Form 4:2 Math 08/04/24

Concepts relating to Geometry

What is geometry?
Geometry is an area of mathematics which deals with properties of
shape and measurements. The word geometry comes from Ancient
Greek – “geo” meaning earth and “metron” meaning measurement.

2D shapes
2D shapes are flat shapes which only have two dimensions, e.g. a
length and a width.
Examples of 2D shapes are triangles, rectangles, hexagons and
circles.

 Symmetry
Symmetry is when a line is drawn through a shape to make one
side of the line a reflection of the other. It is a property of a 2D
polygon or 3D polyhedron.
There are two different types of symmetry that you need to be
aware of, lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry.
 Perimeter
The perimeter is the total distance around the outside of a 2D
shape.

 Area
Area is a measure of how much space there is inside of
a 2 dimensional shape.
 Circles, sectors and arcs
Circles are round plane figures whose boundaries consist of points
equidistant from a fixed point.
The parts of a circle have specific names and properties which you
need to know for all circle related questions.

 Polygons
Polygons are 2D shapes made from straight lines.
You will deal with two different types of polygons.
Regular polygons
Regular polygons have specific properties, they have equal side
lengths and equal internal angles.
Irregular polygons
 Irregular polygons do not have equal sides and do not have
equal angles.

Angles
Angles are measures of turn.
GCSE mathematics uses angles measured in degrees (∘).(∘). A
full turn is 360∘.360∘.

 Angle rules
Angle rules enable us to calculate unknown angles. Here are some
of the important rules.
Angles on a straight line equal 180°

Angles around a point equal 360°

Vertically opposite angles are equal

 Angles in parallel lines
Angles in parallel lines are angles that are created when two
parallel lines are intersected by another line called a transversal.

To do this we use three facts about angles in parallel lines.

 Angles in polygons
Angles in polygons relate to the interior and exterior angles of
regular and irregular polygons.
The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is always equal
to 360∘
The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is always equal
to 360∘360∘.

Interior and exterior angles add up to 180∘180∘.

The sum of interior angles can be calculated using the formula,

where n represents the number of sides.

Geometric Terms

The following table gives some geometry concepts, words and notations.

Points

We may think of a point as a "dot" on a piece of paper or the pinpoint on

a board. In geometry, we usually identify this point with a number or
letter. A point has no length, width, or height - it just specifies an exact
location. It is zero-dimensional.

Every point needs a name. To name a point, we can use a single capital
letter. The following is a diagram of points A, B, and M:

Lines

We can use a line to connect two points on a sheet of paper. A line is one-
dimensional. That is, a line has length, but no width or height. In
geometry, a line is perfectly straight and extends forever in both
directions. A line is uniquely determined by two points.

Lines need names just like points do, so that we can refer to them easily.
To name a line, pick any two points on the line.
 The line passing through the points A and B is
denoted by

A set of points that lie on the same line are said to be collinear. Pairs of
lines can form intersecting lines, parallel lines, perpendicular
lines and skew lines.

Line Segments

Because the length of any line is infinite, we sometimes use parts of a

line. A line segment connects two endpoints. A line segment with two
endpoints A and B is denoted by .

A line segment can also be drawn as part of a line.

Midpoint

The midpoint of a segment divides the segment into two segments of

equal length. The diagram below shows the midpoint M of the line
segment . Since M is the midpoint, we know that the lengths AM = MB.

Rays

A ray is part of a line that extends without end in one direction. It starts
from one endpoint and extends forever in one direction.

A ray starting from point A and passing through B is

denoted by
Planes

Planes are two-dimensional. A plane has length and width, but no height,
and extends infinitely on all sides. Planes are thought of as flat surfaces,
like a tabletop. A plane is made up of an infinite amount of lines. Two-
dimensional figures are called plane figures.

All the points and lines that lie on the same plane are said to
be coplanar.

A plane.

Space

Space is the set of all points in the three dimensions - length, width and
height. It is made up of an infinite number of planes. Figures in space are
called solids.

Figures in space.

A point is an exact location in space. They are shown as dots on a plane

in 2 dimensions or a dot in space in 3 dimensions. It is labeled with capital
letters. It does not take up any space.

A line is a geometric figure that consists of an infinite number of points

lined up straight that extend in both directions for ever (indicated by the
arrows at the end). A line is identified by a lower case letter or by two
points that the line passes through. There is exactly 1 line through two
points. All points on the same line are called collinear. Points not on the
same line are noncollinear.

Two lines (on the same plane) are either parallel or they will meet at a
point of intersection.

A line segment is a part of a line with two endpoints. A line segment

starts and stops at two endpoints.

A ray is part of a line with one endpoint and extends in one direction
forever.
A plane is a flat 2-dimensional surface. A plane can be identified by 3
points in the plane or by a capital letter. There is exactly 1 plane through
three points. The intersection of two planes is a line.

Coplanar points are points in one plane.

How To Measure Angles And Types Of Angles

An angle consists of two rays with a common endpoint. The two rays are
called the sides of the angle and the common endpoint is the vertex of the
angle.

Each angle has a measure generated by the rotation about the vertex.
The measure is determined by the rotation of the terminal side about the
initial side. A counterclockwise rotation generates a positive angle
measure. A clockwise rotation generates a negative angle measure. The
units used to measure an angle are either in degrees or radians.

Angles can be classified based upon the measure: acute angle, right
angle, obtuse angle, and straight angle.

If the sum of measures of two positive angles is 90°, the angles are
called complementary.

If the sum of measures of two positive angles is 180°, the angles are
called supplementary.

Examples:

1. Two angles are complementary. One angle measures 5x degrees

and the other angle measures 4x degrees. What is the measure of
each angle?
2. Two angles are supplementary. One angle measures 7x degrees and
the other measures (5x + 36) degrees. What is the measure of each
angle?
Geometric Theorems

The Opposite Angle Theorem (OAT)

When two straight lines cross, opposite angles are equal.

The Angle Sum of a Triangle Theorem

The interior angles of any triangle have a sum of 180°.

The Exterior Angle Theorem (EAT)

Any exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the opposite interior
angles.

Parallel Lines Theorem (PLT)

Whenever a pair of parallel lines is cut by a transversal
a) corresponding angles are equal (PLT-F)
b) alternate angles are equal (PLT-Z)
c) interior angles have a sum of 180° (PLT-C)