DISCLAMER: If there is a problem,it is your problem,not mine, solve

it yourself

Q1. Define Entomology, Insect, and Agricultural Entomology. Give an

account of the history of entomology in India and contributions of
Indian and foreign entomologists.

 Def of Entomology: It is the branch of zoology that deals with the

scientific study of insects, including their classification, morphology,
physiology, and behavior.

Def of Insect: Insects are six-legged invertebrates belonging to Phylum

Arthropoda and Class Insecta, characterized by a segmented body (head,
thorax, abdomen), antennae, compound eyes, and exoskeleton.

Def of Agricultural Entomology: A branch of entomology that deals with

insects affecting agriculture, including both pests and beneficial insects.

#History of Entomology in India#

Ancient Indian texts (e.g., Rigveda, Charaka Samhita) mention insect pests.

During British rule, studies began focusing on pest control in crops.

1. Major milestones:

1903: First Entomology Division set up at Imperial Agricultural Research

Institute, Pusa (now IARI, New Delhi).

1905: Imperial Entomologist post created; Dr. H. Maxwell Lefroy was

appointed.

1920s–1940s: Work on major pests of cotton, sugarcane, and rice was

intensified.

1940: Indian Journal of Entomology started publication.

2. Contributions of Foreign Scientists:

H.M. Lefroy: Authored Indian Insect Life (1909).

T.B. Fletcher: Pioneered insect pest surveys.

 3. Contributions of Indian Scientists:

M.S. Mani: Father of Himalayan Entomology.

Dr. K. Ramakrishna Ayyar: Work on sugarcane and coconut pests.

Dr. M.R. Ghosh and Dr. P.N. Saxena: Contributed to pest management and
stored grain entomology.

4. Today, India has a well-developed entomological research system

through ICAR institutes, SAUs, and national programs.

Q2. Expand the abbreviations of IARI, CAB, IOBC, IIIP, NBAIR, NIPHM,
IISA, CIB & RC, CSB, NRIIPM, and IGSMRI. State their location and
describe their role in the field of entomology.

1. IARI – Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

Premier institute for agricultural and entomological research, education, and

pest management strategies.

2. CAB (now CABI) – Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International,

UK

Publishes pest data, journals, and supports biological pest control globally.

3. IOBC – International Organization for Biological Control, France

Promotes sustainable use of natural enemies and biological control

worldwide.

4. IIIP – Possibly refers to IPM institutes like NBAIR or NIPHM. No official

IIIP recognized in entomology.
5. NBAIR – National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru

Maintains and researches on natural enemies, pollinators, and biocontrol

agents.

6. NIPHM – National Institute of Plant Health Management, Hyderabad

Provides training and research in IPM, pesticide management, and plant

health.
 7. IISA – Indian Institute of Seed Science, Mau, UP

Focuses on seed entomology and insect-related seed storage research.

8. CIB & RC – Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee,

Faridabad

Regulates the approval and safe use of insecticides in India.

9. CSB – Central Silk Board, Bengaluru

Research and development in sericulture and insect-related silk production.

10. NRIIPM – Likely refers to NCIPM, New Delhi

Develops national-level IPM strategies and pest forecasting systems.

11. IGSMRI – Indian Grain Storage Management and Research

Institute, Hapur

Focuses on safe storage of food grains and control of storage pests.

Q3. What is insect dominance? Describe the measures used to

assess insect dominance and explain the reasons for their
evolutionary success on Earth.

Insect dominance refers to the ecological and numerical superiority of

insects among all animals on Earth.

Measures of dominance:

Species richness: Over 1 million described insect species (~70% of all

animals).

Population: Massive numbers (e.g., ants alone have ~10 quadrillion

individuals).

Distribution: Found in all habitats except deep oceans.

Ecological roles: Pollinators, decomposers, pests, predators.

Reasons for dominance:

1. Small Size: Allows survival in diverse habitats and niches.

2. Exoskeleton: Protective, reduces water loss, and offers structural
support
3. Wings: First group to evolve true flight—key to dispersal and escape.
 4. High Reproductive Rate: Multiple generations per year; rapid
adaptation.
5. Metamorphosis: Reduces competition between life stages (larva vs
adult).
6. Sensory Adaptations: Compound eyes, antennae, and specialized
sensilla aid in survival and reproduction.
7. Diverse Feeding Habits: Can exploit a wide variety of food sources.
8. Camouflage and Mimicry: Defense mechanisms against predators.
9. Coevolution with Plants: Especially in pollinators like bees and
butterflies.

Q4. Classify the phylum Arthropoda up to class level. Briefly

describe the distinguishing features of Onychophora, Crustacea,
Arachnida, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Trilobita, and Hexapoda. Also
explain the relationship of Class Insecta with other arthropod
classes.

1. Phylum Arthropoda includes segmented, exoskeleton-bearing
invertebrates with jointed appendages.
2. Classification up to Class level:

Onychophora – Velvet worms; link between annelids and arthropods

Crustacea – Mostly aquatic; two pairs of antennae (e.g., crabs, prawns).

Arachnida – Eight-legged, no antennae; spiders, ticks.

Chilopoda – Centipedes; one pair of legs per segment, predatory.

Diplopoda – Millipedes; two pairs of legs per segment, detritivores.

Trilobita – Extinct marine arthropods with trilobed bodies.

Hexapoda – Six-legged; includes Class Insecta.

3. Class Insecta:

Three body regions: head, thorax, abdomen.

One pair of antennae, compound eyes, and three pairs of legs.

Usually have wings and undergo metamorphosis.

4. Relationship with other classes:

Shares exoskeleton, segmentation, jointed limbs with all arthropods.

Closely related to Crustacea (in Pancrustacea group).

Differentiated by terrestrial habitat, wings, and unique body segmentation.

Q5. Describe the structure and functions of the insect cuticle. What
are cuticular appendages and briefly explain the steps involved in
insect moulting?

1. Structure of Cuticle

The cuticle is the outer, non-living layer secreted by the epidermis.

It forms part of the exoskeleton and is composed of three main layers:

1. Epicuticle – Thin, waterproof, waxy outer layer (no chitin).

2. Exocuticle – Hardened and tanned; provides rigidity.
3. Endocuticle – Flexible, soft layer under the exocuticle.

2. Functions of the Cuticle

Protection from injury, desiccation, and pathogens.

Support and shape to the body.

Site for muscle attachment.

Prevents water loss.

Involved in coloration, camouflage, and mimicry.

3. Cuticular Appendages and Processes

Setae: Hair-like projections (sensory or tactile).

Spines: Fixed, pointed projections (defensive).

Spurs: Movable, articulated spines.

Glands: Wax glands, scent glands (may pass through cuticle).

 4. Moulting (Ecdysis) – Definition

Moulting is the process of shedding the old cuticle and forming a new one to
allow growth.

5. Steps in Moulting (in brief)

1. Apolysis – Separation of old cuticle from epidermis.
2. Secretion of moulting fluid – Enzymes digest old endocuticle.
3. New cuticle formation – Beneath old one.
4. Ecdysis – Old cuticle is shed.
5. Sclerotization – Hardening of new cuticle.

Q6. Explain the segmentation of the insect body. Describe in detail

the structure and organization of the head, thorax, and abdomen.

1. Body Segmentation

Insects have a segmented body divided into three main tagmata:

Head, Thorax, and Abdomen.

2. Head (6 segments)

Bears mouthparts, antennae, eyes, and brain.

Major parts:

Frons, Clypeus, Labrum, Vertex, Gena, Occiput.

Functions: Feeding, sensory perception, coordination.

3. Thorax (3 segments)

Divided into:

Prothorax, Mesothorax, and Metathorax.

Each segment bears a pair of legs.

Wings:

Mesothorax and metathorax may bear wings.

Functions: Locomotion via legs and wings.

4. Abdomen (up to 11 segments)

Flexible, soft, and usually without appendages.

Contains:

Digestive tract, Malpighian tubules, Reproductive organs, Spiracles.

May bear cerci, genitalia, or prolegs (in larvae).

5. Summary

Each tagma is structurally and functionally specialized:

Head – sensory/feeding, Thorax – movement, Abdomen –

metabolism/reproduction.

Q7. Describe the external morphology of the insect head capsule

with reference to important sclerites and sutures. Explain different
positions of the insect head and describe types of antennae with
suitable examples.

1. Insect Head Structure

The head is a sclerotized capsule, made of 6 fused segments.

2. Major Sclerites

Frons – front of the head.

Clypeus – below frons.

Labrum – upper lip.

Vertex – top of head.

Gena – sides of head (cheeks).

Occiput – back of head.

3. Sutures

Clypeo-frontal suture, epicranial suture, occipital suture – divide sclerites and

serve for muscle attachment.
 4. Head Orientations

Hypognathous – Mouthparts downward (e.g., grasshopper).

Prognathous – Mouthparts forward (e.g., beetle).

Opisthognathous – Mouthparts backward (e.g., aphid).

5. Antennae (3-parted): Scape, Pedicel, Flagellum

Types of Antennae (with examples):

1. Filiform – Thread-like (cockroach)

2. Moniliform – Bead-like (termites)
3. Serrate – Saw-like (click beetle)
4. Pectinate – Comb-like (fire beetle)
5. Plumose – Feather-like (male mosquito)
6. Clavate – Clubbed (butterfly)
7. Aristate – Bristle-like (housefly)

Q8. Describe the structure and modifications of insect mouthparts

with suitable examples. Explain the feeding mechanisms of
cockroach, red cotton bug, housefly, honeybee, thrips, and butterfly.

1. Basic Mouthpart Structure

Made up of: Labrum, Mandibles, Maxillae, Labium, and Hypopharynx.

2. Types of Mouthparts and Feeding Mechanisms

1. Chewing type – Cockroach

Strong mandibles and maxillae for biting and grinding solid food.

2. Piercing-sucking – Red cotton bug (Dysdercus)

Mandibles and maxillae form a stylet, enclosed in a rostrum to suck plant

sap.

3. Sponging – Housefly (Musca domestica)

4. Labium modified into sponge-like labella to absorb liquid food.
5. Chewing-lapping – Honeybee
Mandibles for wax moulding; labium and maxillae form tongue for lapping
nectar.

6. Rasping-sucking – Thrips

Asymmetrical mouthparts; one mandible used to pierce, maxillae suck plant

juices.

7. Siphoning – Butterfly

Maxillae form a coiled proboscis for sucking nectar; mandibles are absent.

3. Conclusion

Mouthparts are highly adapted to feeding behavior, and studying them helps
in understanding insect ecology and pest habits.

Q9. Describe the structure of a typical insect leg. Explain various

modifications of insect legs and relate them to their functions with
suitable examples.

1. Structure of a Typical Insect Leg

Insects have three pairs of jointed legs, one on each thoracic segment (pro-,
meso-, metathorax). Each leg has five segments:

1. Coxa – attaches leg to body.

2. Trochanter – small, movable segment.
3. Femur – usually the largest, strong and muscular.
4. Tibia – long and slender; may bear spines.
5. Tarsus – subdivided into tarsomeres; ends in claws or pads.

2. Modifications and Functions of Insect Legs

1. Cursorial (Running) – Long legs for fast movement.

Example: Cockroach

2. Saltatorial (Jumping) – Enlarged hind femur for jumping.

Example: Grasshopper

3. Fossorial (Digging) – Broad, flattened forelegs.

Example: Mole cricket

 4. Natatorial (Swimming) – Flattened, oar-like hind legs with hairs.

Example: Water beetle

5. Raptorial (Grasping prey) – Forelegs spined for catching prey.

Example: Praying mantis

6. Scansorial (Climbing) – Legs adapted with claws.

Example: Louse

7. Foraging/Pollen Collecting – Hind legs with pollen baskets.

Example: Honeybee

Q10. Explain the structure and venation of insect wings. Describe

major modifications and different wing coupling mechanisms with
examples.

1. Structure of Insect Wings

Wings are thin, membranous extensions of the meso- and metathorax

Composed of two cuticular layers with veins in between.

2. Major Wing Veins

1. Costa © – Front edge
2. Subcosta (Sc)
3. Radius ®
4. Media (M)
5. Cubitus (Cu)
6. Anal veins (A1, A2, etc.)

3. Modifications of Wings
1. Tegmina – Leathery forewings for protection. (Cockroach)
2. Elytra – Hard, shell-like forewings. (Beetles)
3. Hemelytra – Half-leathery, half-membranous. (Bugs)
4. Halteres – Reduced hindwings for balance. (Flies)
5. Scaly Wings – Covered in colored scales. (Butterflies)
 4. Wing Coupling Mechanisms
1. Frenate – Bristle from hindwing fits into hook. (Moths)
2. Hamulate – Hooks on hindwing grip forewing. (Bees)
3. Jugate – Lobe of forewing overlaps hindwing. (Primitive moths)
4. Amplexiform – Wings overlap without hooks. (Butterflies)

Q11. Define metamorphosis. Describe the different types of

metamorphosis in insects with examples. Mention its significance in
insect development.

Definition : Metamorphosis is the process of developmental

transformation in insects from egg to adult, involving changes in form,
structure, and function.

#Types of Metamorphosis

1. Ametabolous – No metamorphosis; immature forms look like adults

(without wings).

Example: Silverfish

2. Hemimetabolous (Incomplete) – Egg → Nymph → Adult; no pupal

stage.

Example: Grasshopper, Bugs

3. Holometabolous (Complete) – Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult; includes

distinct larval and pupal stages.

Example: Butterfly, Housefly

4. Hypermetamorphosis – Larval forms vary at each instar.

Example: Blister beetle

# Significance of Metamorphosis

Reduces competition between larva and adult (different habitats/diets).

Enhances survival and specialization at each life stage.

Helps in population regulation through diapause stages.

Facilitates pest control by targeting specific stages.

Q12. Write short notes on: (a) Diapause, (b) Seasonal adaptations in
insects, (c) Types of larvae and pupae

a) Diapause

A state of suspended development in insects to survive adverse conditions.

Types:

Obligate diapause (occurs in every generation)

Facultative diapause (occurs under specific environmental cues)

Examples: Silkworm pupae, aphid eggs.

b) Seasonal Adaptations
1. Aestivation – Dormancy during hot/dry seasons. (Example: Red cotton
bug)
2. Hibernation – Dormancy during cold/winter seasons. (Example:
Beetles)
3. Quiescence – Temporary inactivity due to sudden stress (temperature,
drought); resumes when conditions normalize.
c) Types of Larvae
1. Polypod – With legs and prolegs. (Caterpillars)
2. Oligopod – Legs present, no prolegs. (Beetle larvae)
3. Apodous – No legs. (Fly maggots)

Types of Pupae

1. Exarate – Appendages free. (Beetles)

2. Obtect – Appendages glued to body. (Butterflies)
3. Coarctate – Enclosed in puparium. (Housefly)

Q13. Describe the structure and functions of the insect digestive

system. Briefly explain the roles of the foregut, midgut, and
hindgut.

1. Introduction
The insect digestive system is a tubular structure running from the mouth to
the anus, adapted for ingestion, digestion, absorption, and excretion.

2. Major Divisions of the Alimentary Canal

Divided into three main regions:

A. Foregut (Stomodaeum) – Mechanical digestion

1. Mouth – Ingests food
2. Pharynx – Pumps food inward
3. Esophagus – Transfers food to crop
4. Crop – Temporary storage
5. Proventriculus (Gizzard) – Grinds and filters food

B. Midgut (Mesenteron) – Enzymatic digestion & absorption

1. Ventriculus – Secretes enzymes, digests food
2. Gastric caeca – Finger-like extensions that increase surface area
3. Peritrophic membrane – Protects midgut epithelium; allows nutrient
passage

C. Hindgut (Proctodaeum) – Water absorption & feces

formation
1. Ileum and Colon – Absorb water and salts
2. Rectum – Forms feces and reabsorbs remaining water
3. Anus – Expels waste
4. Associated Structures

Salivary glands – Secrete saliva for lubrication and digestion

Malpighian tubules – Remove nitrogenous waste; linked to excretion

Q14. Write short notes on the circulatory, excretory, and respiratory

systems in insects, highlighting their structures and functions.

A. Circulatory System (Open Type)
1. Hemolymph: Insect blood; circulates nutrients, hormones, and waste—
not oxygen
2. Dorsal vessel: Divided into heart (with ostia) and aorta
3. Ostia: Valves allowing hemolymph into the heart
4. Accessory pulsatile organs: Pump hemolymph to wings, antennae
 5. Functions: Distribution of nutrients/hormones, waste transport,
immunity, and hydrostatic functions

B. Excretory System
1. Malpighian tubules: Long, blind tubes in hemocoel; filter nitrogenous
waste (uric acid) into the hindgut
2. Rectum: Reabsorbs water and salts; forms dry feces
3. Functions: Osmoregulation and nitrogenous waste excretion

C. Respiratory System (Tracheal Type)

1. Spiracles: External openings for gas exchange
2. Tracheae: Large air tubes supported by taenidia (rings)
3. Tracheoles: Fine branches that reach body cells directly
4. Air sacs: Help ventilate large insects
5. Functions: Direct delivery of oxygen and removal of CO₂—independent
of circulatory system

Q15. Describe the structure and functions of the insect nervous

system. Explain the roles of the brain, ganglia, and nerves in insect
coordination.

1. Divisions of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Visceral (Sympathetic) Nervous System

2. Central Nervous System

Brain (Supra-oesophageal ganglion):

Protocerebrum – Controls eyes and vision

Deutocerebrum – Receives signals from antennae

Tritocerebrum – Connects brain to sub-oesophageal ganglion

Sub-oesophageal ganglion: Controls mouthparts and neck muscles

Ventral nerve cord: Contains segmental ganglia (thoracic & abdominal)

3. Ganglia Functions

Thoracic ganglia: Control wings and legs

Abdominal ganglia: Manage reproductive and digestive functions

Ganglia operate locally, allowing survival even if the brain is damaged

4. Peripheral Nervous System

Connects sensory organs and muscles to CNS

Carries signals from antennae, eyes, and bristles

5. Visceral Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions of gut, heart, and glands

6. Overall Functions

Sensory reception

Motor control

Reflex actions

Coordination of behavior and locomotion

Q16. Describe the structure and functions of the insect endocrine

(secretory) system. Mention the major endocrine glands and
hormones involved in growth and metamorphosis.

1. Introduction

The endocrine system regulates growth, development, metamorphosis, and

reproduction in insects through hormones secreted by specialized glands and
neurosecretory cells.
✅ 2. Main Components of the Endocrine System

1. Neurosecretory Cells (NSCs) – Located in the brain; produce PTTH.

2. Corpora Cardiaca (CC) – Paired glands behind the brain; store and
release neurohormones.
3. Corpora Allata (CA) – Secrete Juvenile Hormone (JH).
4. Prothoracic Glands – Secrete Ecdysone (molting hormone).

✅ 3. Major Hormones and Their Functions

PTTH (Prothoracicotropic Hormone): Stimulates prothoracic glands to release

ecdysone.

Ecdysone: Triggers molting and cuticle formation.

20-Hydroxyecdysone: Active form for gene expression during molting.

Juvenile Hormone (JH): Controls metamorphosis and reproductive maturation.

Bursicon: Hardens and tans the new cuticle after molting.

Allatotropin/Allatostatin: Regulate activity of corpora allata.

The insect endocrine system ensures synchronized development,

transformation, and reproduction by regulating hormone levels at critical life
stages.

Q17. Describe the structure and functions of the male reproductive

system in insects. Briefly explain the types of reproduction
observed in insects.

The male reproductive system is responsible for the production, storage,

and transfer of sperm during mating.

✅ 1. Structure

1. Testes – Paired structures that produce sperm via spermatogenesis.

2. Vasa deferentia – Transport sperm from testes.
3. Seminal vesicles – Store mature sperm.
4. Ejaculatory duct – Transfers sperm during copulation.
5. Accessory glands – Produce seminal fluid, spermatophore, and mating
plug.
6. Aedeagus – Copulatory organ for sperm transfer.
✅ 2. Functions

Produces and stores sperm

Transfers sperm to female

Secretes fluids to protect and nourish sperm

✅ 3. Types of Reproduction in Insects

1. Sexual Reproduction – Most common; fusion of male and female

gametes.
2. Parthenogenesis – Development of embryo without fertilization (e.g.,
aphids).
3. Paedogenesis – Reproduction by immature stages (rare).
4. Polyembryony – One egg forms multiple embryos (e.g., parasitoid
wasps).

Q18. Describe the structure and functions of the female

reproductive system in insects. Mention different types of
reproduction observed in insects.

✅ 1. Overview

The female reproductive system is responsible for egg production,

fertilization, and laying.

✅ 2. Structure

1. Ovaries – Paired; made of ovarioles (panoistic or meroistic)

2. Lateral oviducts – Transport eggs from each ovary
3. Common oviduct – Central duct leading to the genital chamber
4. Spermatheca – Stores sperm after mating
5. Accessory glands – Secrete egg coverings, adhesives, or protective
coatings
6. Ovipositor – Organ for egg laying; may be modified in parasitic species

✅ 3. Functions

Egg formation and maturation

Sperm storage and fertilization

Egg laying and protection

✅ 4. Types of Reproduction

Here’s the model answer for Q17 from your ENTO-121 syllabus:

Q17. Describe the structure and functions of the male reproductive system in
insects. Briefly explain the types of reproduction observed in insects.

The male reproductive system in insects is responsible for the production,
maturation, storage, and transfer of sperm. It also includes accessory
structures that assist in mating and fertilization.

✅ 2. Structure of the Male Reproductive System

1. Testes:

Paired organs containing units called follicles where spermatogenesis occurs.

Usually located near the dorsal abdominal region.

2. Vasa Deferentia:

Tube-like structures that carry sperm from testes to the seminal vesicles.

3. Seminal Vesicles:

Store mature sperm until mating.

Often connected to accessory glands.

4. Ejaculatory Duct:

Common duct that delivers sperm during copulation.

5. Accessory Glands:

Secrete seminal fluid, spermatophore, and other substances that activate or

protect sperm.

Help form mating plug in some insects.

6. Aedeagus:
Male copulatory organ that introduces sperm into the female reproductive
tract.

✅ 3. Functions

Production and maturation of sperm

Transfer of sperm to the female

Production of supportive fluids for reproduction

Secretion of pheromones or mating plugs (in some species)

✅ 4. Types of Reproduction in Insects

1. Sexual Reproduction:

Involves fertilization between male and female gametes.

Most common type.

2. Parthenogenesis:

Development of offspring without fertilization.

Common in aphids and scale insects.

3. Polyembryony:

A single fertilized egg produces multiple embryos.

Found in some parasitoid wasps.

4. Paedogenesis:

Reproduction by immature (larval) forms. Rare.

Q19. Write short notes on major sensory organs in insects.

✅ 1. Mechanoreceptors

Detect touch, pressure, and vibrations

Located on antennae, legs, wings (e.g., trichoid sensilla, campaniform

sensilla)

✅ 2. Chemoreceptors
Detect smell and taste

Found on antennae (olfaction), mouthparts, and tarsi (gustation)

✅ 3. Audioreceptors

Specialized for sound detection

Johnston’s organ: Located in antennae (e.g., mosquitoes)

Tympanum: Membranous structure on thorax/abdomen (e.g., grasshoppers)

✅ 4. Photoreceptors

Detect light and images

Compound eyes: For color and motion detection

Ocelli (simple eyes): Detect light intensity

✅ 5. Thermoreceptors and Hygroreceptors

Detect temperature and humidity

Located on antennae and other body parts

✅ 6. Sound-producing Organs

In some insects (e.g., crickets), sound is produced by stridulation (rubbing

wings or legs)

Used for mating calls and communication.

Q20. Define insect ecology. Explain its scope and describe the
components of the insect environment.

✅ 1. Introduction

Insect ecology is a branch of entomology that studies the relationships

between insects and their environment, including both living and non-living
factors.

✅ 2. Definition

Insect ecology is defined as the scientific study of interactions between

insects and their biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) surroundings.

✅ 3. Scope of Insect Ecology

Understanding pest population dynamics

Studying natural enemies for biological control

Predicting pest outbreaks and seasonal cycles

Designing pest-resistant crops

Formulating eco-friendly IPM strategies

Studying biodiversity and conservation of beneficial insects

✅ 4. Environment in Insect Ecology

Environment = all external factors affecting insect survival and reproduction

✅ 5. Components of Environment

A. Abiotic factors

Temperature – Influences growth rate, development, and survival

Humidity – Affects egg hatching and larval survival

Light – Controls activity patterns and metamorphosis

Rainfall – Triggers emergence or suppresses pests

Air currents & pressure – Affect flight and dispersal

B. Biotic factors

Food availability – Host plants, prey

Competitors – Other herbivores or insect species

Natural enemies – Predators, parasitoids, and pathogens

Symbionts – Microbial associations affecting nutrition

Q21. Explain how abiotic and biotic factors influence insect life.
Briefly describe major abiotic and biotic factors. Also mention
different categories of insect pests.

✅ 1. Introduction

Insect survival, reproduction, and distribution are strongly influenced by

abiotic and biotic environmental factors.
✅ 2. Abiotic Factors

1. Temperature – Affects growth, metabolism, and voltinism

2. Humidity/Moisture – Influences survival, especially of eggs and pupae
3. Light – Controls circadian rhythm, photoperiodism
4. Rainfall – Promotes emergence in some species, reduces others
5. Atmospheric Pressure – Affects insect flight and navigation
6. Air Currents – Aid in dispersal or may cause mortality

✅ 3. Biotic Factors

1. Food – Availability and quality of host plants or prey affect

development
2. Competition – Among same or different species for food or space
3. Natural Enemies – Predators, parasitoids, and pathogens reduce pest
populations
4. Environmental Resistance – Includes all factors (biotic + abiotic) that
prevent unlimited growth

✅ 4. Categories of Insect Pests

1. Key pests – Regularly reach economic damage levels

2. Minor pests – Occasionally cause damage
3. Sporadic pests – Cause damage in isolated instances
4. Migratory pests – Move across regions (e.g., locusts)
5. Stored product pests – Attack grains and goods in storage.
6. Quarantine pests – Regulated due to international trade impact

Q22. Define Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Discuss its history,

scope, components, and limitations.

✅ 1. Definition

IPM is a sustainable, eco-friendly approach that combines biological, cultural,

physical, and chemical methods to keep pest populations below economic
injury levels.

✅ 2. History

Evolved in the 1950s–60s due to overuse of chemical pesticides

Formalized by FAO and other agencies in the 1970s

Promoted in India through ICAR and NIPHM

✅ 3. Scope of IPM

Minimize pesticide usage

Promote ecological balance

Prevent pest resurgence and resistance

Enhance profitability and sustainability

✅ 4. Components of IPM

1. Cultural practices – Crop rotation, intercropping

2. Mechanical methods – Traps, hand-picking
3. Physical control – Light, heat, barriers
4. Biological control – Use of predators, parasitoids, pathogens
5. Chemical control – Judicious use of insecticides based on ETL
6. Host plant resistance – Use of pest-resistant varieties
7. Legal control – Quarantine, plant protection laws
8. Monitoring and forecasting – Pest scouting and surveillance
9. Farmer education – Awareness and safe pesticide handling

✅ 5. Limitations

Requires technical knowledge and regular monitoring

Adoption may be slow among small-scale farmers

Limited availability of biocontrol agents in some regions

Here are detailed model answers for ENTO-121 Questions 23 and 24, each
structured for 8 marks (200–250 words, 10–12 points):

Q23. Classify insecticides based on their mode of entry, mode of

action, chemical composition, and toxicity. Give examples for each
category.

✅ 1. Based on Mode of Entry

1. Contact Poisons – Enter through insect body wall

Example: DDT, Malathion

2. Stomach Poisons – Ingested with food

Example: Arsenic compounds, Cry toxins from Bt

 3. Fumigants – Inhaled via spiracles as gases

Example: Methyl bromide, Aluminium phosphide

✅ 2. Based on Mode of Action

1. Nerve Poisons – Disrupt nervous transmission

Example: Organophosphates, Carbamates

2. Respiratory Poisons – Interfere with oxygen intake

Example: Fumigants (sulfur dioxide)

3. Physical Poisons – Block spiracles or coat body

Example: Mineral oils, Dusts

4. Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors – Prevent cuticle formation

Example: Diflubenzuron

5. Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) – Mimic hormones

Example: Methoprene

✅ 3. Based on Chemical Composition

1. Organochlorines – Persistent, bioaccumulative

Example: DDT, Lindane

2. Organophosphates – Inhibit acetylcholinesterase

Example: Malathion, Chlorpyrifos

3. Carbamates – Reversible AchE inhibitors

Example: Carbaryl

4. Pyrethroids – Synthetic pyrethrins

Example: Cypermethrin

5. Neonicotinoids – Act on nicotinic receptors

Example: Imidacloprid

6. Botanicals – Plant-derived

Example: Azadirachtin (Neem)

✅ 4. Based on Toxicity (WHO Classification)

 1. Class Ia – Extremely hazardous
2. Class Ib – Highly hazardous
3. Class II – Moderately hazardous
4. Class III – Slightly hazardous
5. U – Unlikely to present acute hazard

Q24. Define the terms related to insecticide toxicity. Also explain

the types of insecticide formulations with examples.

✅ 1. Definitions (Toxicological Terms)

1. Toxicity – The ability of a substance to cause harm to organisms.

2. LD₅₀ (Lethal Dose 50%) – Dose required to kill 50% of test animals
(mg/kg body weight).
3. LC₅₀ (Lethal Concentration 50%) – Concentration of chemical in
air/water that kills 50% of test organisms.
4. KD₅₀ (Knockdown Dose 50%) – Dose causing knockdown of 50% of
insects (not death).
5. LT₅₀ (Lethal Time 50%) – Time taken to kill 50% of insects at a fixed
dose.
6. EC₅₀ (Effective Concentration 50%) – Concentration producing desired
effect in 50% of test insects.
7. MRL (Maximum Residue Limit) – Legal limit of pesticide residue allowed
in food commodities.
8. Waiting Period – Time between last pesticide application and safe
harvest.
9. Residue – Trace amount of pesticide remaining in food or environment
after application.

✅ 2. Insecticide Formulations

Insecticides are not applied in pure form; they are mixed with carriers and
solvents.

Types of Formulations:

1. Dusts (DP) – Dry powder, directly applied.

2. Wettable Powders (WP) – Mixed with water and sprayed.
3. Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC) – Oil-based, form emulsion in water.
4. Granules (GR) – Soil application, slow release.
5. Suspension Concentrates (SC) – Stable aqueous suspensions.
6. Microencapsulated Formulations (ME) – Slow-release capsules.
 7. Fumigants – Used as gases. Example: Aluminium phosphide

Q25. Define systematics, taxonomy, and classification. Explain

binomial nomenclature, and define biotype, subspecies, species,
genus, family, and order. Classify Class Insecta up to orders with
suitable examples.

Def of Systematics : Systematics is the scientific study of the diversity

and relationships among organisms, including identification, classification,
and naming.

1. Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the theory and practice of classifying organisms, including

naming, describing, and grouping.

2. Classification

Classification is the arrangement of organisms into hierarchical groups based

on similarities and evolutionary relationships.

3. Binomial Nomenclature

Introduced by Carolus Linnaeus, binomial nomenclature gives each species a

two-part Latin name:

Genus name (Capitalized)

Species name (lowercase)

Example: Apis mellifera (Honeybee)

4. Definitions

Biotype: A genetically distinct population within a species (e.g., pesticide-

resistant pest forms).

Subspecies: A distinct population under a species, often with minor

differences.

Species: A group of individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile

offspring.

Genus: A group of related species (e.g., Helicoverpa)

Family: A group of related genera (e.g., Noctuidae)

Order: A group of related families (e.g., Lepidoptera)

✅ Classification of Class Insecta up to Orders (with examples)

1. Order Orthoptera – Grasshoppers, crickets (Acrida, Gryllus)

2. Order Hemiptera – True bugs, aphids (Dysdercus, Aphis)
3. Order Coleoptera – Beetles (Sitophilus, Callosobruchus)
4. Order Lepidoptera – Butterflies, moths (Bombyx, Plutella)
5. Order Diptera – Flies, mosquitoes (Musca, Anopheles)
6. Order Hymenoptera – Bees, ants, wasps (Apis, Camponotus)

Q26. Classify the insect orders Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Isoptera,

and Odonata. Mention key families and explain their economic
importance with examples.

✅ 1. Order: Orthoptera (Grasshoppers, Crickets)

Families:Acrididae – Locusts (e.g., Schistocerca, Locusta): Devastating pests

of cereals and fodder crops.

Tettigoniidae – Long-horned grasshoppers (e.g., Conocephalus): Feed on

vegetation.

Gryllidae – Crickets (e.g., Gryllus): Some species damage seedlings.

Gryllotalpidae – Mole crickets (e.g., Gryllotalpa): Damage roots of nursery

plants.

✅ 2. Order: Dictyoptera (Cockroaches and Mantids)

Families:Mantidae – Praying mantis (e.g., Mantis religiosa): Predators,

beneficial in biocontrol.

Blattidae – Cockroaches (e.g., Periplaneta americana): Urban pests;

contaminate food and spread disease.

✅ 3. Order: Isoptera (Termites)

Family: Termitidae

Species like Odontotermes and Microtermes damage wood, paper, and crop
roots.
Important pests in sugarcane, wheat, and construction.

✅ 4. Order: Odonata (Dragonflies and Damselflies)

Predatory insects in both larval (aquatic) and adult (aerial) stages.

Feed on mosquitoes and flies – important biological control agents.

Indicators of water quality in ecosystems.

Q27. Give an account of the insect orders Thysanoptera and

Hemiptera. List the major families under Hemiptera and explain
their significance in agriculture with suitable examples.

✅ 1. Order: Thysanoptera (Thrips)

Family: Thripidae

Example: Thrips tabaci, Scirtothrips dorsalis

Cause leaf curling, silvering, and flower drop in crops like onion, chili, and
cotton.

Some species transmit plant viruses (e.g., Tospovirus).

✅ 2. Order: Hemiptera (True Bugs, Aphids, Whiteflies, etc.)

Includes a large variety of plant-sucking pests, many of which are serious

vectors of plant viruses.

Major Families and Examples:

1. Pentatomidae – Stink bugs (Nezara viridula) – Damage rice and

soybean pods.
2. Coreidae – Leaf-footed bugs (Leptoglossus) – Feed on cotton and
tomato.
3. Cimicidae – Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) – Human parasite, urban pest.
4. Pyrrhocoridae – Red cotton bug (Dysdercus koenigii) – Sucks sap from
cotton bolls.
5. Lygaeidae – Seed bugs – Affect oilseed crops.
6. Cicadellidae – Leafhoppers (Amrasca biguttula) – Cause leaf curling,
yellowing in cotton.
 7. Delphacidae – Planthoppers – Important rice pests.
8. Aphididae – Aphids (Aphis gossypii) – Sap suckers and virus vectors.
9. Coccidae – Soft scales – Affect fruit crops.
10. Lophophidae – Planthoppers – Affect cereals.
11. Aleurodidae – Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) – Major virus vector in
cotton.
12. Pseudococcidae – Mealybugs (Phenacoccus solenopsis) – Suck
sap, produce honeydew.

Q28. Classify and describe important insect families under the

orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Neuroptera. Mention their
economic importance with suitable examples.

✅ 1. Order: Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths)

Pieridae – e.g., Pieris brassicae (Cabbage butterfly): Leaf-eating caterpillars.

Papilionidae – e.g., Papilio demoleus (Lime butterfly): Citrus pest.

Noctuidae – e.g., Spodoptera litura, Helicoverpa armigera: Major

polyphagous crop pests.

Sphingidae – e.g., Acherontia (Hawk moths): Some are pests on tomato and
brinjal.

Pyralidae – e.g., Corcyra cephalonica (Rice moth): Stored grain pest.

Gelechiidae – e.g., Pectinophora gossypiella (Pink bollworm): Damages cotton

bolls.

Arctiidae – e.g., Creatonotus gangis: Feeds on castor and groundnut.

Saturnidae – Wild silkmoths (e.g., Antheraea mylitta): Used in tasar silk

production.

Bombycidae – e.g., Bombyx mori: Domesticated silkworm used in mulberry

silk industry.

✅ 2. Order: Coleoptera (Beetles)

Coccinellidae – Ladybird beetles (Coccinella septempunctata): Predators on

aphids – beneficial.
Chrysomelidae – e.g., Galerucella spp.: Leaf feeders on vegetables and
pulses.

Cerambycidae – e.g., Batocera rufomaculata: Stem and wood borers in fruit

trees.

Curculionidae – e.g., Sitophilus oryzae (Rice weevil): Serious pest of stored

grains.

Bruchidae – e.g., Callosobruchus chinensis: Pulse beetle; stored grain pest.

Scarabaeidae – e.g., Holotrichia consanguinea (White grub): Root feeders,

affect sugarcane and groundnut.

✅ 3. Order: Neuroptera

Chrysopidae – e.g., Chrysoperla carnea (Green lacewing): Predator of aphids,

mealybugs – used in biological control.

Q29. Give an account of the insect families under the orders

Hymenoptera and Diptera. Mention their roles in agriculture and
biological control with examples.

✅ 1. Order: Hymenoptera

Tenthredinidae – e.g., Athalia lugens proxima (Mustard sawfly): Leaf

defoliator of crucifers.

Apidae – e.g., Apis mellifera, Apis cerana: Major pollinators in agriculture and
horticulture.

Trichogrammatidae – e.g., Trichogramma chilonis: Egg parasitoid; used in

biocontrol against lepidopteran pests.

Ichneumonidae – e.g., Ichneumon spp.: Larval parasitoids on many

caterpillars.

Braconidae – e.g., Bracon hebetor, Cotesia spp.: Parasitoids of lepidopteran

larvae; important in IPM.

Chalcididae – e.g., Brachymeria spp.: Pupal parasitoids on pests like fruit

flies.

✅ Hymenopterans are extremely valuable as natural enemies

(parasitoids/predators) and pollinators.
✅ 2. Order: Diptera (Flies)

Cecidomyiidae – e.g., Contarinia sorghicola (Sorghum midge): Infests

sorghum flowers.

Tachinidae – e.g., Exorista bombycis, Sturmia spp.: Parasitoid flies used in

biocontrol of pests like Spodoptera.

Agromyzidae – e.g., Liriomyza spp. (Leaf miners): Bore into leaf tissue,
reduce photosynthesis.

Culicidae – e.g., Anopheles, Aedes: Vector mosquitoes; spread diseases like

malaria and dengue.

Muscidae – e.g., Musca domestica (Housefly): Disease-spreading domestic

pest.

Tephritidae – e.g., Bactrocera cucurbitae (Melon fruit fly): Serious pest of

cucurbits and fruits.

Dipterans have roles as pests, parasitoids, pollinators, and vectors of

disease.