could not be expected to fight
for the Empire.
• Financial Crisis:
o Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaign emptied the treasury and ruined the trade and
commerce. The wars damaged the standing crops and thus demoralized peasantry
gave up agriculture. This further affected land revenue collection.
o Under the later Mughals the situation deteriorated further. The independence of
regional powers affected imperial revenue. Moreover, the wars of succession,
lavish living of the emperors and the nobles emptied the treasury. The payments in
the form of jagirs and foreign invasions also affected resources of the Empire.
• Rise of the Marathas:
o The Marathas were the most important external cause that brought about the
collapse of the Mughal Empire. A policy of Hindu Empire envisaged by the
Peshwas could only be realized with the fall of the Mughal Empire.
o The Maratha ambitions were buttressed by the nature of the Mughal Empire which
failed to unite Hindus and Muslims. Many Indian chiefs looked upon the Mughal
rulers as foreigners and as enemies of India and of Hindu religion.
• Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali:
o The invasions by Nadir Shah and Abdali exposed the military weakness of the
Mughal Empire. They plundered the Empire of its financial resources.
• European Companies:
o The medieval character of the Mughal Empire was challenged by the dynamic and
progressive West. In the race of civilizations, the Europeans outperformed the
Indians.
Impact of the Mughal Rule

Political
• The political integration of the country brought about by the Turks was consolidated by
the Mughals.
• The system of administration established by the Mughals, though largely confined to
northern India, it indirectly influenced other parts of India too.
• The Mughal polity brought about institutionalization of the state i.e. number of
institutions like Diwan-i-ala etc. were established by them.
• For a long period extending over 200 years the Mughals were able to secure the north-
west frontiers of India from foreign invasions. It was only during the reign of later
Mughals that the security of the north-west frontier was breached.
• As long as the Mughal Empire was strong, the European trading companies could not
fulfil their territorial ambitions.
• One of the important political failures of the Mughals that impacted the country was their
failure to build a strong naval power. This allowed the European companies to dominate
the seas, which subsequently led to acquisition of political power by them.
• The Mughal polity was largely secular in character, except the reign of Aurangzeb. This
helped in building harmony and tolerance in country.
Social
• As the state affairs were largely secular, it promoted harmony.
• The establishment of the Mughal rule in India did not help in the improvement of the
condition of the women. In fact, the practices like purdah became widespread.
• With the rise of nobility, the social inequality between various classes increased.
• The caste system continued to dominate, despite the challenge posed by Islam. But
encouragement to Sufi movement by the Mughal Emperors like Akbar helped in building
mutual harmony.
• The Mughal Emperors like Akbar tried to modernize the learning by introducing more
science subjects of secular interest. But these efforts remained unsuccessful under the
pressure of orthodox elements. (As the most of the history written during the Mughal
period related to kings, nobles etc., the impact of the Mughal rule on the common people
is difficult to ascertain).
Economic
• Under the Mughals, the nature of Indian economy continued to be feudal. This resulted
into economic disparities. The condition of peasants did not improve to a large extent.
• Well-minted currency based on silver, the development of roads and sarais etc. had direct
impact on the growth of trade and handicrafts. But Indians could not take the advantage
of growing international trade due to weakness in naval field.
 • The Mughal rule established peace in the Empire, which in turn helped cultivation. But
the condition of peasants continued to remain hard.
• The Mughal Emperors did not show interest in the field of innovation. Due to this the
economy remained backward in the field of science and technology.
Cultural
• The Mughal Empire had the elements of a cultural state. This is because the Mughal
Emperors patronized art and architecture along with the people of learning.
o The Mughals built magnificent forts, palaces, gates, public buildings, mosques,
sarais etc. The architecture with the use of red sandstone and white marble was
notable in the Mughal era. The use of char-bagh style, pietra dura etc. were the
important contributions by the Mughals.
o Mughals made significant contribution to the painting. Especially, the contribution
of Jahangir is notable, under whom notable progress in portrait paintings was
made. The Mughal paintings also influenced the regional styles like Rajasthani
Style, Pahadi Style etc.
o The Mughal Emperors patronized the people of learning. For example, Abul Fazl
was given patronage by Akbar.
o In the field of Music important developments took place during the Mughal rule.
For example, Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior who composed various ragas.
Though Aurangzeb banned singing in his court, playing of musical instruments
was not banned. Also, the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719-48) is known for the
development of music.

Rise of Regional Powers and States

The decline of the Mughal authority gave rise to the emergence of a number of
independent kingdoms. The later Mughal rulers were not in a position to militarily
enforce its regulations in all parts of the empires; as a result, many provincial governors
started to assert their authority. In due course of time, they gained independent status. At
the same time, many kingdoms which were subjugated by the Mughals also claimed their
independence. Some new regional groups also consolidated and emerged as political
powers.
The states that arose in India during the decline of the Mughal empire and the
following century (between c. 1700 – 1850 CE) varied greatly in terms of resources,
longevity and essential character.

Some of them – such as Hyderabad had been in a region where there had been an
older regional tradition of provincial states in the immediate pre-Mughal period too, whereas
many of the other post-Mughal states were based on either ethnic or sectarian groupings –
the Marathas, the Jats and the Sikhs.
 The regional states that emerged during this period can be divided into three
categories-

o States formed by former Mughal nobles – The founders of these states were
important and influential high mansab Mughal nobles. They established some of
the formidable provincial kingdoms on the basis of their growing strength and
administrative ability. Though they had declared independence from the Mughal
rule, they never broke ties with the Mughal state. The prominent states that
belonged to this category were Bengal (founder – Murshid Quli Khan), Awadh
(founder – Saadat Khan) and Hyderabad (founder – Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah). The
founders of these states were either former governors of these provinces or
powerful members of the Mughal nobility.
o Watan Jagirs – The second category of regional states that emerged in the 18th
century had served very well under the Mughals and as a result were allowed to
enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs such as the Rajput states.
o Rebellion states – The states that had emerged after rebelling against the Mughal
authority belonged to this category. The Sikhs, the Jats and the Marathas belonged
to this group, and among them, the Marathas over the course of time emerged as a
formidable power.