Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

Steel and Timber Structures

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Table of Content
1 Introduction to Structural Steels ......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Design Philosophy....................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Ultimate limit states ............................................................................................. 4
1.2.2 Serviceability limit states ..................................................................................... 5
1.3 Mechanical properties of structural steels ................................................................... 7
2 Design of axially loaded structural members ..................................................................... 9
2.1 Tension members ........................................................................................................ 9
2.1.1 Types of Tension Members................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Design Consideration ........................................................................................ 11
2.1.3 Limit State Design of Tension Members ............................................................ 13
2.2 Compression members .............................................................................................. 31
2.2.1 Classification of Sections (Clause 5.5 of EN 1993-1-1) .................................... 31
2.2.2 Euler Elastic Buckling Column Formula ........................................................... 36
2.2.3 Design of Compression Members (Clause 6.2.4 of EN 1993-1-1) .................... 40
2.2.4 Buckling resistance of compression members (Clause 6.3.1 of EN1993-1-1)... 40
2.2.5 Buckling curves (Clause 6.3.1.2 of EN1993-1-1) .............................................. 41
2.2.6 Slenderness for flexural buckling (Clause 6.3.1.3 of EN1993-1-1) ................... 43
2.2.7 Slenderness for torsional and torsional-flexural buckling (Clause 6.3.1.4 of
EN1993-1-1) ..................................................................................................................... 44
2.2.8 Built up Compression members ......................................................................... 48
3 Design of beams or flexural members .............................................................................. 79
3.1 Laterally Restrained Beams ...................................................................................... 79
3.1.1 Design for Bending ............................................................................................ 79
3.1.1.1 Elastic and plastic bending moment resistance .............................................. 79
3.1.1.2 Uniaxial bending (Clause 6.2.5 of EN1993-1-1) ........................................... 81
3.1.1.3 Bi-axial Bending ............................................................................................ 81
3.1.1.4 Net area in bending ........................................................................................ 82
3.1.2 Design for Shear (Clause 6.2.6 of EN1993-1-1)................................................ 82
3.1.3 Design for combined shear and bending ........................................................... 84
3.2 Laterally Unrestrained Beams ................................................................................. 102
3.2.1 Lateral -Torsional Buckling ............................................................................. 102
3.2.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 102
3.2.1.2 Elastic Critical Moment ............................................................................... 102
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3.2.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Resistance (Clause 6.3.2.1 of EN1993-1-1) ........ 106

3.2.3 Methods for improving the lateral-torsional buckling resistance ................... 109
4 Design of beam- column members ................................................................................. 117
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 117
4.2 Bending and Axial Force (Clause 6.2.9 of EN1993-1-1) ........................................ 117
4.2.1 Class 1 and 2 Cross Sections ........................................................................... 117
4.2.2 Class 3 cross-sections ...................................................................................... 119
4.2.3 Class 4 cross-sections ...................................................................................... 119
4.3 Bending, shear and axial force (Clause 6.2.10 of EN1993-1-1) ............................. 120
4.4 Member stability (Clause 6.3.3 of EN1993-1-1) ..................................................... 120
5 Design of structural connections .................................................................................... 137
5.1 Bolted Connections ................................................................................................. 137
5.1.1 Categories of Bolted Connections (Clause 3.4 of EN1993-1-8) ...................... 138
5.1.1.1 Shear connections ......................................................................................... 138
5.1.1.2 Tension connections ..................................................................................... 139
5.1.2 Bolt performance in the connection ................................................................. 141
5.1.3 Dimensions of holes ......................................................................................... 141
5.1.4 Positioning of Bolt Holes (Clause 3.5 of EN1993-1-8) ................................... 142
5.1.5 Design of Bolted Joints (Clause 3.6 of EN1993-1-8) ...................................... 144
5.1.5.1 Bolts in Shear ............................................................................................... 144
5.1.5.2 Long joints.................................................................................................... 145
5.1.5.3 Bolts in Tension ........................................................................................... 145
5.1.5.4 Bolts in Shear and Tension........................................................................... 145
5.1.5.5 Preloaded bolts ............................................................................................. 145
5.1.5.6 Bolts in bearing ............................................................................................ 148
5.1.5.7 Block tearing ................................................................................................ 149
5.1.6 Group of bolts .................................................................................................. 150
5.2 Welded Connections ............................................................................................... 167
5.2.1 Types of Welds ................................................................................................. 167
5.2.1.1 Fillet Welds .................................................................................................. 167
5.2.1.2 Fillet welds all round .................................................................................... 169
5.2.1.3 Butt Welds .................................................................................................... 169
5.2.1.4 Plug welds .................................................................................................... 170
5.2.1.5 Flare groove welds ....................................................................................... 170
5.2.2 Design of Welded Connections (clause 4.5 of EN 1993-1-8) .......................... 171
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5.2.2.1 Design resistance of a fillet weld ................................................................. 171

5.2.2.2 Design resistance of fillet welds all round ................................................... 177
5.2.2.3 Design resistance of butt welds .................................................................... 177
5.2.2.4 Design resistance of plug welds ................................................................... 178
5.3 Example of Bolt weld connection ........................................................................... 183
6 Introduction to timber structures .................................................................................... 191
6.1 Timber Properties .................................................................................................... 191
6.2 EBCS EN1995-1 & 2 for design of timber ............................................................. 191

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1 Introduction to Structural Steels

1.1 Introduction
Structures are usually three-dimensional in their extent, but sometimes they are essentially two-
dimensional (plates and shells), or even one-dimensional (lines and cables). Solid steel
structures invariably include comparatively high volumes of high-cost structural steel, which
are understressed and uneconomic, except in very small-scale components. Because of this,
steel structures are usually formed from one-dimensional members (as in rectangular and
triangulated frames), or from two-dimensional members (as in box girders), or from both (as
in stressed skin industrial buildings). Three-dimensional steel structures are often arranged so
that they act as if composed of a number of independent two-dimensional frames or one-
dimensional members (Figure 1-1).
Structural steel members may be one-dimensional as for beams and columns (whose lengths
are much greater than their transverse dimensions), or two dimensional as for plates (whose
lengths and widths are much greater than their thicknesses), as shown in Figure 1-2c. While
one-dimensional steel members may be solid, they are usually thin-walled, in that their
thicknesses are much less than their other transverse dimensions. Thin-walled steel members
are rolled in a number of cross-sectional shapes [1] or are built up by connecting together a
number of rolled sections or plates, as shown in Figure 1-2b. Structural members can be
classified as tension or compression members, beams, beam-columns, torsion members, or
plates (Figure 1-3), according to the method by which they transmit the forces in the structure.
Structural steel members may be connected together at joints in a number of ways, and by using
a variety of connectors. These include pins, rivets, bolts, and welds of various types. Steel plate
gussets, angle cleats, or other elements may also be used in the connections.

Figure 1-1 Reduction of a [3-D] structure to simpler forms.

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Figure 1-2 Types of structural steel members.

Figure 1-3 Load transmission by structural members.

1.2 Design Philosophy

The structural design of any structure first involves establishing the loading and other design
conditions, which must be supported by the structure and therefore must be considered in its
design. This is followed by the analysis and computation of internal gross forces, (i.e. thrust,
shear, bending moments and twisting moments), as well as stress intensities, strain, deflection
and reactions produced by loads, changes in temperature, shrinkage, creep and other design
conditions. Finally comes the proportioning and selection of materials for the members and
connections to respond adequately to the effects produced by the design conditions.
The criteria used to judge whether particular proportions will result in the desired behavior
reflect accumulated knowledge based on field and model tests, and practical experience.
Intuition and judgment are also important to this process.
The principal design requirement of a structure is that it should be effective; that is, it should
fulfil the objectives and satisfy the needs for which it was created.
The overall purpose of design is to invent a structure which will satisfy the design requirements.
Thus, the structural engineer seeks to invent a structural system, which will resist and transfer
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the forces and loads acting on it with adequate safety, while making due allowance for the
requirements of serviceability, economy, and harmony. The process by which this may be
achieved is summarized in Figure 1-4.

Figure 1-4 : The overall design process.

Following these first two steps of definition and invention come a series of steps, which include
the structural design, evaluation, selection, and modification of the structural system. These
may be repeated a number of times before the structural requirements are met and the structural
design is finalized. A typical structural design process is summarized in Figure 1-5.
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Figure 1-5 The structural design process.

1.2.1 Ultimate limit states

For a structure, in general, the ultimate limit states to be considered are: loss of static
equilibrium, internal failure of the structure or its members and joints, failure or excessive
deformation of the ground and fatigue failure.

In a steel structure, the ultimate limit state referring to internal failure involves the resistance
of cross sections, the resistance of the structure and its members to instability phenomena and
the resistance of the joints.

In general, the verification of the ultimate limit states consists of the verification of the
condition:
𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑅𝑑

where Ed is the design value of the effect of actions, such as internal forces and Rd represents
the design value of the corresponding resistance.

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The design values of the effects of actions Ed shall be determined by combining the values of
actions that are considered to occur simultaneously. EN 1990 specifies the following three
types of combinations, and each one includes one leading or one accidental action:

i) combinations of actions for persistent or transient design situations (fundamental

combinations);
ii) combinations of actions for accidental design situations;
iii) combinations of actions for seismic design situations.

The criteria for the establishment of these combinations and the values of all the relevant factors
are defined in EN 1990 and its Annex A.

The verification of the ultimate limit state of loss of static equilibrium of the structure,
considered as a rigid body, shall be verified comparing the design effect of destabilising actions
with the design effect of stabilizing actions. Other specific ultimate limit states, such as failure
of the ground or fatigue failure, have to be verified according to the relevant rules specified in
EN 1990 (EN 1997 and EN 1993-1-9).
1.2.2 Serviceability limit states

The serviceability limit states correspond to a state beyond which the specific service
conditions are no longer valid; in steel structures limit states of deformation and of vibration
are normally considered.
The verification of the serviceability limit states consists of the verification of the condition:
𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐶𝑑
where Ed is the design value of the effect of actions specified in the serviceability criterion,
determined by the relevant combinations, and Cd is the limiting design value of the relevant
serviceability criterion (e.g. design value of a displacement).
The design values of the effects of actions Ed in the serviceability criterion shall be determined
by one of the following three types of combinations specified in EN 1990 and its Annex A:
i) characteristic combinations;
ii) frequent combinations;
iii) quasi-permanent combinations.
The limit values of the parameters for the verification of the serviceability limit states,
according to EN1993-1-1, section 7 and to EN 1990 –Basis of Structural Design, must be
agreed between the client and the designer, and can also be specified in the National Annexes.
Typical recommended values1 for the verification of the deformation limit state in steel
structures are described below, for vertical deformations in beams (Figure 1-6 and Table 1-1)
and for horizontal deformations in multi-story structures (Figure 1-7).

1
Portuguese National Annex of EN1993-1-1
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Figure 1-6 Vertical deformations in beams

In Figure 1-6, wc is the precamber in the unloaded state of the beam, w1 is the deflection of
the beam due to permanent actions, immediately after their application, w2 is the deflection of
the beam due to variable actions, increased by the long term deformations due to permanent
actions and wmáx is the final maximum deflection measured from the straight line between
supports.
Table 1-1 Limiting values for the vertical displacements in beams (span L)

Figure 1-7 Limiting values for horizontal displacements in frames

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1.3 Mechanical properties of structural steels

The important mechanical properties of most structural steels under static load are indicated in
the idealised tensile stress–strain diagram shown in Figure 1-8. Initially the steel has a linear
stress–strain curve whose slope is the Young’s modulus of elasticity E. The steel remains
elastic while in this linear range, and recovers perfectly on unloading. The limit of the linear
elastic behaviour is often closely approximated by the yield stress fy and the corresponding
yield strain εy=fy/E. Beyond this limit the steel flows plastically without any increase in stress
until the strain-hardening strain εst is reached. This plastic range is usually considerable, and
accounts for the ductility of the steel. The stress increases above the yield stress fy when the
strain-hardening strain εst is exceeded, and this continues until the ultimate tensile stress fu is
reached. After this, large local reductions in the cross-section occur, and the load capacity
decreases until tensile fracture takes place.

Figure 1-8: Idealized stress–strain relationship for structural steel.

The material coefficients to be adopted in calculations for the structural steels covered by EN
1993-1-1 should be taken as follows:
− 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 = 210,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸
− 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐺 = ≈ 81,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
2(1 + 𝜈)
− 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 , 𝜈 = 0.3
− 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 = 12 × 10−6 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝐾 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 ≤ 100°𝐶)
NOTE For calculating the structural effects of unequal temperatures in composite concrete
steel structures to EN 1994 the coefficient of linear thermal expansion is taken as 𝛼 = 10 ×
10−6 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝐾.
Fatigue failure under repeated loads
Structural steel may fracture at low average tensile stresses after a large number of cycles of
fluctuating load. This high-cycle fatigue failure is initiated by local damage caused by the
repeated loads, which leads to the formation of a small local crack. The extent of the fatigue
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crack is gradually increased by the subsequent load repetitions, until finally the effective cross-
section is so reduced that catastrophic failure may occur. High-cycle fatigue is only a design
consideration when a large number of loading cycles involving tensile stresses is likely to occur
during the design life of the structure (compressive stresses do not cause fatigue). This is often
the case for bridges, cranes, and structures which support machinery; wind and wave loading
may also lead to fatigue problems.
Brittle fracture under impact load
Structural steel does not always exhibit a ductile behaviour, and under some circumstances a
sudden and catastrophic fracture may occur, even though the nominal tensile stresses are low.
Brittle fracture is initiated by the existence or formation of a small crack in a region of high
local stress. Once initiated, the crack may propagate in a ductile (or stable) fashion for which
the external forces must supply the energy required to tear the steel. More serious are cracks
which propagate at high speed in a brittle (or unstable) fashion, for which some of the internal
elastic strain energy stored in steel is released and used to fracture the steel. Such a crack is
self-propagating while there is sufficient internal strain energy, and will continue until arrested
by ductile elements in its path which have sufficient deformation capacity to absorb the internal
energy released.

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2 Design of axially loaded structural members

2.1 Tension members
A tension member is designed as a structural member subjected to tensile force in a direction
parallel to its longitudinal axis. A tension member is also called a tie member or simply a tie.
2.1.1 Types of Tension Members
The types of structure and method of end connections determine the type of a tension member
in structural steel construction. Tension members used may be broadly grouped into four
groups.
1. Wires and cables.
2. Rods and bars
3. Single structural shapes and plates
4. Built-up members
(i) Wires and Cables
The wire types are used for hoists, derricks, rigging slings, guy wires and hangers for
suspension bridges.
(ii) Rods and Bars
The square and round bars are shown in figures are quite often used for small tension members.
The round bars with threaded ends are used with pin-connections at the ends instead of threads.

(iii) Single Structural Shapes and Plates

The single structural shapes, i.e. angle sections and tee-sections are used as tension members.
The angle sections are considerably more rigid than the wire ropes, rods and bars. When the
length of tension member is too ling, then the single angle section also becomes flexible.

The single angle sections have the disadvantage of eccentricity in both planes in a riveted
connection.
The channel section has eccentricity in one axis only. Single channel sections have high rigidity
in the direction of web and low rigidity in the direction of flange.
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Occasionally, I-sections are sued as tension members. The I-sections have more rigidity, and
single I-sections are more economical than built up sections.
(iv) Built-up Sections
Two or more than two members are used to form built up members. When the single rolled
steel section can not furnish the required area, then built-up sections are used.
The double angle sections of unequal legs shown in the figure are extensively used as tension
members in the roof trusses. The angle sections are placed back to back on two sides of a gusset
plate. When both the angle sections are attached on the same side of the gusset, then built-up
section has eccentricity in one plane and is subjected to tension and bending simultaneously.
The two angle sections may be arranged in the star shape (i.e. the angles are placed diagonally
opposite to each other with leg on outer sides). The star shape angle sections may be connected
by batten plates. The batten plates are alternatively placed in two perpendicular directions. The
star arrangement provides a symmetrical and concentric connection.
Two angle sections as shown in the figure (a) are used in the two-plane trusses where two
parallel gussets are used at each connection. Two angle sections as shown in figure (b) have
the advantage that the distance between them could be adjusted to suit connecting members at
their ends.
Four angle sections as shown in figure (c) are also used in the two-plane trusses. The angles
are connected to two parallel gussets. For angle sections connected by plates as shown in figure
(d) are used as tension members in bridge girders.

A built-up section may be made of two channels placed back to back with a gusset in between
them. Such sections are used for medium loads in a single plane-truss. In two-plane trusses,
two channels are arranged at a distance with their flange turned inward. It simplifies the
transverse connections and also minimizes lacing. The flanges of two channels are kept
outwards, as in the case of chord members or long span girders, in order to have greater lateral
rigidity.
The heavy built-up tension members in the bridge girder trusses are made of angles and plates.
Such members can resist compression in reversal of stress takes place.
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2.1.2 Design Consideration

Figure 2-1 illustrates various examples of structures with some members that are commonly
assumed to be loaded only in tension.

Figure 2-1: Structures with some members in tension

Figure 2-2 shows typical cross sections of tension members. Simple or built up rolled sections
are commonly used in trusses, lattice girders and as bracing members. Cables, flats or bars are
used in bracing systems. Cables, flats or bars are sometimes used in bridges or long-span roofs;
such member types are discussed in detail in EN1993-1-11.

Figure 2-2: Typical cross sections of members in tension

The behavior of members in tension is closely related to the stress-strain behavior of steel
subjected to uniaxial tensile forces.
The plastic resistance is often considered as the ultimate tensile resistance of the member,
especially when ductility is of concern.
Typically, the governing design situation for members subject to tension corresponds to the
location of the joints (either the connection to other parts of the structure or splices within the
tension member).
In these cross sections, either because of bolting or because of a change of cross sectional
shape, the net area of the cross section must be taken into account.

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It is noted that stress concentrations occur in the neighborhood of holes or discontinuities, as

shown in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3: Concentration of tension next to a hole

Bolted or welded connections often induce second-order moments because of small
eccentricities, as shown in Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-4: Eccentric connections

These second-order effects should be taken into account. Alternatively, careful detailing
should be specified to eliminate these eccentricities, as illustrated in Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5: Welded connections between hollow sections

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2.1.3 Limit State Design of Tension Members

General (see EN 1993-1-1, Clause 6.1)

The partial factors 𝛾𝑀 should be applied to the various characteristic values of resistance as
follows:
Resistance of cross-sections whatever the class is: 𝛾𝑀0
Resistance of members to instability assessed by member checks: 𝛾𝑀1
Resistance of cross-sections in tension to fracture: 𝛾𝑀2
The following numerical values are recommended for buildings:
𝛾𝑀0 = 1.00, 𝛾𝑀1 = 1.00, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝑀2 = 1.25
Resistance of cross-sections (see EN 1993-1-1, Clause 6.2)
The design value of an action effect in each cross section shall not exceed the corresponding
design resistance and if several action effects act simultaneously the combined effect shall not
exceed the resistance for that combination.
The design values of resistance should depend on the classification of the cross-section.
Elastic verification according to the elastic resistance may be carried out for all cross sectional
classes provided the effective cross sectional properties are used for the verification of class 4
cross sections.
The plastic resistance of cross sections should be verified by finding a stress distribution, which
is in equilibrium with the internal forces and moments without exceeding the yield strength.
This stress distribution should be compatible with the associated plastic deformations.
As a conservative approximation for all cross section classes, a linear summation of the
utilization ratios for each stress resultant may be used. For class 1, class 2 or class 3 cross
sections subjected to the combination of NEd, My,Ed and Mz,Ed this method may be applied by
using the following criteria:
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
+ + ≤1
𝑁𝑅𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝑅𝑑

Where NRd, My,Rd and Mz,Rd are the design values of the resistance depending on the cross
sectional classification and including any reduction that may be caused by shear effects.
Where yielding first occurs on the tension side of the cross section, the plastic reserves of the
tension zone may be utilized by accounting for partial plastification when determining the
resistance of a Class 3 cross-section.
Gross cross-section (see EN 1993-1-1, Clause 6.2.2.1)
The properties of the gross cross-section should be determined using the nominal dimensions.
Holes for fasteners need not be deducted, but allowance should be made for larger openings.
Splice materials should not be included.

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Net area (see EN 1993-1-1, Clause 6.2.2.2)

1) The net area of a cross-section should be taken as its gross area less appropriate deductions
for all holes and other openings.
2) For calculating net section properties, the deduction for a single fastener hole should be the
gross cross-sectional area of the hole in the plane of its axis. For countersunk holes,
appropriate allowance should be made for the countersunk portion.

3) Provided that the fastener holes are not staggered, the total area to be deducted for fastener
holes should be the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes in any cross-section
perpendicular to the member axis (see failure plane ② in Figure 2-6).

NOTE: The maximum sum denotes the position of the critical fracture line.
4) Where the fastener holes are staggered, the total area to be deducted for fasteners should be
the greater of:
a) the deduction for non-staggered holes given in (3)
𝑠2 𝑠2
b) 𝑡 (𝑛𝑑0 − ∑ 4𝑝) = 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 − 𝑡 ∑ 4𝑝

where
s is the staggered pitch, the spacing of the centers of two consecutive holes in the chain
measured parallel to the member axis;
p is the spacing of the centers of the same two holes measured perpendicular to the member
axis;
t is the thickness;
n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal or zig-zag line progressively across the
member or part of the member, see Figure 2-6.
do is the diameter of hole

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5) In an angle or other member with holes in more then one plane, the spacing p should be
measured along the center of thickness of the material (sec Figure 2-7).

Figure 2-6: Staggered holes and critical fracture lines 1 and 2

Figure 2-7: Angles with holes in both legs

Tension (see EN 1993-1-1, Clause 6.2.3)
1. The design value of the tension force NEd at each cross section shall satisfy:
𝑁𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑
2. For sections with holes the design tension resistance Nt,Rd should be taken as the smaller
of:
a. the design plastic resistance of the gross cross-section
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
b. the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section at holes for fasteners
0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
3. Where capacity design is requested, the design plastic resistance Npl,Rd should be less than
the design ultimate resistance of the net section at fasteners holes Nu,Rd.
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 < 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑
𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
<
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀2
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑀2
>
𝐴 0.9𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑀0
4. In category C connections, the design tension resistance Nt,Rd in (1) of the net section at
holes for fasteners should be taken as Nt,Rd, where:
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
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5. A single angle in tension connected by a single row of bolts in one leg see Figure 2-7, may
be treated as concentrically loaded over an effective net section for which the design
ultimate resistance should be determined as follows(see EN 1993-1-8, Clause 3.10.3):
0.2(𝑒2 − 0.5𝑑0 )𝑡𝑓𝑢
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 1 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡: 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 2 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
Where:

b2 and b3 are reduction factors dependent on the pitch P1 as given in Table 2.1. For intermediate
values of P1 the value of b may be determined by linear interpolation;

Anet is the net area of the angle. For an unequal-leg connected by its smaller leg, Anet should be
taken as equal to the net section area of an equivalent equal-leg angle of size equal to that of
the smaller leg.
Table 2-1: Reduction factors β2 and β3

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑝1 ≤ 2.5𝑑0 ≥ 5.0𝑑0

2 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝛽2 0.4 0.7
3 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝛽3 0.5 0.7

Figure 2-8: Angles connected by one leg

 Members that comprise angles connected by welding only in one leg (see EN 1993-1-8,
Clause 4.13) can be treated as being concentrically loaded. Resistance is determined using:
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = but, based on an effective cross section area.
𝛾𝑀0

The area of the effective cross section (Anet) must be evaluated as follows:
I. for angles of equal legs or unequal legs that are connected by the larger leg, the
area of the effective section may be considered as equal to the gross area;

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II. for angles of unequal legs, connected by the smaller leg, the area of the effective
section should be taken as equal to the gross area of an equivalent angle, with
legs that are equal to the smaller of the legs.
 A common detail is an angle connected by one leg using one or more rows of bolts as
shown in Figure 2-9. Unfortunately, EN 1993-1-8 does not give any guidance for
calculating the resistance of angles connected in this way.

Figure 2-9: Angle connected by one leg with two bolt rows
The European connections committee, ECCS TC10, has considered this detail and suggested
that the following expression may be used for calculating the design resistance of the section:
0.2(𝑒2 + 𝑝2 − 1.5𝑑0 )𝑡𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
The nominal values of the yield strength fy and the ultimate strength fu for structural steel should
be obtained by using the simplification given in EN 1993-1-1of Table 3.1 (see Table 2-2)
Tension Member Design Steps Summary

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Table 2-2: Nominal values of yield strength 𝑓𝑦 and ultimate tensile strength 𝑓𝑢

Hot Rolled Structural Steel

Standard Nominal thickness of the element t [mm]
and t ≤ 40mm 40mm < t ≤ 80mm
2]
Steel grade fy [N⁄ mm [N
fu ⁄mm 2 ] fy [N⁄ mm2 ] fu [N⁄mm2 ]
EN 10025-2
S 235 235 360 215 360
S 275 275 430 255 410
S 355 355 490 335 470
S450 450 550 410 550
EN 10025-3
S 275 N/NL 275 390 255 370
S 355 N/NL 355 490 335 470
S 420 N/NL 420 520 390 520
S 460 N/NL 460 540 430 540
EN 10025-4
S 275M/ML 275 370 255 360
S 355 M/ML 355 470 335 450
S 420 M/ML 420 520 390 500
S 460 M/ML 460 540 430 530
EN 10025-5
S 235 W 235 360 215 340
S 355 W 355 490 335 490
EN 10025-6
S 460 Q/QL/QL1 460 570 440 550
Structural Hollow Sections
Standard Nominal thickness of the element t [mm]
and t ≤ 40mm 40mm < t ≤ 80mm
Steel grade fy [N⁄mm2 ] fu [N⁄mm2 ] fy [N⁄mm2 ] fu [N⁄mm2 ]
EN 10210-1
S 235 H 235 360 215 340
S 275 H 275 430 255 410
S 355 H 355 510 335 490

S 275 NHINLH 275 390 255 370

S 355 NH/NLH 355 490 335 470
S 420 NH/NLH 420 540 390 520
S 460 NH/NLH 460 560 430 550
EN 10219-1
S 235 H 235 360
S 275 H 275 430
S 355 H 355 510

S 275 NHINLH 275 370

S 355 NH/NLH 355 470
S 460 NHINLH 460 550

S 275 MH/MLH 275 360

S 355 MH/MLH 355 470
S 420 MH/MLH 420 500
S 460 MH/MLH 460 530

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Example 2.1: Calculate the net area Anet of the bolted section of the plate represented in Figure
2-10. Assume a plate with thickness t and the remaining dimensions (in mm), as indicated in
the figure.

Figure 2-10: Net area of a plate

The connection is loaded by a concentric axial force, therefore the load may be assumed to be
uniformly distributed amongst the fasteners. Due to the position of the fasteners, the net area
is evaluated considering fracture sections 1, 2 and 3, as illustrated in Figure 2.10. Fracture
section 1 is perpendicular to the direction of the force, whereas fracture sections 2 and 3 include
staggered pitches. However, all of these sections correspond to net sections subjected to the
totality of the applied axial force.
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏: 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1: 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 225𝑡 − 2 × 15 × 𝑡 = 195𝑡
𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑: 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − (𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒕 ∑ ) = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒕 ∑
𝟒𝒑 𝟒𝒑

602
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2: 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 225𝑡 − 4 × 15 × 𝑡 + 𝑡 (2 × ) = 205𝑡
4 × 45

602
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3: 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 225𝑡 − 5 × 15 × 𝑡 + 𝑡 (4 × ) = 230𝑡
4 × 45

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 195𝑡
Example 2.2: Determine the net area of the unequal angle 200 × 150 × 15 connected with three
staggered bolts (𝑑𝑜= 15𝑚𝑚), A=50.5cm2

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𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏: 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕

𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1:
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 50.5 × 102 − 1 × 15 × 15 = 48.25 × 102 𝑚𝑚2
𝒔𝟐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑: 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒕 ∑
𝟒𝒑
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2:
602
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 50.5 × 102 − 2 × 15 × 15 + 15 ( ) = 49.00 × 102 𝑚𝑚2
4 × 45

𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3:
602 602
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 50.5 × 102 − 3 × 15 × 15 + 15 ( + ) = 50.125 × 102 𝑚𝑚2
4 × 40 4 × 45

𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 48.25 × 102 𝑚𝑚2

Example 2.3: Consider the chord AB of the steel truss, indicated in Figure 2-11, assuming it
is submitted to a design tensile axial force of NEd= 220 kN. The cross section consists of two
angles of equal legs, in steel grade S 235. Design chord AB assuming two distinct possibilities
for the connections:
a) welded connections;
b) bolted connections.

Figure 2-11: Steel truss

a) Welded connections
The chord is made up by two angles of equal legs, but the connection is made only in one leg
of the angle.
Thus, according to Clause 4.13 of EN 1993-1-8, the effective area can be considered equal to
the gross area. Therefore, the following conditions must be satisfied:

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𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 → 𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆235 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 235 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 360 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
235𝐴
220 × 103 ≤ → 𝐴 ≥ 936.17𝑚𝑚2 ≈ 9.36𝑐𝑚2
1
From a table of commercial profiles, a solution with two angles 50x50x5mm, with a total area
of 2×4.91=9.82cm2, satisfies the above safety requirement.
b) Bolted connections
In this case, the chord, made up by angles of equal legs, is connected by 2 bolts only in one
leg. According to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8, the following design conditions must be
ensured:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. [𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = ]
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀2
 A first check based on the plastic design of the gross cross section leads to:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 235𝐴
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = ; 220 × 103 ≤ → 𝐴 ≥ 936.17𝑚𝑚2 ≈ 9.36𝑐𝑚2
𝛾𝑀0 1
Hence, the section obtained in the previous design, two angles 50x50x5 mm (A = 9.82 cm2),
also satisfies this safety requirement.
The second condition, requires the evaluation of the net area Anet, (illustrated in Figure 2-12)
and the factor 𝛽2,both evaluated according to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8.

Figure 2-12: Anet in the bolted connection

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑0 = 18 𝑚𝑚 , 2.5𝑑0 = 45 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑑0 = 90 𝑚𝑚

𝐴𝑠 𝑝1 = 100𝑚𝑚 > 90𝑚𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛽2 = 0.70
The net area of the bolted section made up of two angles is given by:
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑡𝑑0 = 9.82 − 2 × 0.5 × 1.8 = 8.02𝑐𝑚2
2 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑠
Thus, the design ultimate resistance is given by:
𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.7 × 8.02 × 102 × 360
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 161.68𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
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However, NEd= 220kN > Nu,Rd= 161.68kN; therefore, the chosen cross section is not
appropriate. By adopting a cross section with enhanced resistance, for example, two angles
60x60x6 mm (A =14cm2 and Anet =11.84 cm2), then:
14 × 102 × 235
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 329𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 220𝑘𝑁;
1
0.7 × 11.84 × 102 × 360
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 238.69𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 220𝑘𝑁
1.25
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 329𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 238.69𝑘𝑁, failure is non-ductile; however, since this is not a
design condition, the section defined by two angles 60x60x6 mm can be accepted.
Example 2.4: Both flanges of a universal column section member have 22 mm diameter holes
arranged as shown in Figure 2-13. If the gross area of the section is 201x102mm2 and the flange
thickness is 25 mm.
a) Determine the net area Anet of the member, which is effective in tension.
b) Determine the tension resistance of the tension member using steel S355

Figure 2-13: Flange of universal column section

a) Net area Anet of the member

The failure path through each flange is staggered, and by inspection, it includes four holes and
two staggers. The net area can be calculated as per Clause 6.2.2.2(4) of EN1993-1-1)
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1: 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 201 × 102 − 2(2 × 22 × 25) = 179 × 102 𝑚𝑚2 ,

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2 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

𝑠2
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2: 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 + 𝑡 ∑
4𝑝
302 302
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 201 × 102 − 2 [4 × 22 × 25 + 25 ( + )] = 160.75 × 102 𝑚𝑚2
4 × 60 4 × 60
2 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 160.75 × 102 𝑚𝑚2
b) Design tension resistance Nt,Rd
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
{ 𝛾𝑀2

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
201 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 7,135.5𝑘𝑁
1
0.9 × 160.75 × 102 × 490
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 5,671.26𝑘𝑁
1.25
∴ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 5,671.26𝑘𝑁
Example 2.5: A610 ×229×125UB tension member of S355 steel is connected through both
flanges by 20 mm bolts (in 22 mm diameter bolt holes) in four lines, two in each flange as
shown in Figure 2-14. Check the member for a design tension force of Nt,Ed = 4000 kN.

Figure 2-14: Universal beam section

𝐴 = 159𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑡𝑓 = 19.6𝑚𝑚,

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2

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𝐴𝑓𝑦 159 × 102 × 355

𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 5,644.5𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀0 1
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 = 159 × 102 − 𝟐(2 × 22 × 19.6) = 14,175.2𝑚𝑚2 ,
𝟐 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.9 × 14,175.2 × 490
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 5,001𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 5,644.5𝑘𝑁
𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. { = 5,001𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 4,000𝑘𝑁 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 5,001𝑘𝑁
Example 2.6: Verify, according to the EN 1993-1-1, the strength of a single equal leg angle L
120 × 10mm in tension connected on one side via one line of two M16 (d=16mm) bolts in
standard holes (𝑑0=17mm) as shown in Figure 2-15, (dimensions in millimeters). Bolts connect
only one side of the angle to a gusset plate. The angle is subjected to a design axial load 𝑁𝑡, of
350 KN.

Figure 2-15: Single equal leg angle connected on one side

In this case, the chord, made up by angles of equal legs, is connected by 2 bolts only in one
leg. According to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8, the following design conditions must be
ensured:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. [𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = ]
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆235 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 235 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 360 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝐿 120 × 10𝑚𝑚 ⟹ 𝐴 = 23.3𝑐𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑓𝑦 23.3 × 102 × 235
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 547.55𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀0 1
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 = 23.3 × 102 − 17 × 10 = 2,160𝑚𝑚2
The factor 𝛽2,both evaluated according to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑0 = 17 𝑚𝑚 , 2.5𝑑0 = 42.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑑0 = 85 𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 : 42.5 < 70𝑚𝑚 < 85𝑚𝑚, ⟹ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.4&0.7
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𝑝1 − − 𝛽2
42.5 − −0.4 42.5 − 70 70 − 85
70 − − 𝑥 ⟹ = ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝛽2 = 0.594
0.4 − 𝑥 𝑥 − 0.7
85 − − 0.7
𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.594 × 2,160 × 360
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 369.52𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. [𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 547.55𝑘𝑁; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 369.52𝑘𝑁 ] = 369.52𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350𝑘𝑁
Therefore, the member is satisfactory.
Example 2.7: A tension member consists of a 150 × 75 × 10 single unequal angle whose ends
are connected to gusset plates through the larger leg by a single row of four 22 mm bolts in 24
mm holes at 60 mm centers. Check the member for a design tension force of NEd = 340kN, if
the angle is of S355 steel and has a gross area of 21.7cm2.
In this case, the chord, made up by angles of unequal legs, is connected by 4 bolts only in one
leg. According to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8, the following design conditions must be
ensured:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. [𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = ]
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑈𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝐿 150 × 75 × 10𝑚𝑚 ⟹ 𝐴 = 21.7𝑐𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑓𝑦 21.7 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 770.35𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀0 1
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 = 21.7 × 102 − 24 × 10 = 1,930𝑚𝑚2
The factor 𝛽3, evaluated according to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑0 = 24𝑚𝑚 , 2.5𝑑0 = 60 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑑0 = 120 𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 = 60𝑚𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛽3 = 0.5
𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.5 × 1,930 × 490
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 378.28𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. [𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 770.35𝑘𝑁; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 378.28𝑘𝑁 ] = 378.28𝑘𝑁𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 340𝑘𝑁
Therefore, the member is satisfactory.
Example 2.8: Design unequal angle connected from the long leg loaded with an axial
factored tensile force 580kN using steel grade S355 connected using:
(a) Welded (b) Two bolts (𝑑𝑜= 15𝑚𝑚)

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a) Welded connections
For angles of equal legs or unequal legs that are connected by the larger leg, the area of the
effective section may be considered as equal to the gross area (see Clause 4.13 of EN 1993-1-
8) and the following conditions must be satisfied:
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 → 𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 4)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 470 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
355𝐴
580 × 103 ≤ → 𝐴 ≥ 1,633.8𝑚𝑚2 ≈ 16.34𝑐𝑚2
1
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐿100 × 75 × 10𝑚𝑚 → 𝐴 = 16.6𝑐𝑚2
b) Two Bolted connections
Angles of unequal legs, is connected by 2 bolts only in one leg. According to Clause 3.10.3 of
EN 1993-1-8, the following design conditions must be ensured:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. [𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = ]
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀2
 A first check based on the plastic design of the gross cross section leads to:
𝐴𝑓𝑦 355𝐴
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = ; 580 × 103 ≤ → 𝐴 ≥ 1,633.8𝑚𝑚2 ≈ 16.34𝑐𝑚2
𝛾𝑀0 1
Hence, the section obtained in the previous design, angles 100x75x10mm (A = 16.6 cm2), also
satisfies this safety requirement.
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 = 16.6 × 102 − 15 × 10 = 1,510𝑚𝑚2
The factor 𝛽2, both evaluated according to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑0 = 15 𝑚𝑚 , 2.5𝑑0 = 37.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑑0 = 75𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 = 100𝑚𝑚 > 75𝑚𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛽2 = 0.7
𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.7 × 1,510 × 470
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 397.43𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
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𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 397.43𝑘𝑁 = 378.28𝑘𝑁𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 580𝑘𝑁 − − − −𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑘!

𝑇𝑟𝑦 𝐿150 × 75 × 12𝑚𝑚 → 𝐴 = 25.7𝑐𝑚2
𝐴𝑓𝑦 27.5 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 912.35𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 580𝑘𝑁 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 = 25.7 × 102 − 15 × 12 = 2,390𝑚𝑚2
𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.7 × 2,390 × 470
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 629.05𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 580𝑘𝑁 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
Therefore, angle 150 × 75 × 12 is satisfactory.
Example 2.9: Figure 2-16 represents a lattice girder in steel grade S 275, supporting a
reinforced concrete floor. The loading, applied on the floor and transmitted to the truss as
concentrated loads applied in the nodes, is defined by the following distributed loads:
Permanent action on the floor = 5.75 kN/m2 (𝛾𝐺 = 1.35);
Variable action on the floor = 4.00 kN/m2 (𝛾𝑄 = 1.50);

Figure 2-16: Lattice girder

The distance between lattice girders is 3.00 m; the nodes of the truss are braced in the
perpendicular direction to the plane of the structure; the loading already includes the self-
weight of the steel truss. Design the tension members of the truss, assuming the following
alternatives:
a) Square hollow sections (SHS), and welded connections for the members of the structure.
b) HEA profiles in the upper and lower chords (horizontal members) and two UPN channel
profiles for the diagonal members. The diagonal members are bolted to gusset plates, which
are welded to the HEA profiles in the upper and lower chords.
Solution:
For design at the ultimate limit state, the following combination of actions is considered
(according to EN 1990):
𝑝𝐸𝑑 = 1.35 × 5.75 + 1.5 × 4.00 = 13.76 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Where pEd is the design load, uniformly distributed on the floor.
The concentrated loads, represented in Figure 2-17, were calculated based on the influence
areas of each node, and considering a distance of 3.00m between the lattice girders. In the same
figure, the internal forces in the members, obtained by node equilibrium or any other
appropriate method, are represented.

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Figure 2-17: Actions and internal forces on the structure

a) According to the distribution of internal forces illustrated in Figure 2.17, two distinct cross
sections are adopted: one for the bottom tension chord, designed for an axial force of NEd=
742.6 kN, and another for the diagonal tension members, designed for an axial force of NEd =
350.2 kN.
The members comprise square hollow sections with welded connections. Assuming that the
axis of the members, in each node, converges in a point, there is no reduction of the resistance
due to eccentricities in the connections (note, however, that reductions of the resistance due to
local stresses in the connection may be necessary, as given in EN 1993-1-8). Hence, the design
of the tension members is given by:
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10210 − 1)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
Considering the design axial forces leads to:
- for the bottom chord,
𝐴 × 275 742.6
742.6 ≤ × 10−3 ⟹ 𝐴 ≥ = 2.7 × 103 𝑚𝑚2 = 27.0𝑐𝑚2
1 275 × 10−3
- for the diagonal members,
𝐴 × 275 350.2
350.2 ≤ × 10−3 ⟹ 𝐴 ≥ = 1.27 × 103 𝑚𝑚2 = 12.7𝑐𝑚2
1 275 × 10−3
From a table of commercial profiles for square hollow cross sections (SHS),the following
solution is adopted: a SHS 120x120x6.3 mm (A = 28.5 cm2) cross section for the bottom chord
and a SHS 80x80x5 mm (A = 14.9 cm2) cross section for the diagonal members.
b) Taking into account the type of connection, the bottom tension chord is designed for an axial
force NEd= 742.6kN, considering the gross cross section; while the diagonals in tension are
designed for an axial force NEd = 350.2kN, but considering a possible reduction of the resistance
in the bolted cross section, due to the holes.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
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The design plastic resistance of the bottom chord, considering the gross cross section, is given
by:
𝐴 × 275 742.6
742.6 ≤ × 10−3 ⟹ 𝐴 ≥ = 2.7 × 103 𝑚𝑚2 = 27.0𝑐𝑚2
1 275 × 10−3
Similarly, for the diagonal members:
𝐴 × 275 350.2
350.2 ≤ × 10−3 ⟹ 𝐴 ≥ = 1.27 × 103 𝑚𝑚2 = 12.7𝑐𝑚2
1 275 × 10−3
Hence, a HEA 140 (A = 31.42 cm2) cross section is adopted for the bottom chord, and a 2 UPN
80 (A = 22.00 cm2) cross section is initially proposed for the diagonal members. The overdesign
of the section of the diagonal members is due to the fact that the dimensions of the bolts
required to resist the applied axial force (considering the connection illustrated in Figure 2-18)
are not compatible with the dimensions of smaller UPN cross sections.

Figure 2-18: Connection of the diagonal bars of the truss

In the case of the diagonal members, considering the connection with M20 bolts (d0=22 mm)
illustrated in Figure 2.18, the design ultimate resistance of the bolted cross section should also
be checked. The net area of the bolted cross section made up of two UPN is given by:
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑛𝑑0 𝑡 = 22 − 2 × 2.2 × 0.6 = 19.36𝑐𝑚2
The design ultimate resistance is given by:
0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 0.9 × 19.36 × 102 × 430
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 506.5𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
As the design ultimate resistance in the bolted section exceeds the applied axial force, the
section defined by two UPN 80 satisfies the safety criterion. However, as
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 605𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 506.5𝑘𝑁, the failure of the diagonal members would be non-
ductile. This situation often occurs in tension members with bolted connections.

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Q1. The tension member shown in the following figure channel 200 × 90 × 30 of steel grade
S275 connected from the web using bolts 𝑑𝑜= 18 𝑚𝑚. A=37.9cm2 compute 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕.

Q2. The tension member shown in the following figure universal beam 457 × 152 × 82 of
steel grade S355 connected from the web using bolts 𝑑𝑜= 16 𝑚𝑚. A=105cm2 compute 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕.

Q3. A flat bar, 200 mm wide and 25 mm thick, is to be used as a tie. Erection conditions
require that the bar be constructed from two lengths connected together with a lap splice
using six M20 bolts, as shown in Figure. Calculate the tensile strength of the bar, assuming
grade S275 steel.
S 275 Material Properties:
► fy= 275 MPa
► fu= 430 MPa
► E= 210 GPa

Bolt diameter: d= 20mm

Standard hole: d0= 22mm

Q4. Verify, in accordance with EN1993, the splice connection in Figure (dimensions in mm),
which connects the end of two members of the chord of a trussed beam and transfers a design
axial tension load NEd of 2250kN.

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The flanges of the beam are composed by 340 × 16 mm plates and a plate 260 × 12 mm
forms the beam web. Single cover plates 340 × 16 mm are bolted to the beam flange in
normal holes (d0= 26).
► Bolt diameter: d= 14mm
► Standard hole: d0= 26mm
S 235 Material Properties:
► fy= 235 MPa
► fu= 355 MPa
► E= 210 GPa

2.2 Compression members

The resistance of a steel member subject to axial compression depends on the cross section
resistance or the occurrence of instability phenomena, such as flexural buckling, torsional
buckling or flexural-torsional buckling.
In general, the design for compression is governed by the second condition (instability
phenomena) as steel members are usually of medium to high slenderness.
The cross section resistance to axial compression should be based on the plastic capacity
(plastic axial force) in compact sections (class 1, 2 or 3), but taking into account the local
buckling resistance through an effective elastic capacity in class 4 sections.
The buckling resistance should be evaluated according to the relevant buckling mode and
relevant imperfections of real members.
2.2.1 Classification of Sections (Clause 5.5 of EN 1993-1-1)

The role of cross section classification is to identify the extent to which the resistance and
rotation capacity of cross sections is limited by its local buckling resistance.

(1). Four classes of cross-sections are defined, as follows:

 Class 1 cross-sections are those, which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation
capacity required from plastic analysis without reduction of the resistance.
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 Class 2 cross-sections arc those, which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but
have limited rotation capacity because of local buckling.
 Class 3 cross-sections are those in which the stress in the extreme compression fiber of
the steel member assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach the yield
strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent development of the plastic moment
resistance.
 Class 4 cross-sections are those in which local buckling will occur before the attainment
of yield stress in one or more parts of the cross-section.
(2). In Class 4 cross sections, effective widths may be used to make the necessary allowances
for reductions in resistance due to the effects of local buckling (see EN 1993-1-5, 4.4).
(3). The classification of a cross-section depends on the width to thickness ratio of the parts
subject to compression.
(4). Compression parts include every part of a cross-section which is either totally or partially
in compression under the load combination considered.
(5). The various compression parts in a cross-section (such as a web or f1ange) can, in general,
be in different classes.
(6). A cross-section is classified according to the highest (least favourable) class of its
compression parts. Exceptions are specified in 6.2.1 (10) and 6.2.2.4(1) of EN1993-1-1.
(7). Alternatively the classification of a cross-section may be defined by quoting both the
flange classification and the web classification.
(8). The limiting proportions for Class 1, 2, and 3 compression parts should be obtained from
Table 5.2 of EN193-1-1. A part which fails to satisfy the limits for Class 3 should be taken
as Class 4.
(9). Except as given in (10) Class 4 sections may be treated as Class 3 sections if the width to
thickness ratios are less than the limiting proportions for Class 3 obtained from Table 5.2
𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0
of EN1993-1-1 when ε is increased by √ , Where 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚,𝐸𝑑 is the maximum design
𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑚,𝐸𝑑

compressive stress in the part taken from first order or where necessary second order
analysis.
(10). However, when verifying the design buckling resistance of a member using section 6.3
of EN1993-1-1, the limiting proportions for Class 3 should always be obtained from Table
5.2 of EN1993-1-1.
(11). Cross-sections with a Class 3 web and Class 1 or 2 flanges may be classified as class 2
cross sections with an effective web in accordance with 6.2.2.4, EN1993-1-1.
(12). Where the web is considered to resist shear forces only and is assumed not to contribute
to the bending and normal force resistance of the cross section, the cross section may be
designed as Class 2, 3 or 4 sections, depending only on the flange class.

NOTE For flange induced web buckling, see EN 1993-1-5.

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Table 2-3: Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements, from EN 1993-1-1:
Table 5.2 (sheet 1 of 3).

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Table 2-4: Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements from EN 1993-1-1:
Table 5.2 (sheet 2 of 3).

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Table 2-5: Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements, from EN 1993-1-1:
Table 5.2 (sheet 3 of 3).

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2.2.2 Euler Elastic Buckling Column Formula

Buckling is an instability phenomenon that is characterized by the occurrence of transverse

deformations in members under compression forces. In steel structures, instability phenomena
assume particular importance, because of the relatively high slenderness of compressed
members.
The elastic critical load (Euler’s critical load) is derived from the theory of elastic stability, as
the value of the axial force at which an initially-perfect elastic member may start exhibiting
deformations that are not exclusively axial. Buckling of a compressed member, free from
imperfections, is illustrated in a simplified way in Figure 2.19; the critical load corresponds to
the point of bifurcation of equilibrium. This phenomenon, rigorously called buckling due to
compression in a bending mode, will be simply referred as flexural buckling.
The elastic critical load of a pinned column, with uniform cross section and subjected to
constant axial force, is evaluated as shown below. In this formulation the following conditions
(ideal design conditions) are assumed:
 material with linear elastic behaviour;
 member free from geometric imperfections and from residual stresses;
 perfectly centred load;
 small displacement theory.

Figure 2-19: Buckling in a pinned member (Euler’s column)

For small deformations, the condition for equilibrium of moments (around z), along the
member in Figure 2.19, is given by the following equation:
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 + 𝑁𝑦 = 0 − − − − − −①
𝑑𝑥
Where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material and I is the second moment of area with
respect to the z-axis, perpendicular to the plane where the deformation occurs. Equation ①is a
linear homogeneous differential equation of constant coefficients. The solution of this equation
is:
𝑦 = 𝐷1 sin(𝑘𝑥) + 𝐷2 cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑘 2 = 𝑁⁄(𝐸𝐼)
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From the support conditions:

𝑦(𝑥 = 0) = 0 ⟹ 𝐷2 = 0
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐷1 sin(𝑘𝑥)
𝑦(𝑥 = 𝐿) = 0 ⟹ 𝐷1 sin(𝑘𝐿) = 0 ⟹ 𝐷1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
The critical load is obtained from:
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝑁
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 ⟹ 𝑘 2 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐿2 𝐸𝐼
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑁𝑐𝑟 = (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 = 1,2, … )
𝐿2
The lowest critical load, which corresponds to the deformed configuration illustrated in Figure
2.19, is given by:
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 2 − − − − − ②
𝐿
It can be concluded that for a perfect member, the resistance to buckling depends on the
bending stiffness of the cross section, on its length and on the support conditions.
For other support conditions, the critical load is obtained by the solution of a fourth-order
differential equation (similar to equation ①), considering adequate support conditions. As an
alternative to solving the differential equation, the critical load may be obtained from equation
②, replacing the real length L by the buckling length LE. The buckling length LE of a member
is defined as the length of a fictitious equivalent pinned member with the same critical load.
Figure 2.20 illustrates the buckling lengths for isolated members, for several support
conditions.

Figure 2-20: Buckling length LE as a function of the real length L of the column

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋2𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = = − − − − − −③
𝐴𝐿𝐸 2 𝜆2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝜆 = 𝐿𝐸 ⁄𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
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𝑖 = √𝐼 ⁄𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

In a member without imperfections, composed of a material with elastic-perfectly plastic
behaviour (such as may be assumed for mild steel), failure will only occur by buckling in the
elastic range if Euler’s critical stress is lower than the yield stress fy. For a short member (with
a low slenderness coefficient), failure occurs by yielding of the cross section, when the applied
stress equals the yield stress, that is, when = 𝑁⁄𝐴 = 𝑓𝑦 .

The limit between the two types of behaviour is defined by a value of the slenderness
coefficient, denoted as 𝜆1 , given by:

𝜋2𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 2 = 𝑓𝑦 ⟹ 𝜆1 = 𝜋√
𝜆1 𝑓𝑦

𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝜆 = 𝜋√ = 𝜋√ − − − − − −𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞③
𝜎𝑐𝑟 𝑁𝑐𝑟

Based on the slenderness coefficient 𝜆1 , the non-dimensional slenderness coefficient 𝜆̅ is

defined as:

𝜆 𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝜆̅ = =√
𝜆1 𝑁𝑐𝑟

The behavior of a compressed member, without imperfections, for the full slenderness range,
is represented in Figure 2.21.

Figure 2-21: σ-λ relationship of a compressed member

In compressed members of thin-walled open cross section (and hence low torsional stiffness),
other instability phenomena may also occur torsional buckling or flexural-torsional buckling.
Torsional buckling is due to the rotation of cross sections around the axis of the member, as
illustrated in Figure 2.22a; flexural-torsional buckling consists of the simultaneous occurrence
of torsional and bending deformations along the axis of the member (Figure 2-22b).

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Figure 2-22: Torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling

The instability phenomena illustrated in Figure 2-22 are characteristic of thin-walled open cross
sections, such as channels, L sections or cruciform cross sections. For compressed members
constituted by I or H sections, the most critical instability mode is usually flexural buckling.
For members with symmetric cross section with respect to the y axis, the torsional buckling
critical load is given by:
1 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑤
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇 = (𝐺𝐼𝑇 + )
𝑖𝑐 2 𝐿𝐸𝑇 2
For the same type of cross sections, the flexural-torsional buckling critical load is given by:

1 2
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇𝐹 = [(𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 + 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇 ) − √(𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 + 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇 ) − 4𝛽𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇 ]
2𝛽
Where

𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑐 2 = 𝑦𝑐 2 + (𝐼𝑦 + 𝐼𝑍 )⁄𝐴 ;

𝐼𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡;

𝐸𝐼𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠;
𝐼𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡;
𝐿𝐸𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠;
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠;

𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛽 = 1 − (𝑦𝑐 ⁄𝑖𝑐 )2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

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2.2.3 Design of Compression Members (Clause 6.2.4 of EN 1993-1-1)

1) The design value of the compression force NEd at each cross-section shall satisfy:
𝑁𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑
2) The design resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be
determined as follows:
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀𝑜
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀𝑜
3) Fastener holes except for oversize and slotted holes as defined in EN 1090 need not be
allowed for in compression members, provided that they are filled by fasteners.
4) In the case of unsymmetrical Class 4 sections, the method given in 6.2.9.3 of EN1993-1-1
should be used to allow for the additional moment ∆MEd due to the eccentricity of the
centroidal axis of the effective section, see EN1993-1-1, 6.2.2.5( 4).
2.2.4 Buckling resistance of compression members (Clause 6.3.1 of EN1993-1-1)
1) A compression member should be verified against buckling as follows:
𝑁𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑
Where NEd is the design value of the compression force;
Nb,Rd is the design buckling resistance of the compression member.
2) For members with non-symmetric Class 4 sections allowance should be made for the
additional moment ∆MEd due to the eccentricity of the centroidal axis of the effective
section, see also EN1993-1-1, 6.2.2.5(4), and the interaction should be carried out to 6.3.4
or 6.3.3 of EN1993-1-1.
3) The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
𝑥𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
Where x is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode.
NOTE For determining, the buckling resistance of members with tapered sections along the
member or for non-uniform distribution of the compression force second order analysis
according to EN1993-1-1, 5.3.4(2) may be performed. For out-of-plane buckling, see also
EN1993-1-1, 6.3.4.
4) In determining A and Aeff holes for fasteners at the column ends need not to be taken into
account.
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2.2.5 Buckling curves (Clause 6.3.1.2 of EN1993-1-1)

1) For axial compression in members the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆2̅ ]

𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝜆̅ = √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝜆̅ = √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟

𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠.
2) The imperfection factor a corresponding to the appropriate buckling curve should be
obtained from Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 of EN1993-1-1.

3) Values of the reduction factor x for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness 𝜆̅ may be
obtained from Figure 6.4 of EN1993-1-1.
𝑁
4) For slenderness 𝜆̅ ≤ 0.2 or for 𝐸𝑑 ≤ 0.4 the buckling effects may be ignored and only
𝑁𝑐𝑟
cross sectional checks apply.

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2.2.6 Slenderness for flexural buckling (Clause 6.3.1.3 of EN1993-1-1)

(1) The non-dimensional slenderness 𝜆̅ , is given by:

𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = √ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖 𝜆1

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 𝐿𝑐𝑟 √ 𝐴
𝜆̅ = √ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖 𝜆1

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝐿𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
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NOTE For elastic buckling of components of building structures sec EN1993-1-1, Annex BB.
(2) For flexural buckling the appropriate buckling curve should be determined from Table 6.2
of EN1993-1-1.
2.2.7 Slenderness for torsional and torsional-flexural buckling (Clause 6.3.1.4 of
EN1993-1-1)
(1) For members with open cross-sections account should be taken of the possibility that the
of the member to either torsional or torsional-flexural buckling could be less than its
resistance to flexural buckling.
(2) The non-dimensional slenderness ̅̅̅
𝜆 𝑇 for torsional or torsional-flexural buckling should be
taken as:

𝐴𝑓𝑦
̅̅̅
𝜆𝑇 = √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
̅̅̅
𝜆𝑇 = √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇𝐹 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑁𝑐𝑟 < 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇

𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑐 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

(3) For torsional or torsional-flexural, buckling the appropriate buckling curve may be
determined from Table 6.2 of EN1993-1-1 considering the one related to the z-axis.
The procedure for checking a specified compression member is summarized in Figure 2.23.
The cross-section is checked to determine if it is fully effective (Aeff = A, where A is the gross
area) or slender (in which case the reduced effective area Aeff is used), and the design buckling
resistance Nb,Rd is then found and compared with the design compression force NEd.
In Class 4 cross sections, effective widths may be used to make the necessary allowances for
reductions in resistance due to the effects of local buckling (see EN 1993-1-5, 4.4).
Plate elements without longitudinal stiffeners (see EN 1993-1-5, 4.4)
The effective areas of flat compression elements should be obtained using Table 4.1, EN1993-
1-5 for internal elements and Table 4.2, EN1993-1-5 for outstand elements. The effective area
of the compression zone of a plate with the gross cross-sectional area Ac should be obtained
from:
𝐴𝑐,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

The reduction factor 𝜌 may be taken as follows:

 internal compression elements:
̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
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̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.055(3 + Ψ)
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 𝑝 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
̅̅̅𝑝 2
𝜆

 outstand compression elements:

̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.748
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.188
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅𝑝 > 0.748
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
2
̅̅̅
𝜆 𝑝

𝑓 𝑏̅⁄𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ̅̅̅𝑝 = √ 𝑦 =
𝜆
𝜎𝑐𝑟 28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎

Ψ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 4.4(3)𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.4(4) 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993

−1−5
𝑏̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 ( 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 5.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 1)
𝑏𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑠
𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑅𝐻𝑆)
ℎ − 3𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑘𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Ψ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑘𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1, 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1
− 5 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡
𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜎𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐴. 1)𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑥 𝐴. 1 (2)𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 5

235
𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦

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Table 2-6: Rules for the evaluation of the effective width of internal compression elements
(from Table 4.1 of EN 1993-1-5).

Table 2-7: Rules for the evaluation of the effective width of outstanding compression
elements (from Table 4.2 of EN 1993-1-5)

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Figure 2.23 Flow chart for the design of compression members.

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2.2.8 Built up Compression members

Sections made by combining two or more hot rolled sections, joined together at intervals are
called built-up sections. This joining is done with the help of direct welding, stay plates or
lacing. Examples are four angles section, double angles section and double channel section.
However, double angle section is sometimes excluded from built-up member and is included
in hot rolled section. This is because of difference of its behavior with respect to other built up
sections.

Built-up members are used in many structures, such as compression members of trusses or
supporting columns. They are composed from two rolled U-sections or four rolled angles. The
distance between them is fixed by lacing or battening. The built-up members are economic,
since the connection between the chords can be realized with elements of less volume than with
continuous plates.
In the design of built-up compression members the effect of shear deformation of connecting
elements should be taken into account, since a shear force is acting from the compressive force
during the overall buckling of the member with an initial eccentricity. In EN1993-1-1, 6.4
design rules are given for built-up members. They are used in the present study, the aim of
which is to elaborate the optimum design of such structural parts. Optimum design can achieve
significant mass and cost savings, since, in many cases, these structural parts are produced in
a large number of pieces.
The main variables are the dimensions of U-sections or angles, the distance between them,
geometry and dimensions of flat lacing or battens. Constraints on overall and local buckling of
the member, as well as on strength of the connecting elements and their welded joints are
considered.
Example 2.10: Determine the compression resistance of the cross-section of the member
shown in Figure 2.24. The weld size is 8 mm. Use S355 steel

Figure 2-23: Section of compression member

i) Classification of Section
The limiting proportions for Class 1, 2, and 3 compression parts should be obtained from Table
5.2 of EN193-1-1. A part which fails to satisfy the limits for Class 3 should be taken as Class
4.
𝑡𝑓 = 10𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 10𝑚𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 5.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1:

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𝑎) 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛): 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 14𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.81
𝑦

400 10
− −8
2 2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 23.1 > 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
10×0.81

𝑏) 𝑤𝑒𝑏(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 42𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 42 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.81
𝑦

420 − 2 × 10 − 2 × 8
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 47.41 > 42 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
10 × 0.81
ii) Effective area
The effective area of the compression zone of a plate with the gross cross-sectional area Ac
should be obtained from:
𝐴𝑐,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

The reduction factor 𝜌 may be taken as follows:

 internal compression elements:
̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.055(3 + Ψ)
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 𝑝 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
̅̅̅𝑝 2
𝜆

 outstand compression elements:

̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.748
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.188
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅𝑝 > 0.748
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
2
̅̅̅
𝜆 𝑝

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𝑓 𝑏̅⁄𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ̅̅̅𝑝 = √ 𝑦 =
𝜆
𝜎𝑐𝑟 28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎

𝑎) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎:

Stress distribution in parts (compression positive), see Table 5.3, EN1993-1-1

𝛹𝑓 = 1 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.2, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 5: {
𝑘𝜎,𝑓 = 0.43

𝑏̅𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 (400⁄2 − 10⁄2 − 8)⁄10

̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑓 = = = 1.24 > 0.748
28.4𝜀 √𝑘𝜎,𝑓 28.4 × 0.81 × √0.43
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑓 − 0.188 1.24 − 0.188
⟹ 𝜌𝑓 = 2 = = 0.684 ≤ 1.0
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑓 1.242

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 𝐴𝑐,𝑓 = 0.684 × 4 × (400⁄2 − 10⁄2 − 8) × 10 + (10 + 2 × 8) × 10 × 2

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓 = 5,636𝑚𝑚2

𝑏) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎:

Stress distribution in parts (compression positive), see Table 5.3, EN1993-1-1

𝛹𝑤 = 1 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 5: {
𝑘𝜎,𝑤 = 4.0
̅̅̅̅
𝑏𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 (420 − 2 × 10 − 2 × 8)⁄10
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 = = = 0.83
28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎,𝑤 28.4 × 0.81 × √4

̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 = 0.83 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ𝑤 = 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055 × 1 = 0.673
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 − 0.055(3 + 𝛹𝑤 ) 0.83 − 0.055(3 + 1)
⟹ 𝜌𝑤 = 2 = = 0.885 ≤ 1.0
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 0.832

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝑐,𝑤 = 0.885 × (420 − 2 × 10 − 2 × 8) × 10 + (2 × 8) × 10

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𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = 3,558𝑚𝑚2

iii) Compression resistance.

The design resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be determined
as follows:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀𝑜
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓, = 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓 + 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = 5,636 + 3,558 = 9,194𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 9,194 × 355 −3
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = 10 = 𝟑, 𝟐𝟔𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝒌𝑵
𝛾𝑀𝑜 1.0
Example 2.11: The 457 ×191 ×82 UB compression member of S275 steel is simply supported
about both principal axes at each end (Lcr,y =12.0m) and has a central brace which prevents
lateral deflections in the minor principal plane(Lcr,z = 6.0m). Check the adequacy of the member
for a factored axial compressive load corresponding to a nominal dead load of 160kN and a
nominal imposed load of 230kN.

(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd

𝑁𝐸𝑑 = (1.35 × 160) + (1.5 × 230) = 561𝑘𝑁
(II) Classifying the section
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
457 × 191 × 82 𝑈𝐵
𝐴 = 104𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 191.3𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 460𝑚𝑚, 𝑟 = 10.2𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 16𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 9.9𝑚𝑚,

𝐼𝑦 = 37050𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 18.8𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑧 = 1871𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 4.23𝑐𝑚

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

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𝑎) 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛): 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.924
𝑦

(191.3−9.9−2×10.2)⁄2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 5.4 < 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
16×0.924

𝑏) 𝑤𝑒𝑏(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 42𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 42 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.924
𝑦

460 − 2 × 16 − 2 × 10.2
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 44.5 > 42 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 (𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟)
9.9 × 0.924
(III) Buckling lengths
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = 12.0𝑚

𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 6.0𝑚
iv) Effective area
The effective area of the compression zone of a plate with the gross cross-sectional area Ac
should be obtained from:
𝐴𝑐,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

The reduction factor 𝜌 may be taken as follows:

 internal compression elements:
̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.055(3 + Ψ)
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 𝑝 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
̅̅̅𝑝 2
𝜆

 outstand compression elements:

̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.748
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
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̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.188
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅𝑝 > 0.748
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
2
̅̅̅
𝜆 𝑝

𝑓 𝑏̅⁄𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ̅̅̅𝑝 = √ 𝑦 =
𝜆
𝜎𝑐𝑟 28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎

𝑎) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎:

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓 = 𝐴𝑐,𝑓 − − − − − − − 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1

𝑏) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎:

Stress distribution in parts (compression positive), see Table 5.3, EN1993-1-1

𝛹𝑤 = 1 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 5: {
𝑘𝜎,𝑤 = 4.0
̅̅̅̅
𝑏𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 (460 − 2 × 16 − 2 × 10.2)⁄9.9
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 = = = 0.784
28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎,𝑤 28.4 × 0.924 × √4

̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 = 0.784 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ𝑤 = 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055 × 1 = 0.673
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 − 0.055(3 + 𝛹𝑤 ) 0.784 − 0.055(3 + 1)
⟹ 𝜌𝑤 = 2 = = 0.918 ≤ 1.0
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 0.7842

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝑐,𝑤 = 0.918 × (460 − 2 × 16 − 2 × 10.2) × 9.9 + (2 × 10.2) × 9.9

𝐴𝑐,𝑤 = (460 − 2 × 16 − 2 × 10.2) × 9.9 + (2 × 10.2) × 9.9

𝐴𝑐,𝑤 − 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = (1 − 0.918) × (460 − 2 × 16 − 2 × 10.2) × 9.9

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐴 − (𝐴𝑐,𝑤 − 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 )

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 104 × 102 − (1 − 0.918) × (460 − 2 × 16 − 2 × 10.2) × 9.9

𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝒎𝒎𝟐

(IV) Cross-section compression resistance

The design resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be determined
as follows:

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𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀𝑜
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 10,069 × 275 −3
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = 10 = 𝟐, 𝟕𝟔𝟖. 𝟗𝟖𝒌𝑵 > 561𝑘𝑁 = 𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝛾𝑀𝑜 1.0
(V) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝜆̅ = √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟

𝐿𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑖 2 𝐸
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = ⟹ 𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 𝜎𝑐𝑟 𝐴 = 2
= 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆1 = 𝜋√
𝑖 𝜆 𝐿 𝑐𝑟 𝑓𝑦

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 𝐿2 𝑐𝑟 𝐿𝑐𝑟 √ 𝐴 𝐿𝑐𝑟 √ 𝐴
𝜆̅ = √ 2 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜋 𝐸𝐴𝑖 2 𝑖 𝜋√𝐸 ⁄𝑓𝑦 𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 86.80
𝑓𝑦 275

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 10,069
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 √ 𝐴 12 × 1000 √10,400
𝜆̅𝑦 = = × = 0.724
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 18.8 × 10 86.8

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 10,069
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 √ 𝐴 6 × 1000 √10,400
𝜆̅𝑧 = = × = 1.608
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 4.23 × 10 86.8
(VI) Calculation of the reduction factor xmin
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆̅2 ]
ℎ 460
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 2.4 > 1.2 , 𝑡𝑓 = 16𝑚𝑚 < 40𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275
𝑏 191.3

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𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎

⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝛼 = 0.21)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 (𝛼 = 0.34)
𝐴𝑠 𝜆̅𝑧 > 𝜆̅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 > 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧

Φ𝑍 = 0.5[1 + 0.34 × (1.608 − 0.2) + 1.6082 ] = 2.032

1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.305
2.032 + √12.0322 − 1.6082
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧 = 0.305
(VII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
0.305 × 10,069 × 275
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 844.54𝑘𝑁
1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 561𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 844.54𝑘𝑁
and so the member is satisfactory.
Example 2.12: Design the column BD of the steel structure represented in Figure 2.24, using
a HEB cross section in S 355 steel, according to EN1993-1-1. The column is fixed at the base
and hinged at section B (with respect to the two principal axis of the cross section). Cross
section B is fixed in both horizontal directions, in the plane of the structure (due to the beam
itself) and in the perpendicular plane (because of secondary bracing members). Loading is
already factored for ULS.

Figure 2-24: Design of a column

(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd

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80.0 122
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = × + 800.0 = 1376.0𝑘𝑁
10 2
(II) Preliminary design – Assuming class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections, yields:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐴 × 355
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 1376.0𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 = × 10−3
1.0
1376.0
⟹𝐴≥ × 103 = 3,876𝑚𝑚2 = 38.76𝑐𝑚2
355
As it is expected that buckling resistance will govern the member design, a HEB 240 in S 355
steel is proposed, with the following properties (geometrical and mechanical):
𝐴 = 106𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 240𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 240𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 17𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 10𝑚𝑚, 𝑟 = 21𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝑦 = 11260𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 10.31𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑧 = 3923𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 6.08𝑐𝑚

(III) Classifying the section

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝑎) 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛): 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.814
𝑦

(240−10−2×21)⁄2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 6.79 < 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
17×0.814

𝑏) 𝑤𝑒𝑏(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.81
𝑦

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240 − 2 × 17 − 2 × 21
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 20.15 < 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
10 × 0.814
HEB240 is class 1, subjected to pure compression
(IV) Buckling lengths – According to the support conditions, the buckling lengths are equal
in both planes, given by:
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = 0.7 × 8.0 = 5.6𝑚

𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑧)𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 0.7 × 8.0 = 5.6𝑚
Because the buckling lengths are equal in both planes, the orientation of the cross section is
arbitrary. For constructional reasons, the section is placed as shown in Figure 2.23, with the
strong axis (y axis) in the perpendicular direction to the plane of the structure.
(V) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;

𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝜆̅ = √ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟

𝐿𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑖 2 𝐸
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = ⟹ 𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 𝜎𝑐𝑟 𝐴 = 2
= 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆1 = 𝜋√
𝑖 𝜆 𝐿 𝑐𝑟 𝑓𝑦

𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝐿2 𝑐𝑟 𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 𝐿𝑐𝑟 1

𝜆̅ = √ 2 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜋 𝐸𝐴𝑖 2 𝑖 𝜋√𝐸 ⁄𝑓𝑦 𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 76.4
𝑓𝑦 355

𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 1 5.6 1
𝜆̅𝑦 = = × = 0.71
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 10.31 × 10−2 76.4
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 1 5.6 1
𝜆̅𝑧 = = × = 1.21
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 6.08 × 10−2 76.4
(VI) Calculation of the reduction factor xmin
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
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𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆2̅ ]

ℎ 240
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = < 1.2 , 𝑡𝑓 = 17𝑚𝑚 < 100𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆355
𝑏 204
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏
⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 (𝛼 = 0.34)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 (𝛼 = 0.49)
𝐴𝑠 𝜆̅𝑧 > 𝜆̅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 > 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧

Φ𝑍 = 0.5[1 + 0.49 × (1.21 − 0.2) + 1.212 ] = 1.48

1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.43
1.48 + √1.482 − 1.212
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧 = 0.43
(VII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.43 × 106 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 1,618.1𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 1,376.0𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 1,618.1𝑘𝑁
Safety is verified. The solution for the problem consists of a HEB 240 in S 355 steel.
Example 2.13: Design a lighting column subjected to an axial compression force 30 KN, using
a CHS (circular hollow section) cross section in S 275 steel, according to EN1993-1-1. The
column is fixed at the base and free from the other end. With length of 3 m.
Solution:
(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁
(II) Preliminary design – Assuming class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections, yields:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10210 − 1)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐴 × 275
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 = × 10−3
1.0
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30
⟹𝐴≥ × 103 = 109𝑚𝑚2 = 1.09𝑐𝑚2
275

Use 𝑪𝑯𝑺 𝟐𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟑. 𝟐 with the following properties (geometrical and mechanical):
𝐴 = 2.38𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑑 ⁄𝑡 = 8.4, 𝐼 = 1.7𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖 = 0.846𝑐 𝑚,
(III) Classifying the section
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑/𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑑⁄𝑡 ≤ 50𝜀 2 ⟹ 𝑑⁄𝑡𝜀 2 ≤ 50 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.924
𝑦

8.4
𝑑 ⁄𝑡𝜀 2 = 0.9242 = 9.84 < 50 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1

(IV) Buckling lengths – According to the support conditions, the buckling lengths are equal
in both planes, given by:
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑐𝑟 = 2 × 3 = 6𝑚
(V) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 86.8
𝑓𝑦 275

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𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 6 1
𝜆̅ = = −2
× = 8.17 > 1 → 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖 𝜆1 0.846 × 10 86.8
(VI) Calculation of the reduction factor x
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆2̅ ]

𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 , ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275

⟹ 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 0.21 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
Φ = 0.5[1 + 0.21 × (8.17 − 0.2) + 8.172 ] = 34.71
1
𝑥= = 0.015
34.71 + √34.712 − 8.172
(VII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.015 × 2.38 × 102 × 275
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 0.98𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 0.98𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
Try heavier section such 𝑪𝑯𝑺 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
𝐴 = 81.1𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑑⁄𝑡 = 17.5, 𝐼 = 4345𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖 = 7.32𝑐 𝑚,
(I) Classifying the section
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑/𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑑⁄𝑡 ≤ 50𝜀 2 ⟹ 𝑑⁄𝑡𝜀 2 ≤ 50 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.924
𝑦
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17.5
𝑑 ⁄𝑡𝜀 2 = = 20.50 < 50 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
0.9242

(II) Buckling lengths – According to the support conditions, the buckling lengths are equal in
both planes, given by:
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑐𝑟 = 2 × 3 = 6𝑚
(III) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 86.8
𝑓𝑦 275

𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 6 1
𝜆̅ = = −2
× = 0.944 < 1 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖 𝜆1 7.32 × 10 86.8
(IV) Calculation of the reduction factor x
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆2̅ ]

𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 , ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275

⟹ 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 0.21 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
Φ = 0.5[1 + 0.21 × (0.944 − 0.2) + 0.9442 ] = 1.02
1
𝑥= = 0.711
1.02 + √1.022 − 0.9442
(V) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1

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𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.711 × 81.1 × 102 × 275

𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 1,585.71𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 1,585.71𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
Example 2.14: Check a column subjected to an axial compression force 6000 kN, using a UC
254 × 254 × 167 (universal column) cross section in S 355 steel. The column is supported as
shown in the figure. With length of 5m.

Solution:
(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 6,000𝑘𝑁
(II) Classifying the section
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
UC 254 × 254 × 167:
𝐴 = 213𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 265.2𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 289.1𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 31.7𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 19.2𝑚𝑚, 𝑟 = 12.7𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝑦 = 30,000𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 12𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑧 = 9,870𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 6.8𝑐𝑚

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

𝑎) 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛): 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

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 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.81
𝑦

(265.2−19.2−2×12.7)⁄2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 8.59 < 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
31.7×0.81

𝑏) 𝑤𝑒𝑏(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.81
𝑦

289.1 − 2 × 31.7 − 2 × 12.7

𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 12.88 < 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
19.2 × 0.81
The section is class 1
(III) Compression resistance of the cross-section
The design resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be
determined as follow:
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀𝑜
𝐴𝑓𝑦 213 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 7,561.5𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀𝑜 1.0
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 7,561.5𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 6,000𝑘𝑁 → 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒

(IV) Buckling lengths – According to the support conditions, the buckling lengths are equal
in both planes, given by:
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑧) 𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = 1.0 × 5 = 5𝑚

𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦)𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 1.0 × 3 = 3𝑚

(V) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;
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𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 76.40
𝑓𝑦 355

𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 1 5 1
̅̅̅
𝜆𝑦 = = × = 0.55 < 1 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 12 × 10 −2 76.40
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 1 3 1
̅̅̅𝑧 =
𝜆 = × = 0.58 < 1 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 6.8 × 10 −2 76.40
(VI) Calculation of the reduction factor xmin
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆2̅ ]
ℎ 289.1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = < 1.2 , 𝑡𝑓 = 31.7𝑚𝑚 < 100𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆355
𝑏 265.2
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏
⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 (𝛼 = 0.34)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 (𝛼 = 0.49)
𝐴𝑠 𝜆̅𝑧 > 𝜆̅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 > 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧

Φ𝑍 = 0.5[1 + 0.49 × (0.58 − 0.2) + 0.582 ] = 0.76

1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.80
0.76 + √0.762 − 0.582
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧 = 0.8
(VII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.80 × 213 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 6,049.2𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
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𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 6,000𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 6,049.2𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

Example 2.15: Check a column subjected to an axial compression force 2500kN, using a
UB533 × 210 × 82 (universal beam) cross section in S 275 steel, according to EN1993-1-1.
The column is supported as shown in the figure. With length of 6 m.

Solution:
(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 2,500𝑘𝑁
(II) Classifying the section
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
UB533 × 210 × 82:
𝐴 = 105𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 208.8𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 528.3𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 13.2𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 9.6𝑚𝑚, 𝑟 = 12.7𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝑦 = 47,540𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 21.3𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑧 = 2,007𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 4.38𝑐𝑚

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

𝑎) 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛): 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

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235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

(208.8−9.6−2×12.7)⁄2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 7.16 < 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
13.2×0.92

𝑏) 𝑤𝑒𝑏(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 42𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 42 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

528.3 − 2 × 13.2 − 2 × 12.7

𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 53.95 > 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
9.6 × 0.92
(III) Effective area
The effective area of the compression zone of a plate with the gross cross-sectional area Ac
should be obtained from:
𝐴𝑐,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

The reduction factor 𝜌 may be taken as follows:

 internal compression elements:
̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.055(3 + Ψ)
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 𝑝 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ
̅̅̅𝑝 2
𝜆

 outstand compression elements:

̅̅̅𝑝 ≤ 0.748
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
̅̅̅𝑝 − 0.188
𝜆
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 ̅̅̅𝑝 > 0.748
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆
2
̅̅̅
𝜆 𝑝

𝑓 𝑏̅⁄𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ̅̅̅𝑝 = √ 𝑦 =
𝜆
𝜎𝑐𝑟 28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎

𝑎) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎:

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓 = 𝐴𝑐,𝑓 − − − − − − − 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1

𝑏) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎:

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Stress distribution in parts (compression positive), see Table 5.3, EN1993-1-1

𝛹𝑤 = 1 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 5: {
𝑘𝜎,𝑤 = 4.0
̅̅̅̅
𝑏𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 (528.3 − 2 × 13.2 − 2 × 12.7)⁄9.6
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 = = = 0.95
28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎,𝑤 28.4 × 0.92 × √4

̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 = 0.95 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055Ψ𝑤 = 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055 × 1 = 0.673
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 − 0.055(3 + 𝛹𝑤 ) 0.95 − 0.055(3 + 1)
⟹ 𝜌𝑤 = 2 = = 0.809 ≤ 1.0
̅̅̅̅̅
𝜆𝑝,𝑤 0.952

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝑐,𝑤 = 0.809 × (528.3 − 2 × 13.2 − 2 × 12.7) × 9.6 + (2 × 12.7) × 9.6

𝐴𝑐,𝑤 = (528.3 − 2 × 13.2 − 2 × 12.7) × 9.6 + (2 × 12.7) × 9.6

𝐴𝑐,𝑤 − 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 = (1 − 0.809) × (528.3 − 2 × 13.2 − 2 × 12.7) × 9.6

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐴 − (𝐴𝑐,𝑤 − 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑤 )

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 105 × 102 − (1 − 0.809) × (528.3 − 2 × 13.2 − 2 × 12.7) × 9.6

𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟗, 𝟔𝟐𝟔𝒎𝒎𝟐

(IV) Cross-section compression resistance

The design resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be determined
as follows:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀𝑜
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 9,626 × 275 −3
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = 10 = 2,647.15𝑘𝑁 > 2,500𝑘𝑁 = 𝑁𝐸𝑑 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒
𝛾𝑀𝑜 1.0
(V) Buckling lengths – According to the support conditions, the buckling lengths are equal in
both planes, given by:
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑧) 𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = 1.0 × 6 = 6𝑚

𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦)𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 1.0 × 2 = 2𝑚

(VI) Determination of the slenderness coefficients

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Slenderness for flexural buckling;

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 𝐿𝑐𝑟 √ 𝐴
𝜆̅ = √ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 86.80
𝑓𝑦 275

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 9,626
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 √ 𝐴 6 × 1000 √10,500
𝜆̅𝑦 = = × = 0.311 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 21.3 × 10 86.8

𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 9,626
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 √ 𝐴 2 × 1000 √10,500
𝜆̅𝑧 = = × = 0.50 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 4.38 × 10 86.8
(VII) Calculation of the reduction factor xmin
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆2̅
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆̅2 ]
ℎ 528.3
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 2.5 > 1.2 , 𝑡𝑓 = 13.2𝑚𝑚 < 40𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275
𝑏 208.8
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎
⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝛼 = 0.21)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 (𝛼 = 0.34)
𝐴𝑠 𝜆̅𝑧 > 𝜆̅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 > 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧

Φ𝑍 = 0.5[1 + 0.34 × (0.5 − 0.2) + 0.52 ] = 0.676

1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.89
0.676 + √0.6762 − 0.52
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧 = 0.89
(VIII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
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𝑥𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
0.89 × 9,626 × 275
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 2,355.96𝑘𝑁
1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 2,500𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 2,355.96𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
Example 2.16: Consider the lattice beam of example 2.9, in S 275 steel, with the internal forces
represented in Figure 2.25. In order to complete its design, design the compressed members,
considering the same types of cross sections, that is:
a) Square hollow sections (SHS), with welded connections between the members of the
structure.
b) HEA sections in the chords (horizontal members) and sections built up from 2 channels in
the diagonals, bolted to gusset plates welded to the HEA profiles in the upper and lower chords.

Figure 2-25: Actions and internal forces on the lattice girder of example 2.9
Based on the axial force diagrams represented in Figure 2.25, the most compressed chord
member is under an axial force of 742.6kN and it is simultaneously one of the longest members,
with L = 3.00 m; concerning the diagonals, the most compressed member, with a length L =
2.12 m, is under an axial force of 350.2kN. For the definition of the buckling lengths of the
members, it is assumed that all the nodes of the truss are braced in the direction perpendicular
to the plane of the structure.
Solution:
a) Design with square hollow section (SHS) profiles
(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 742.6𝑘𝑁
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁
(II) Preliminary design – Assuming class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections, yields:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10210 − 1)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
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𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐴 × 275
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 742.6𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 = × 10−3
1.0
742.6
⟹𝐴≥ × 103 = 2,700𝑚𝑚2 = 27.0𝑐𝑚2
275
𝐴 × 275
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 = × 10−3
1.0
350.2
⟹𝐴≥ × 103 = 1,273𝑚𝑚2 = 12.73𝑐𝑚2
275
Based on a table of commercial profiles of square hollow sections (SHS), a SHS 120x120x8
mm (A = 35.5 cm2) is proposed for the upper chord and a SHS 80x80x6.3 mm (A = 18.4 cm2)
is proposed in the diagonals, with areas slightly above the minimum required by the above
conditions; this is because verification of resistance to buckling is expected to govern.

(III) Classifying the section

𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑆𝐻𝑆 120𝑥120𝑥8 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 = 35.2𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐵 = 120𝑚𝑚, 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚,
𝑐 ⁄𝑡 = 12, 𝐼 = 726𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = 4.55𝑐𝑚
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑆𝐻𝑆 80𝑥80𝑥6.3
𝐴 = 18.1𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐵 = 80𝑚𝑚, 𝑡 = 6.3𝑚𝑚,
𝑐 ⁄𝑡 = 9.7, 𝐼 = 162𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = 2.99𝑐𝑚

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠: 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

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 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

12
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 13.04 < 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑆𝐻𝑆 120𝑥120𝑥8 𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
0.92
9.7
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 10.54 < 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑆𝐻𝑆 80𝑥80𝑥6.3𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
0.92
(IV) Buckling lengths
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
The buckling length Lcr of a hollow section chord member may be taken as 0.9L for both in-
plane and out-of-planc buckling, where L is the system length for the relevant plane. (See
Annex BB.1.3(1), EN1993-1-1)
𝑳𝒄𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝒎
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
The buckling length Lcr of a hollow section brace member (web member) without cropping or
flattening, welded around its perimeter to hollow section chords, may be generally taken as
0.75L for both in-plane and out-of-plane buckling (See Annex BB.1.3(3), EN1993-1-1).
𝐿𝑐𝑟 = 0.75 × 2.12 = 1.59𝑚
(V) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 86.80
𝑓𝑦 275

𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:

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𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 2.7 1
𝜆̅ = = −2
× = 0.684
𝑖 𝜆1 4.55 × 10 86.80
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 1.59 1
𝜆̅ = = × = 0.613
𝑖 𝜆1 2.99 × 10−2 86.80
(VI) Calculation of the reduction factor x
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆̅2 ]

𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 , ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
⟹ 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 0.21 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
Φ = 0.5[1 + 0.21 × (0.684 − 0.2) + 0.6842 ] = 0.785
1
𝑥= = 0.855
0.785 + √0.7852 − 0.6842
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
Φ = 0.5[1 + 0.21 × (0.613 − 0.2) + 0.6132 ] = 0.731
1
𝑥= = 0.886
0.731 + √0.7312 − 0.6132
(VII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.855 × 35.2 × 102 × 275
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 827.64𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 742.6𝑘𝑁𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 827.64𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑆𝐻𝑆 120𝑥120𝑥8 𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 275 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑑.

𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
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𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.886 × 18.1 × 102 × 275

𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 441.0𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 441.0𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑆𝐻𝑆 80𝑥80𝑥6.3 𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 275 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑑.

b) Design with HEA profiles for the chords and sections built up from 2 channels for the
diagonals
(I) Design value of the applied compressive axial force NEd
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 742.6𝑘𝑁
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁
(II) Preliminary design – Assuming class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections, yields:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐴 × 275
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 742.6𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 = × 10−3
1.0
742.6
⟹𝐴≥ × 103 = 2,700𝑚𝑚2 = 27.0𝑐𝑚2
275
𝐴 × 275
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 = × 10−3
1.0
350.2
⟹𝐴≥ × 103 = 1,273𝑚𝑚2 = 12.73𝑐𝑚2
275
Based on a table of commercial profiles, a HEA 180 (A = 45.25 cm2) cross section is proposed
for the upper chord and a cross section built-up from 2 UPN100 (A = 27.00 cm2), 10 mm apart
(thickness of the gusset plate) is proposed for the diagonals (see Figure 2.26). The areas of the
cross sections are larger than the minimum areas required by the above conditions, because
the verification of the buckling resistance is expected to govern.

Figure 2-26: Detail in the diagonals of the truss

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(III) Classifying the section

𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝑯𝑬𝑨 𝟏𝟖𝟎

𝐴 = 45.25𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 180𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 171𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 9.5𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 6𝑚𝑚, 𝑟 = 15𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝑦 = 2,510𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 7.45𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑧 = 924.6𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 4.52𝑐𝑚

𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝑼𝑷𝑵𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝐴 = 13.5𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 50𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 100𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 8.5𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 6𝑚𝑚, 𝑟1 = 8.5𝑚𝑚

𝑟2 = 4.5𝑚𝑚, 𝑑 = 64𝑚𝑚, 𝐼𝑦 = 206𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 3.91𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑧 = 29.3𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑧 = 1.47𝑐𝑚

𝑦𝑠 = 1.55𝑐𝑚 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏)
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
𝑊𝑒𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑

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235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

180−2×9.5−2×15
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 23.73 < 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
6×0.92

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

(180 − 6 − 2 × 15)⁄2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 8.24 < 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
9.5 × 0.92
∴ 𝐻𝐸𝐴 180 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
𝑊𝑒𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑
235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

64
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = 6×0.92 = 11.59 < 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

50 − 6 − 8.5
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 4.54 < 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
8.5 × 0.92
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∴ 𝑈𝑃𝑁100 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
(IV) Buckling lengths
For chord members generally and for out-of-plane buckling of web members, the buckling
length Lcr may be taken as equal to the system length L (See Annex BB.1.1(1), EN1993-1-1)
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅: 𝐿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐿 = 3𝑚
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔: 𝐿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐿 = 2.12𝑚
(V) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑖 𝜆1

𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 86.80
𝑓𝑦 275

𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 3 1
̅̅̅
𝜆𝑦 = = × = 0.464 < 1 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 7.45 × 10−2 86.80
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 3 1
̅̅̅𝑧 =
𝜆 = × = 0.765 < 1 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 4.52 × 10 −2 86.80
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
The second moment of area of 2UPN100 about y and z of the built-up cross sections (Figure
2.26) are obtained as follows:
𝐴 = 13.50𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 1.55 + 0.5 = 2.05𝑐𝑚

𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼̅̅̅̅ 4 ̅̅̅̅
𝑦 ′ = 206𝑐𝑚 , 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑧 ′ = 29.3𝑐𝑚
4

2
𝐼𝑦 = 2 × (𝐼̅̅̅̅ 2
𝑦 ′ + 𝐴𝑑𝑧 ) = 2 × (206 + 13.5 × 0 ) = 412𝑐𝑚
2

𝐼𝑧 = 2 × (𝐼̅̅𝑧̅̅′ + 𝐴𝑑𝑦 2 ) = 2 × (29.3 + 13.5 × 2.052 ) = 172.07𝑐𝑚2

The radius of gyration of an area of 2UPN100 about an axis y and z of the built-up cross
sections (Figure 2.26) are obtained as follows:
𝐴 = 2 × 13.50𝑐𝑚2 = 27𝑐𝑚2

𝐼𝑦 412
𝑖𝑦 = √ =√ = 3.91𝑐𝑚
𝐴 27
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𝐼𝑧 172.07
𝑖𝑧 = √ = √ = 2.52𝑐𝑚
𝐴 27

𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 2.12 1
̅̅̅
𝜆𝑦 = = × = 0.625 < 1 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 3.91 × 10−2 86.80
𝐿𝑐𝑟 1 2.12 1
̅̅̅𝑧 =
𝜆 = × = 0.969 < 1 → 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 2.52 × 10 −2 86.80
(VI) Calculation of the reduction factor xmin
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆̅2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆2̅ ]

𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
ℎ 171
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = < 1.2 , 𝑡𝑓 = 9.5𝑚𝑚 < 100𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275
𝑏 180
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏
⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 (𝛼 = 0.34)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 (𝛼 = 0.49)
𝐴𝑠 𝜆̅𝑧 > 𝜆̅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 > 𝛼𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧

Φ𝑍 = 0.5[1 + 0.49 × (0.765 − 0.2) + 0.7652 ] = 0.931

1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.684
0.931 + √0.9312 − 0.7652
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧 = 0.684
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔:
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆275
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐
⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 (𝛼 = 0.49) 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐴𝑠 𝜆̅𝑧 > 𝜆̅𝑦 ⟹ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧

Φ𝑍 = 0.5[1 + 0.49 × (0.969 − 0.2) + 0.9692 ] = 1.158

1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.558
1.158 + √1.1582 − 0.9692
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𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥𝑧 = 0.558
(VII) Safety verification
The design buckling resistance of a compression member should be taken as:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1
𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.684 × 45.25 × 102 × 275
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 851.15𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 742.6𝑘𝑁𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 851.15𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝐻𝐸𝐴180 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 275 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑑.

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠:
𝑥𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.558 × 27 × 102 × 275
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 414.32𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1.0
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 350.2𝑘𝑁𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 414.32𝑘𝑁 → 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

2𝑈𝑃𝑁100 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 275 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑑.

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3 Design of beams or flexural members

3.1 Laterally Restrained Beams
The resistance of a steel beam in bending depends on the cross section resistance or the
occurrence of lateral instability.
Whenever one of the following situations occurs in a beam, lateral-torsional buckling cannot
develop and assessment of the beam can be based just on the cross section resistance:
 the cross section of the beam is bent about its minor z axis;
 the beam is laterally restrained by means of secondary steel members, by a concrete
slab or any other method that prevents lateral displacement of the compressed parts
of the cross section;
 the cross section of the beam has high torsional stiffness and similar flexural stiffness
about both principal axes of bending as, for example, closed hollow cross sections.
The bending resistance of a cross section can be obtained from its plastic resistance, if the
section is compact (class 1 or 2 section), and made from material with a ductile behaviour, as
in the case of mild steel. On the other hand, in a slender cross sections (class 3 or 4 section)
the bending resistance must be based on its elastic resistance.
The web provides most of the shear resistance, as one can see from Figure 3.1. A common
and conservative treatment assumes that the shear stress is uniformly distributed over the
depth of the web, and any shear resistance of the flanges can be ignored, unless dealing with
very thick flanges. EN1993-1-1 recommends that whenever possible, the shear resistance of
a steel section should be evaluated based on a plastic distribution of shear stress.

Figure 3-1: Elastic distributions of normal stresses and shear stresses

In a section subject to bending and shear force, the bending moment resistance may have to be
reduced to account for the presence of shear.
I or H sections and rectangular hollow sections are usually chosen for beams because they
possess high major axis bending resistance and bending stiffness.
3.1.1 Design for Bending
3.1.1.1 Elastic and plastic bending moment resistance
The elastic bending resistance of a cross section is attained when the normal stress in the point
furthest away from the elastic neutral axis (e. n. a.) reaches the yield strength fy; the
corresponding bending moment is denoted the elastic bending moment Mel. The bending
moment that is able to totally plastify a section is denoted as the plastic bending moment Mpl.
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In the calculation of the plastic bending moment of a steel cross section (assuming equal yield
strengths in tension and compression), the plastic neutral axis (p.n.a.) is located at the centroid
only if the section is symmetrical, as for the case of rectangular sections, I sections or H sections
with equal flanges. In case of non-symmetric cross sections, such as a T-section, the neutral
axis moves in order to divide the section in two equal areas. Figure
Figure 3-2 represents, for two distinct cross sections (I section with equal flanges and T
section), the diagrams of normal stresses that correspond to the elastic limit (elastic bending
moment) and to complete plastification (plastic bending moment).

Figure 3-2- Elastic and plastic bending moment cross sectional resistance
For both cross sections, the elastic bending moment and the plastic bending moment around
the horizontal axis are given by:
𝐼
𝑀𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝜈
𝑀𝑝𝑙 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑐 + 𝐴𝑡 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑡 )𝑓𝑦 = 𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦

Where,
I is the second moment of area about the elastic neutral axis (coincident with the centroid of
the cross section);
v is the maximum distance from an extreme fibre to the same axis;
Wel= I/ v is the elastic bending modulus;
Ac and At are the areas of the section in compression and in tension, respectively (of equal
value);
fy is the yield strength of the material;
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dc and dt are the distances from the centroid of the areas of the section in compression and in
tension, respectively, to the plastic neutral axis;
Wpl is the plastic bending modulus, given by the sum of first moment of areas Ac and At, in
relation to the plastic neutral axis (Wpl =Sc+St)
For symmetric sections the previous calculations are simpler because the plastic neutral axis
coincides with the elastic neutral axis and, consequently, dc = dt.
3.1.1.2 Uniaxial bending (Clause 6.2.5 of EN1993-1-1)
In the absence of shear forces, the design value of the bending moment MEd at each cross
section should satisfy:
𝑀𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑
Where, Mc,Rd is the design resistance for bending.
The design resistance for bending about one principal axis of a cross-section is determined as
follows:
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑒𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
Where,
Wpl is the plastic section bending modulus;
Wel,min is the minimum elastic section bending modulus;
W eff,min is the minimum elastic bending modulus of the reduced effective section;
fy is the yield strength of the material;

gM0 is the partial safety factor.

3.1.1.3 Bi-axial Bending
Design for bi-axial bending can be verified by plastic (class 1 or 2 cross sections) or elastic
(class 3 and 4 cross sections) interaction formulae, according to (Clause 6.2.9 of EN1993-1-1),
as follows:
𝛼 𝛽
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
[ ] +[ ] ≤ 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑

Where,
Mpl,y,Rd and M pl,z,Rd are the plastic moments of resistance about y and z, respectively.

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in which a α and b are constants, which may conservatively be taken as unity, otherwise as
follows:
𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝛼 = 2; 𝛽 = 1
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝛼 = 2; 𝛽 = 2;
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 1.66
𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 𝑜𝑟 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
Where σx,Ed is the design value of the longitudinal stress evaluated by elastic theory, based on
the gross cross section, for class 3 sections, and on a reduced effective cross section, for class
4 sections.
3.1.1.4 Net area in bending
Holes in the tension flange for bolts or other connection members may be ignored if condition
𝐴𝑓,𝑛𝑒𝑡 0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑓 𝑓𝑦
≥ is satisfied, where Af,net and Af are the net section and the gross area of the
𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀0
tension flange, respectively, and gM2 is a partial safety factor (defined according to EN1993-
1-8).
Fastener holes in tension zone of the web need not be allowed for, provided that the limit
𝐴𝑓,𝑛𝑒𝑡 0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑓 𝑓𝑦
≥ is satisfied for the complete tension zone comprising the tension flangc plus
𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀0
the tension zone of the web.
Fastener holes except for oversize and slotted holes in compression zone of the cross-section
need not be allowed for, provided that they are filled by fasteners.
3.1.2 Design for Shear (Clause 6.2.6 of EN1993-1-1)
(1) The design value of the shear force V Ed at each cross section shall satisfy:
𝑉𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏, 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (2).

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏, 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (5).
(2) In the absence of torsion, the design plastic shear resistance is given by:

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3)
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝛾𝑀0
(3) The shear area may be taken as follows:
a) rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤
b) rolled channel sections, load parallel to web
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 𝑟)𝑡𝑓
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c) rolled T -section, load parallel to web

𝑡𝑓
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐼 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)
2
𝑡𝑓
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑇 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑡𝑤 (ℎ + )
2
d) welded I, H and box sections, load parallel to web

𝐴𝑣 = 𝜂 ∑(ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 )

e) welded I, H, channel and box sections, load parallel to flanges

𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − ∑(ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 )

f) rolled rectangular hollow sections of uniform thickness:

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴ℎ⁄(𝑏 + ℎ)
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑏⁄(𝑏 + ℎ)
g) circular hollow sections and tubes of uniform thickness
𝐴𝑣 = 2𝐴⁄𝜋
where A is the cross sectional area;
b is the overall breadth;
h is the overall depth;
hw is the depth of the web;
r is the root radius;
tf is the flange thickness;
tw is the web thickness (If the web thickness in not constant, tw should be taken as the minimum
thickness.).

h see EN 1993-1-5.

NOTE h may be conservatively taken equal 1.0.

(4) For verifying the design elastic shear resistance Vc,Rd the following criterion for a critical
point of the cross section may be used unless the buckling verification in section 5 of EN
1993-1-5 applies:
𝜏𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑓𝑦 (√3 𝛾𝑀0 )
𝑉𝐸𝑑 𝑆
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜏𝐸𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚: 𝜏𝐸𝑑 =
𝐼𝑡
Where VEd is the design value of the shear force
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S is the first moment of area about the centroidal axis of that portion of the cross-section
between the point at which the shear is required and the boundary of the cross-section
I is second moment of area of the whole cross section
t is the thickness at the examined point
NOTE The verification according to (4) is conservative as it excludes partial plastic shear
distribution, which is permitted in elastic design, see (5). Therefore, it should only be carried
out where the verification on the basis of Vc,Rd according to (1) cannot be performed.
(5) For I- or H-sections the shear stress in the web may be taken as:
𝑉𝐸𝑑
𝜏𝐸𝑑 = 𝑖𝑓 𝐴𝑓 ⁄𝐴𝑤 ≥ 0.6
𝐴𝑤
Where Af is the area of one flange;
Aw is the area of the web: Aw= hw tw
(6) In addition the shear buckling resistance for webs without intermediate stiffeners should be
according to section 5 of EN 1993-1-5, if
ℎ𝑤 𝜀
> 72
𝑡𝑤 𝜂
For 𝜂 sec section 5 of EN 1993-1-5.
NOTE 𝜂 may be conservatively taken equal to 1,0.
(7) Fastener holes need not be allowed for in the shear verification except in verifying the
design shear resistance at connection zones as given in EN 1993-1-8.
(8) Where the shear force is combined with a torsional moment, the plastic shear resistance
Vpl,Rd should be reduced as specified in 6.2.7(9), EN1993-1-1.
3.1.3 Design for combined shear and bending

In an elastic stress analysis, the interaction between bending and shear force may be verified
by applying a yield criterion. This procedure, valid for any type of cross section, requires
calculation of elastic normal stresses (σ) and elastic shear stresses (τ), based on formulas from
the theory of the elasticity, at the critical points of the cross section. The following condition
(from von Mises criterion for a state of plane stress) has then to be verified:

𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑣𝑜𝑛−𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 = √𝜎 2 + 3𝜏 2 ≤
𝛾𝑀0

For plastic analysis, there are several models for combining shear and bending. The model
used by EN1993-1-1 evaluates a reduced bending moment obtained from a reduced yield
strength (fyr) along the shear area. Figure 3-3 illustrates the model for bending moment–shear
force interaction for a I or H section of equal flanges, considering bending about the y-axis);
Figure 3-4 illustrates graphically the interaction curves for the same combination of forces
and for the same cross section.

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Figure 3-3- Model for bending moment - shear force interaction in a I or H section

Figure 3-4-Bending moment – shear force interaction diagrams for I or H sections

In general, when a section is subjected to bending moment and shear force, the design plastic
bending resistance should be reduced to allow for the presence of the shear force. However,
for low values of shear force, this reduction is not very significant, (as seen from the interaction
curves represented in Figure 3-4). Also, as this reduction is counterbalanced by strain-
hardening of steel, it may be assumed that for low values of shear it is not necessary to reduce
the design plastic bending resistance.
Thus, clause 6.2.8, EN1993-1-1 establishes the following interaction criterion between
bending moment and shear force:
(1) Where the shear force is present, allowance should be made for its effect on the moment
resistance.
(2) Where the shear force is less than half the plastic shear resistance its effect on the moment
resistance may be neglected except where shear buckling reduces the section resistance,
see EN 1993-1-5.
(3) Otherwise the reduced moment resistance should be taken as the design resistance of the
cross-section, calculated using a reduced yield strength (1 − 𝜌)𝑓𝑦 for the shear area,
2
2𝑉𝐸𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜌 = (𝑉 − 1)
𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑
(4) The reduced design plastic resistance moment allowing for the shear force may
alternatively be obtained for I-cross-sections with equal flanges and bending about the
major axis as follows:

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𝜌𝐴𝑤 2
[𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 − 4𝑡 ] 𝑓𝑦
𝑤
𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑦,𝑐,𝑅𝑑
𝛾𝑀0
where Aw = hwtw is the area of the web (hw is the depth of the web and tw is the web thickness)
and My,c,Rd is the design resistance for bending moment about the y axis.
Example 3.1: The beam represented in Figure 3-5, with a length L = 6.0 m, is laterally
restrained along its length by a floor. Assume a design load for the ultimate limit state
comprising two concentrated loads P = 70.0 kN, as indicated in Figure 3-5. Design the beam
using a HEA section (and alternatively an IPE section) in grade S 235 steel, according to
EN1993-1-1. Verify also the serviceability limit state of deformation for a characteristic
combination (according to EN 1990), considering δmax ≤ L/300 and assuming that the 70.0kN
loads were factored for the ultimate limit state with a factor of 1.50. The beam-column joints,
with web cleats, may be assumed as pinned.

Figure 3-5– Simply supported steel beam

i) Diagrams of internal forces
Figure 3-6 illustrates the bending moment and shear force diagrams corresponding to design
loads for ULS (disregarding the eccentricities at the supports). The beam is laterally restrained.
Therefore its design depends on the verification of the resistance of the cross sections and the
verification of the serviceability limit state of deformation. From Figure 3-6, the critical cross
sections are those where the concentrated loads are applied. Hence, the design values are MEd
= 105.0kNm and VEd =70.0kN

Figure 3-6 – Diagrams of internal forces

ii) Preliminary design for bending
Assuming class 1 or 2 cross sections, the following solution is obtained:
𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑

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𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦 𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝛾𝑀0
𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ ⟹ 𝑊𝑝𝑙 ≥
𝛾𝑀0 𝑓𝑦

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆235 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 235 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 360 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝛾𝑀0 (105 × 103 × 103 ) × 1.0
𝑊𝑝𝑙 ≥ = = 446.81 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑓𝑦 235

In order to satisfy this condition, a HEA 220 section (Wpl , y= 568.5 cm3) and, alternatively, a
IPE 270 section (Wpl,y= 484 cm2) are selected.
iii) Cross section classification
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝐸𝐴 220:
𝐴 = 64.34𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 220𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 210𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 11𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 7𝑚𝑚,

𝑟 = 18𝑚, 𝐼𝑦 = 5,410𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 9.17𝑐𝑚, 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 = 515.2𝑐𝑚3 ,

𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 568.5𝑐𝑚3 , 𝐼𝑧 = 1,955𝑐𝑚4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 5.51𝑐𝑚

,
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑃𝐸 270:
𝐴 = 45.95𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 135𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 270𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 10.2𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 6.6𝑚𝑚,

𝑟 = 15𝑚, 𝐼𝑦 = 5,790𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 11.23𝑐𝑚, 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 = 428.9𝑐𝑚3 ,

𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 484𝑐𝑚3 , 𝐼𝑧 = 419.9𝑐𝑚4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 3.02𝑐𝑚

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

𝑊𝑒𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 72𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 72 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √235 = 1
𝑦

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210−2×11−2×18
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝐸𝐴 220: 𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 21.71 < 72 → 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
7×1

270 − 2 × 10.2 − 2 × 15
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑃𝐸 270: 𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 33.27 < 72 → 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
6.6 × 1
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √235 = 1
𝑦

(220 − 7 − 2 × 18)⁄2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝐸𝐴 220: 𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 8.05 < 9 → 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
11 × 1
(135 − 6.6 − 2 × 15)⁄2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑃𝐸 270: 𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 4.82 < 9 → 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
10.2 × 1
Hence, as previously assumed, the HEA 220 and IPE 270 cross sections in bending are class
1.
iv) Verification of shear force
 The design value of the shear force VEd at each cross section shall satisfy:
𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛, 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3)
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝛾𝑀0
For rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

h may be conservatively taken equal 1.0.

ℎ𝑤 72
 For an unstiffened web, > 𝜀 should be checked for resistance to shear buckling and
𝑡𝑤 𝜂
should be provided with transverse stiffeners at the supports.

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𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑬𝑨 𝟐𝟐𝟎: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 = 1 × (21 − 2 × 1.1) × 0.7 = 13.16𝑐𝑚2
𝐴𝑣 = 64.34 − 2 × 22 × 1.1 + (0.7 + 2 × 1.8) × 1.1 = 20.67𝑐𝑚2 > 13.16𝑐𝑚2 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
∴ 𝐴𝑣 = 20.67𝑐𝑚2

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3) 20.67 × 102 (235⁄√3)

𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 280.45𝑘𝑁 > 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 70.0𝑘𝑁 𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
72 72
𝜀= × 1 = 72
𝜂 1
ℎ𝑤 21 − 2 × 1.1 72
= = 26.86 ≯ 𝜀 = 72
𝑡𝑤 0.7 𝜂
⟹ 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏.
Therefore, the HEA 220 cross section meets the requirements concerning shear force.
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝑷𝑬 𝟐𝟕𝟎: 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 = 1 × (27 − 2 × 1.02) × 0.66 = 13.16𝑐𝑚2 = 16.47𝑐𝑚2

𝐴𝑣 = 45.95 − 2 × 13.5 × 1.02 + (0.66 + 2 × 1.5) × 1.02 = 22.14𝑐𝑚2 > 16.47𝑐𝑚2 𝑜𝑘!
∴ 𝐴𝑣 = 22.14𝑐𝑚2

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3) 22.14 × 102 (235⁄√3)

𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 300.39𝑘𝑁 > 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 70.0𝑘𝑁 𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
ℎ𝑤 27 − 2 × 1.02 72
= = 37.82 ≯ 𝜀 = 72
𝑡𝑤 0.66 𝜂
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏.
Therefore, the IPE 270 cross section meets the requirements concerning shear force.
v) Bending – shear force interaction
Where the shear force is less than half the plastic shear resistance its effect on the moment
resistance may be neglected except where shear buckling reduces the section resistance, see
EN 1993-1-5.
280.45
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑬𝑨 𝟐𝟐𝟎: 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 70.0𝑘𝑁 < 50%𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = 140.23𝑘𝑁
2
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300.39
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝑷𝑬 𝟐𝟕𝟎: 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 70.0𝑘𝑁 < 50%𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = 150.20𝑘𝑁
2
For both sections, it is not necessary to reduce the bending resistance to account for the shear
force.
vi) Verification of the serviceability limit state of deformation
The verification of the maximum vertical deflection is performed for the following load:
70/1.50 = 46.67kN (as the 70kN load was factored for the ultimate limit state with a coefficient
of 1.50).
𝐹𝑎
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3𝐿2 − 4𝑎2 )
24𝐸𝐼

For a simply supported beam with length L subjected to two concentrated loads, as indicated
in Figure 3-5, the maximum vertical deflection, at mid-span, is given by
𝐹𝑎 𝐹 𝐿⁄4 11 𝐹𝐿3
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3𝐿2 − 4𝑎2 ) = 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3𝐿2 − 4(𝐿⁄4)2 ) = , 𝑎 = 𝐿⁄4
24𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼 384 𝐸𝐼
11 𝐹𝐿3 𝐿
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≤
384 𝐸𝐼 300
𝐿 6,000𝑚𝑚
𝐿 = 6𝑚 = 6,000𝑚𝑚, = = 20𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 = 46.67𝑘𝑁
300 300
11 46.67 × 103 × 6,0003
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑬𝑨 𝟐𝟐𝟎: 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × = 25.42𝑚𝑚 ≰ 20𝑚𝑚
384 210 × 103 × 5,410 × 104
Therefore, the cross section is not acceptable. By adopting a HEA 240 cross section then
𝐼𝑦 = 77.63 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

11 46.67 × 103 × 6,0003

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑬𝑨 𝟐𝟒𝟎: 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × = 17.71𝑚𝑚 < 20𝑚𝑚 − −𝑜𝑘!
384 210 × 103 × 77.63 × 106
11 46.67 × 103 × 6,0003
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝑷𝑬 𝟐𝟕𝟎: 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × = 23.75𝑚𝑚 ≰ 20𝑚𝑚
384 210 × 103 × 5,790 × 104
Therefore, the cross section is not acceptable. By adopting a IPE 300 cross section then
𝐼𝑦 = 83.56 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

11 46.67 × 103 × 6,0003

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝑷𝑬 𝟑𝟎𝟎: 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × = 16.46𝑚𝑚 < 20𝑚𝑚 − −𝑜𝑘!
384 210 × 103 × 83.56 × 106

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Therefore a HEA 240 cross section (A = 76.84 cm2) or, alternatively, an IPE 300 cross
section (A = 53.81 cm2), is suitable for this application. It is noted that the limitation of
deflection might be overcome by applying suitable precamber, as long as part of the applied
loads are permanent.

Example 3.2: The continuous beam represented in Figure 3-7 is laterally restrained along its
length by a composite floor. It is assumed that this restraint is sufficient to prevent lateral
torsional buckling in both positive and negative moment regions.

Figure 3-7 – Continuous beam

The beam is subjected to the following loads that include an estimate of the self-weight of the
beams:

Dead loads: Uniformly distributed = 70kN/m (gG = 1.35);

Concentrated in section B = 260kN (gG = 1.35).

Live loads: Uniformly distributed = 60kN/m (gQ= 1.50).

These loads are applied in a floor supported by secondary beams, shown in section in Figure
3-7. Therefore, the loads are transmitted to the continuous main beam as point loads, applied
at the support sections of the secondary beams. Design the main beam assuming a HEA cross
section, in grade S 275 steel. For the design of the beam consider an elastic analysis and a
redistribution of the negative moments with a maximum value of 15%, as indicated in clause
5.4.1(4)B, EN1993-1-1.
EN1993-1-1, 5.4.1(4)B: As a simplified method for a limited plastic redistribution of moments
in continuous beams where following an elastic analysis some peak moments exceed the plastic
bending resistance of 15 % maximum, the parts in excess of these peak moments may be
redistributed in any member, provided, that:
a) the internal forces and moments in the frame remain in equilibrium with the applied loads,
b) all the members in which the moments are reduced have Class 1 or Class 2 cross-sections
and
c) lateral torsional buckling of the members is prevented.

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(1) Diagrams of internal forces

Assuming that the live load may be applied in one span or in both spans simultaneously, and
that the bending moment is the critical load effect, three load combinations are defined for the
verification of the ultimate limit state of resistance, as indicated in Figure 3-8 to Figure 3-10
Load combination 1 – Maximum negative moment at the intermediate support.

Figure 3-8– Load combination 1

Load combination 2 – Maximum positive moment in the first span.

Figure 3-9– Load combination 2

Load combination 3 – Maximum positive moment in the second span.

Figure 3-10– Load combination 3

Considering the reactions of the secondary beams on the main beam and by performing an
elastic analysis it is observed that the most unfavourable combination, regarding the maximum
bending moment, is load combination 1. The arrangements for load combination 1 and the
corresponding internal forces are indicated in Figure 3-11.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 = 351.0 + 184.5 × 2 = 720.0𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷 = 184.5 × 2 = 369.0𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 = 184.5 × 2 = 369.0𝑘𝑁

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Figure 3-11 – Diagrams of elastic internal forces for load combination 1

The redistribution of the negative bending moment, at the intermediate support, is based on the
elastic bending moment diagram. Hence, in order to optimize the bending moments a maximum
redistribution of 15% is allowed, according to clause 5.4.1(4)B. The redistribution of internal
forces corresponds to an additional system of internal forces, self-equilibrated, which is
represented in Figure 3.30.

Figure 3-12 – Redistribution of bending moments

The resulting design internal force diagrams are represented in Figure 3-13. By inspection, it
is observed that the maximum values of the bending moment and the shear force occur in
Section C (intermediate support). The design values are thus: MEd = 658.8-98.8=560.0kNm and
VEd = 500.0kN.

Figure 3-13 – Design internal forces after redistribution

(2) Preliminary design for bending
Assuming class 1 or 2 cross sections, the following solution is obtained:
𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑

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𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦 𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝛾𝑀0
𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ ⟹ 𝑊𝑝𝑙 ≥
𝛾𝑀0 𝑓𝑦

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝛾𝑀0 (560.0 × 103 × 103 ) × 1.0
𝑊𝑝𝑙 ≥ = = 2,036.36 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑓𝑦 235

Using a table of commercial profiles, a HEA 360, with (Wpl,y= 2,088 cm3) is selected.
(3) Cross section classification
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝐸𝐴 360:
𝐴 = 142.76𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 300𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 350𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 17.5𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 10𝑚𝑚,

𝑟 = 27𝑚, 𝐼𝑦 = 33,090𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 15.22𝑐𝑚, 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 = 1,891𝑐𝑚3 ,

𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 2,088𝑐𝑚3 , 𝐼𝑧 = 7,887𝑐𝑚4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑧 = 7.43𝑐𝑚

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

𝑊𝑒𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 72𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 72 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

350−2×17.5−2×27
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 28.37 < 72 → 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
10×0.92

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

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 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

(300 − 10 − 2 × 27)⁄2
𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 7.33 < 9 → 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
17.5 × 0.92
Hence, as previously assumed, the HEA 360 cross sections in bending is class 1.
(4) Verification of shear force
 The design value of the shear force VEd at each cross section shall satisfy:
𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛, 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3)
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝛾𝑀0
For rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

h may be conservatively taken equal 1.0.

ℎ𝑤 72
 For an unstiffened web, > 𝜀 should be checked for resistance to shear buckling and
𝑡𝑤 𝜂
should be provided with transverse stiffeners at the supports.

𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 = 1 × (35 − 2 × 1.75) × 1.0 = 31.5𝑐𝑚2

𝐴𝑣 = 142.76 − 2 × 30 × 1.75 + (1.0 + 2 × 2.7) × 1.75 = 48.96𝑐𝑚2 > 31.5𝑐𝑚2 − −𝑜𝑘!
∴ 𝐴𝑣 = 48.96𝑐𝑚2
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𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3) 48.96 × 102 (275⁄√3)

𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 777.34𝑘𝑁 > 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 500.0𝑘𝑁𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
72 72
𝜀= × 0.92 = 66.24
𝜂 1
ℎ𝑤 35 − 2 × 1.75 72
= = 31.5 ≯ 𝜀 = 66.24
𝑡𝑤 1.0 𝜂
⟹ 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏.
Thus, the resistance to shear force is satisfied.
(5) Bending – shear force interaction
Where the shear force is less than half the plastic shear resistance its effect on the moment
resistance may be neglected except where shear buckling reduces the section resistance, see
EN 1993-1-5.
777.34
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 500.0𝑘𝑁 > 50%𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = 388.67𝑘𝑁
2
 Where the shear force is greater than half the plastic shear resistance, the reduced moment
resistance should be taken as the design resistance of the cross-section, calculated using a
2
2𝑉𝐸𝑑
reduced yield strength (1 − 𝜌)𝑓𝑦 for the shear area, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜌 = (𝑉 − 1)
𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

The design resistance for bending about one principal axis of a cross-section is determined as
follows:
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
2
2𝑉
𝑊𝑝𝑙 (1 − (𝑉 𝐸𝑑 − 1) ) 𝑓𝑦
𝑊𝑝𝑙 (1 − 𝜌)𝑓𝑦 𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = =
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀0
 The reduced design plastic resistance moment allowing for the shear force may
alternatively be obtained for I-cross-sections with equal flanges and bending about the
major axis as follows:

𝜌𝐴 2
[𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 − 4𝑡𝑤 ] 𝑓𝑦
𝑤
𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑦,𝑐,𝑅𝑑
𝛾𝑀0
where Aw = hwtw is the area of the web (hw is the depth of the web and tw is the web thickness)
and My,c,Rd is the design resistance for bending moment about the y axis.
2 2
2𝑉𝐸𝑑 2 × 500
𝜌=( − 1) = ( − 1) = 0.082
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 777.34

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𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦 2,088 × 103 × 275

𝑀𝑦,𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−6 = 574.2𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
𝐴𝑤 = ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 = (35 − 2 × 1.75) × 1.0 = 31.5𝑐𝑚2

𝜌𝐴 2 0.082 × (31.5 × 10−4 )2

[𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 − 4𝑡𝑤 ] 𝑓𝑦 [2,088 × 10−6 − ] × 275 × 103
𝑤 4 × 10 × 10−3
𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = =
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 568.61𝑘𝑁𝑚 < 𝑀𝑦,𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 574.2𝑘𝑁𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘!

𝑀𝑦,𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 568.61𝑘𝑁𝑚 ≥ 𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 560.0𝑘𝑁𝑚 − − − −𝑜𝑘‼!

The bending resistance is verified.

(6) Verification of the serviceability limit state of deformation
By inspection of the continuous beam, the maximum vertical deflection occurs in the span of
6 m. Considering a load combination similar to load combination 3 (see Figure 3-10), but with
the loads unfactored (corresponding to the characteristic combination of actions), a deflection
of 14.9 mm is obtained. Considering a maximum allowable vertical deflection of L/300, then
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 14.9𝑚𝑚 < 𝐿⁄300 = 6,000⁄300 = 20𝑚𝑚
Therefore, a HEA 360 in grade S 275 steel is suitable for this application.
Example 3.3: The beam represented in Figure 3-14 is subjected to a vertical concentrated load
of 20.0kN and a horizontal concentrated load of 6.0kN, both already factored. Both loads are
applied at the free end of the cantilever. Assuming that the deformation is not critical, design
the cantilever beam using a rectangular hollow section in grade S 275 steel, considering:
a) plastic design;
b) elastic design.

Figure 3-14– Cantilever beam

As a rectangular hollow section has high resistance and bending stiffness about both axis (y
and z) and high torsional stiffness, it is assumed that the beam is not susceptible to lateral-
torsional buckling. Being a cantilever beam, with a considerable length, it is also assumed that
resistance to shear force is not critical. As deformations are also not critical in this example,
the design of the beam is based only on resistance to bi-axial bending of the most critical cross

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section (section A at the support). The design bending moments are My,Ed = 60.0 kNm and Mz,Ed
= 18.0 kNm.
a.1) Preliminary design for bending
As the design is based on the plastic bending resistance, the section should be class 1 or 2.
Because the cross section is subject to bi-axial bending, a preliminary design for bending about
each axis separately is performed first:
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10210 − 1)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 × 275
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 = 60 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = =
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
60 × 106
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 ≥ = 218.2 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 = 218.2𝑐𝑚3
275
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 𝑓𝑦 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 × 275
𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 = 18 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = =
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
18 × 106
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 ≥ = 65.5 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 = 65.5𝑐𝑚3
275
Based on these results and bearing in mind that both bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed act
simultaneously, a RHS 200x100x8 mm is proposed with Wpl,y = 282.0 cm3, Wpl,z = 171.8 cm3
and A = 44.75cm2.
a.2) Cross section classification
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐻𝑆 200 × 100 × 8𝑚𝑚:

𝐴 = 44.75𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 100𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 200𝑚𝑚, 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚, 𝑟𝑜 = 12𝑚𝑚,

𝑟𝑖 = 8𝑚𝑚, 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 282.0𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 = 171.8𝑐𝑚3

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The classification of the section in bi-axial bending can be done considering the most
unfavourable situation, where the longest side is totally compressed:
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √ = 0.92
𝑓 𝑦 275

200−2×8−2×8
𝑐 ⁄𝑡𝜀 = = 22.83 < 33 → 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
8×0.92

The cross section is class 1, therefore the design can be made considering the plastic resistance
and a RHS 200x100x8 cross section is acceptable.
a.3) Design for bi-axial bending
Design for bi-axial bending can be verified by plastic (class 1 or 2 cross sections) interaction
formulae, according to (Clause 6.2.9 of EN1993-1-1), as follows:
𝛼 𝛽
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
[ ] +[ ] ≤ 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑

Where,
Mpl,y,Rd and M pl,z,Rd are the plastic moments of resistance about y and z, respectively.
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 1.66
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑦 282.0 × 103 × 275
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−6 = 77.55𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 𝑓𝑦 171.8 × 103 × 275
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−6 = 47.25𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝛾𝑀0 1.0

60.0 1.66 18.0 1.66

[ ] +[ ] ≤ 1.0
77.55 47.25
0.653 + 0.201 ≤ 1.0
0.854 < 1.0 − − − −𝑜𝑘

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b.1) Preliminary design for bending

An elastic design is based on the elastic bending resistance, therefore the cross section need
not be higher than class 3. If the cross section is class 4, the resistance should be obtained from
a reduced effective cross section. As the section is under bi-axial bending, a preliminary design
about each axis separately is performed first:
The design resistance for bending about one principal axis of a cross-section is determined as
follows:
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑒𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
Where,
Wel,min is the minimum elastic section bending modulus;
W eff,min is the minimum elastic bending modulus of the reduced effective section;
fy is the yield strength of the material;

gM0 is the partial safety factor.

𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 × 275
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 = 60 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = =
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
60 × 106
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 ≥ = 218.2 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 = 218.2𝑐𝑚3
275
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 𝑓𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 × 275
𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 = 18 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = =
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
18 × 106
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 ≥ = 65.5 × 103 𝑚𝑚3 = 65.5𝑐𝑚3
275
Based on the previous conditions and as My,Ed and Mz,Ed act simultaneously, a RHS
250x150x6.3 mm is adopted with Wel,y = 331.4cm3, Wel,z = 249.9cm3 and A = 48.39cm2.
b.2) Cross section classification
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐻𝑆 200 × 100 × 8𝑚𝑚:

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𝐴 = 44.75𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 150𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 250𝑚𝑚, 𝑡 = 6.3𝑚𝑚, 𝑟𝑜 = 9.4𝑚𝑚,

𝑟𝑖 = 6.3𝑚𝑚, 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 = 331.4𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 = 249.9𝑐𝑚3

The classification of the cross section is made under a conservative assumption, which
considers that the longest side is totally under uniform compression (as would happen in plane
bending around z), hence:
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 42𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 42 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

250−2×6.3−2×6.3
𝑐 ⁄𝑡𝜀 = = 38.79 < 42 → 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3
6.3×0.92

Thus, cross section RHS 250x150x6.3 mm is class 3, and elastic design is appropriate for this
application.
b.3) Design for bi-axial bending
Design for bi-axial bending can be verified by elastic (class 3 and 4 cross sections) interaction
formulae, according to (Clause 6.2.9 of EN1993-1-1), as follows:
𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 𝑜𝑟 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
Where σx,Ed is the design value of the longitudinal stress evaluated by elastic theory, based on
the gross cross section, for class 3 sections, and on a reduced effective cross section, for class
4 sections.
𝑓𝑦 275
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 ≤ = = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦:
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 60 × 106 18 × 106
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 = + = 3
+ 3
= 253.08 𝑁 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 331.4 × 10 249.9 × 10
𝑓𝑦
As 𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 = 253.08 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ≤ 𝛾 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 , the safety of the cross section is verified.
𝑀0

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3.2 Laterally Unrestrained Beams

The design of a beam subject to bending and shear must be performed in two steps: i)
verification of the resistance of the cross section and ii) check on member stability. In this
section, the resistance of members against instability phenomena caused by a bending moment
will be presented. In standard cross sectional shapes, such as I or H bent around the major axis
(y-axis), the typical instability phenomenon is lateral-torsional buckling.
3.2.1 Lateral -Torsional Buckling
3.2.1.1 Introduction

Consider a member subject to bending about the strong axis of the cross section (the y-axis).
Lateral-torsional buckling is characterised by lateral deformation of the compressed part of the
cross section (the compressed flange in the case of I or H sections). This part behaves like a
compressed member, but one continuously restrained by the part of the section in tension,
which initially does not have any tendency to move laterally. As seen in Figure 3-15, where
this phenomenon is illustrated for a cantilever beam, the resulting deformation of the cross
section includes both lateral bending and torsion. This is why this phenomenon is called lateral-
torsional buckling.

Figure 3-15– Lateral-torsional buckling of a cantilever beam

Instability phenomenon characterized by the occurrence of large transversal displacements and
rotation about the member axis, under bending moment about the major axis (y-axis). This
instability phenomenon involves lateral bending (about z-axis) and torsion of cross section.
3.2.1.2 Elastic Critical Moment
In the study of lateral-torsional buckling of beams, the Elastic Critical Moment Mcr plays a
fundamental role; this quantity is defined as the maximum value of bending moment supported
by a beam, free from any type of imperfections.
For a simple supported beam as shown in Figure 3-16 with a double symmetric section, with
supports prevent lateral displacements and rotation around member axis (twist rotations), but
allowing warping and rotations around cross section axis (y and z), submitted to a uniform
bending moment My (“standard case”), the elastic critical moment is given by:

𝜋 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑊
𝑀𝑐𝑟 𝐸 = √𝐺𝐼𝑇 𝐸𝐼𝑍 (1 + 2 )
𝐿 𝐿 𝐺𝐼𝑇

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Figure 3-16 – Lateral-torsional buckling in a doubly symmetric I section under constant

bending moment
Where;
Iz is the second moment of area in relation to z axis (weak axis),
IT is the torsion constant,
Iw is the warping constant,
L is the length between laterally braced cross sections of the beam and
E and G are the longitudinal modulus and the shear modulus of elasticity, respectively.
This Equation, in spite of being derived for a member with an I or H cross section, is valid for
members with other doubly symmetric cross sections.
By inspection of the above equation, it is observed that the critical moment of a member under
bending depends on several factors, such as:
 loading (shape of the bending moment diagram);
 support conditions;
 length of the member between laterally braced cross sections;
 lateral bending stiffness (EIz);
 torsion stiffness (EIT);
 warping stiffness(EIw).
Besides these factors, the point of application of the loading also has a direct influence on the
elastic critical moment of a beam. A gravity load applied below the shear center C (that
coincides with the centroid, in case of doubly symmetric I or H sections) has a stabilizing effect
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(Mcr, 1>Mcr), whereas the same load applied above this point has a destabilizing effect
(Mcr<Mcr,2), as illustrated in Figure 3-17. The calculation of the critical moment for design of
a beam must also incorporate this effect.

Figure 3-17 – Effect of the point of load’s application

Thus, the equation is valid for the calculation of the elastic critical moment of a simply
supported beam, with a doubly symmetric cross section and subjected to a constant bending
moment (the “standard case”). However, in reality, other situations often occur, such as beams
with non-symmetrical cross sections, with other support conditions, subject to different loading
patterns and, consequently, subject to different bending moment diagrams. The derivation of
an exact expression for the critical moment for each case is not practical, as this implies the
computation of differential equations of some complexity. Therefore, in practical applications
approximate formulae are used, which are applicable to a wide set of situations.
For members subject to bending about the strong axis, with cross sections mono-symmetric
about the weak z-axis (see Figure 3.59), for several support conditions and types of loading;

Figure 3-18 – Sections mono-symmetric about the weak axis

the elastic critical moment can be estimated by

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 𝑘 2 𝐼 (𝑘 𝐿)2 𝐺𝐼𝑇 2

𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶1 { √( 𝑧 ) + 𝑤 + 𝑧 + (𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 − 𝐶3 𝑧𝑗 ) − (𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 − 𝐶3 𝑧𝑗 )}
(𝑘𝑧 𝐿)2 𝑘𝑤 𝐼𝑧 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧

where,
 C1, C2 and C3 are coefficients depending on the shape of the bending moment diagram
and on support conditions, given in Table 3-1and Table 3-2 for some usual situations
(Boissonnade et al, 2006); in the Table 3-1and Table 3-2 the support conditions are
those of the “standard case”, however, lateral bending restraints and warping restraints
may be taken into account through the parameters kz and kw described below;

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 kz and kw are effective length factors that depend on the support conditions at the end
sections. Factor kz is related to rotations at the end sections about the weak axis z, and
kw refers to warping restriction in the same cross sections. These factors vary between
0.5 (restrained deformations) and 1.0 (free deformations), and are equal to 0.7 in the
case of free deformations at one end and restrained at the other. Since in most practical
situations restraint is only partial, conservatively a value of kz = kw= 1.0 may be
adopted;
 𝑧𝑔 = (𝑧𝑎 − 𝑧𝑠 ), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧𝑠 are the coordinates of the point of application of the
load and of the shear center, relative to the centroid of the cross section; these
quantities are positive if located in the compressed part and negative if located in the
tension part;
 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑠 − [0.5 ∫(𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )(𝑧⁄𝐼𝑦 )𝑑𝐴] is a parameter that reflects the degree of
asymmetry of the cross section in relation to the y axis. It is zero for beams with doubly
symmetric cross section (such as I or H cross sections with equal flanges) and takes
positive values when the flange with the largest second moment of area about z is the
compressed flange, at the cross section with maximum bending moment;
Table 3-1– Coefficients C1 and C3 for beams with end moments

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Table 3-2– Coefficients C1, C2 and C3 for beams with transverse loads

In case of mono-symmetric, I or H cross sections, Tables 3-1 and 3-2 must only be used if the
following condition is verified:
−0.9 ≤ 𝜓𝑓 ≤ 0.9

In practical applications, it is often necessary to calculate the elastic critical moment in beams
or beams segments with bending moment distributions resulting from the combined effect of
transverse loads applied along the segment and end moments (e.g. a span of a continuous
beam).
3.2.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Resistance (Clause 6.3.2.1 of EN1993-1-1)

(1) A laterally unrestrained member subject to major axis bending should be verified against
lateral torsional buckling as follows:

𝑀𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑

Where, MEd is the design value of the bending moment and Mb,Rd is the design buckling
resistance

(2) Beams with sufficient restraint to the compression flange are not susceptible to lateral-
torsional buckling. In addition, beams with certain types of cross-sections, such as square
or circular hollow sections, fabricated circular tubes or square box sections are not
susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling.
(3) The design buckling resistance moment of a laterally unrestrained beam should be taken
as:

𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑏.𝑅𝑑 = 𝒳𝐿𝑇 𝑊𝑦
𝛾𝑀1

Where, 𝑊𝑦 is the appropriate section modulus as follows:

𝑊𝑦 = 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

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𝑊𝑦 = 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑊𝑦 = 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑓𝑓,𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝒳𝐿𝑇 is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling.

In EN1993-1-1 two methods for the calculation of the reduction coefficient 𝒳𝐿𝑇 in prismatic
members are proposed: a general method that can be applied to any type of cross section (more
conservative) and an alternative method that can be applied to rolled cross sections or
equivalent welded sections.
i) 𝓧𝑳𝑻 − General Method (Clause 6.3.2.2 of EN1993-1-1)
For bending members of constant cross-section, the value of 𝒳𝐿𝑇 for the appropriate non-
dimensional slenderness 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 should be determined from:
1
𝒳𝐿𝑇 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝒳𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1.0
2 2
Φ𝐿𝑇 + √Φ𝐿𝑇 − λ̅𝐿𝑇
2
𝑤ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑒, Φ𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 [1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 (λ̅𝐿𝑇 − 0.2) + λ̅𝐿𝑇 ]

𝛼𝐿𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑊𝑦 𝑓𝑦
λ̅𝐿𝑇 = √
𝑀𝑐𝑟

𝑀𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

Mcr is based on gross cross sectional properties and takes into account the loading conditions,
the real moment distribution and the lateral restraints.
The recommended values of imperfection factors 𝛼𝐿𝑇 for lateral torsional buckling curves are
given in Table 6.3, EN1993-1-1.
Buckling Curve a b c d
Imperfection factor 𝛼𝐿𝑇 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

The recommended values for lateral torsional buckling curves for cross sections are given in
Table 6.4, EN1993-1-1.

Values of the reduction factor 𝒳𝐿𝑇 for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness λ̅𝐿𝑇 may
be obtained from Figure 6.4, EN1993-1-1.

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𝑀 2
For slendernessλ̅𝐿𝑇 ≤ λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 (see 6.3.2.3,EN1993-1-1) or for 𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 (see 6.3.2.3,EN1993-
𝑐𝑟
1-1) lateral torsional buckling effects may be ignored and only cross sectional checks apply.
ii) 𝓧𝑳𝑻 − Alternative Method (Clause 6.3.2.3 of EN1993-1-1)
For rolled or equivalent welded sections in bending, the values of 𝒳𝐿𝑇 for the appropriate non-
dimensional slenderness may be determined from
𝒳𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1.0
1
𝒳𝐿𝑇 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 {𝒳 ≤ 1
2 𝐿𝑇 2
Φ𝐿𝑇 + √Φ𝐿𝑇 2 − 𝛽λ̅𝐿𝑇 λ̅𝐿𝑇

2
𝑤ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑒, Φ𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 [1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 (λ̅𝐿𝑇 − λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 ) + 𝛽λ̅𝐿𝑇 ]

𝛼𝐿𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑊𝑦 𝑓𝑦
λ̅𝐿𝑇 = √
𝑀𝑐𝑟

𝑀𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔

For the parameters λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 and 𝛽,the following values are recommended for rolled sections or
equivalent welded sections:
λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 = 0.4 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 0.75 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
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Recommendation for the selection of lateral torsional buckling curve for cross sections are
given in Table 6.5, EN1993-1-1.

For taking into account the moment distribution between the lateral restraints of members,
the reduction factor 𝒳𝐿𝑇 may be modified as follows:

𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 1.0
𝒳𝐿𝑇
𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 {𝒳 1
𝑓 𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 2
λ̅𝐿𝑇
The following minimum values are recommended for f:
2
𝑓 = 1 − 0.5(1 − 𝑘𝑐 ) [1 − 2.0(λ̅𝐿𝑇 − 0.8) ]
kc is a correction factor according to Table 6.6, EN1993-1-1.

3.2.3 Methods for improving the lateral-torsional buckling resistance

In practical situations, for given geometrical conditions, support conditions and assumed
loading, the lateral-torsional buckling behaviour of a member can be improved in two ways:
 by increasing the lateral bending and/or torsional stiffness, by increasing the section or
changing from IPE profiles to HEA or HEB or to closed hollow sections (square,
rectangular or circular);
 by laterally bracing along the member the compressed part of the section (the compressed
flange in the case of I or H sections).

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Usually, the second option is more economical, although sometimes it is not feasible. The
bracing members must connect the compressed zone of the cross sections with points with
negligible transverse displacement. Clause 6.3.2.4, EN1993-1-1 presents a simplified
methodology for the verification of lateral-torsional buckling in beams with discrete lateral
restraint to the compression flange. This is based on the slenderness of that flange. For non-
prismatic members, the resistance to lateral-torsional buckling must be obtained according to
clause 6.3.4, EN1993-1-1.
Example 3.4: A UB in grade S275 steel is required to carry loads over a span of 9.0 m. The
beam is laterally restrained at A, B, C and D but unrestrained between these points. The depth
of the beam must not exceed 425 mm, and the ceiling under the beam will be plastered. Choose
a suitable UB section.

Solution:
(I) Design load at ULS

𝐹𝐸𝑑 = 𝛾𝐺 𝐺𝑘 + 𝛾𝑄 𝑄𝑘
𝑃𝐵,𝐸𝑑 = 1.35 × 30 + 1.5 × 47 = 111.0𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝐶,𝐸𝑑 = 1.35 × 23 + 1.5 × 28 = 73.05𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑈𝐷𝐿,𝐸𝑑 = 1.35 × 1.3 = 1.755 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚

(II) Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

(III) Preliminary design for bending

Assuming class 1 or 2 cross sections, the following solution is obtained:
𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑

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𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦 𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝛾𝑀0
𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ ⟹ 𝑊𝑝𝑙 ≥
𝛾𝑀0 𝑓𝑦

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 = 210,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
} 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 3.2.6, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐺 = 81,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝛾𝑀0 (311 × 103 × 103 ) × 1.0
𝑊𝑝𝑙 ≥ = = 1,130.91 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑓𝑦 275

In order to satisfy this condition, a UB406x178x67 section (Wpl , y= 1346 cm3) is selected.
(IV) Cross section classification
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝐵406 × 178 × 67:
𝐴 = 85.5𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑏 = 178.8𝑚𝑚, ℎ = 409.4𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑓 = 14.3𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑤 = 8.8𝑚𝑚,

𝑟 = 10.2𝑚𝑚, 𝐼𝑦 = 24,330𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑦 = 16.9𝑐𝑚, 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 = 1,189𝑐𝑚3 ,

𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 1,346𝑐𝑚3 , 𝐼𝑧 = 1,365𝑐𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑧 = 3.99𝑐𝑚, 𝐼𝑇 = 46.1𝑐𝑚4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑤 = 0.533𝑑𝑚6

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:

𝑊𝑒𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 72𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 72 𝑎𝑛𝑑

275 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

409.4−2×14.3−2×10.2
𝑐𝑤 ⁄𝑡𝑤 𝜀 = = 44.52 < 72 → 𝑤𝑒𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
8.8×0.92

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

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 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 9𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑

235 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √275 = 0.92
𝑦

(178.8 − 8.8 − 2 × 10.2)⁄2

𝑐𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑓 𝜀 = = 5.69 < 9 → 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
14.3 × 0.92
Hence, as previously assumed, UB406x178x67cross sections in bending are class 1.
(V) Determine the elastic critical moment, Mcr
The elastic critical moment can be estimated by

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 𝑘 2 𝐼 (𝑘 𝐿)2 𝐺𝐼𝑇 2

𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶1 { √( 𝑧 ) + 𝑤 + 𝑧 + (𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 − 𝐶3 𝑧𝑗 ) − (𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 − 𝐶3 𝑧𝑗 )}
(𝑘𝑧 𝐿)2 𝑘𝑤 𝐼𝑧 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧

where,
 C1, C2 and C3 are coefficients depending on the shape of the bending moment diagram
and on support conditions
 kz and kw are effective length factors that depend on the support conditions at the end
sections.Since in most practical situations restraint is only partial, conservatively a
value of kz = kw= 1.0 may be adopted;
 𝑧𝑔 = (𝑧𝑎 − 𝑧𝑠 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧𝑠 are the coordinates of the point of application of the
load and of the shear center, relative to the centroid of the cross section;
 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑠 − [0.5 ∫(𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )(𝑧⁄𝐼𝑦 )𝑑𝐴] is a parameter that reflects the degree of
asymmetry of the cross section in relation to the y axis. It is zero for beams with doubly
symmetric cross section (such as I or H cross sections with equal flanges)
 The effective length of the segment, L is 3.0m.
 The ratio of the moment segment 𝜓 :
272.9
𝜓= = 0.88
311.0
From Table 3-1:
𝐼𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 = 0
𝐼𝑓 𝜓 = 1 → 𝐶1 = 1.00
3
𝐼𝑓 𝜓 = = 0.75 → 𝐶1 = 1.14
4

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𝑆𝑜 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜓 = 0.88 → 𝐶1 = 1.07

𝑧𝑗 = 0 → 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
∴ 𝐶3 𝑧𝑗 = 0

𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘𝑤 = 1

𝜋 2 × 210,000 × 1,365 × 104 1 2 0.533 × 1012 (1 × 3,000)2 × 81,000 × 46.1 × 104

𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1.07 × 2
{√( ) + + + (0)2 − 0} × 10−6
(1 × 3,000) 1 1,365 × 104 𝜋 2 × 210,000 × 1,365 × 104

𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 759.05𝑘𝑁𝑚

𝑀𝐸𝑑 2
For slenderness λ̅𝐿𝑇 ≤ λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 or for ≤ λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 lateral torsional buckling effects may be
𝑀𝑐𝑟
ignored and only cross sectional checks apply.

𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑦 1,346 × 103 × 275

λ̅𝐿𝑇 = √ =√ = 0.70
𝑀𝑐𝑟 759.05 × 106

λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 = 0.4 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)

𝑀𝐸𝑑 311 2
λ̅𝐿𝑇 = 0.7 ≰ λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 = 0.4 𝑜𝑟 = = 0.41 ≰ λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 = 0.42 = 0.16
𝑀𝑐𝑟 759.05
Therefore, we need to consider Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB).
(VI) Verification against lateral torsional buckling

A laterally unrestrained member subject to major axis bending should be verified against lateral
torsional buckling as follows:

𝑀𝐸𝑑
≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑

𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑏.𝑅𝑑 = 𝒳𝐿𝑇 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀1

MEd is the design value of the bending moment and Mb,Rd is the design buckling resistance

In order to calculate 𝒳𝐿𝑇 we will use the alternative method.

𝓧𝑳𝑻 − Alternative Method (Clause 6.3.2.3 of EN1993-1-1)
For rolled or equivalent welded sections in bending, the values of 𝒳𝐿𝑇 for the appropriate non-
dimensional slenderness may be determined from
𝒳𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1.0
1
𝒳𝐿𝑇 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 {𝒳 ≤ 1
2 𝐿𝑇 2
Φ𝐿𝑇 + √Φ𝐿𝑇 2 − 𝛽λ̅𝐿𝑇 λ̅𝐿𝑇

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2
𝑤ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑒, Φ𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 [1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 (λ̅𝐿𝑇 − λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 ) + 𝛽λ̅𝐿𝑇 ]

λ̅𝐿𝑇 = 0.70
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 759.05𝑘𝑁𝑚
λ̅𝐿𝑇,0 = 0.4 𝑎 𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 0.75
ℎ 409.4
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐼 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑏
= 178.8 = 2.29 > 2 → 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.5, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)

𝛼𝐿𝑇 = 0.49 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐 (Table 6.3, EN1993 − 1 − 1)

Φ𝐿𝑇 = 0.5[1 + 0.49(0.7 − 0.4) + 0.75 × 0.72 ] = 0.76

1 1
𝒳𝐿𝑇 = = = 0.821
2 0.76 + √0.762 − 0.75 × 0.72
Φ𝐿𝑇 + √Φ𝐿𝑇 2 − 𝛽λ̅𝐿𝑇
𝒳𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1.0
𝒳𝐿𝑇 = 0.821 𝑏𝑢𝑡 {𝒳 1 1
𝐿𝑇 ≤ 2 = = 2.04
λ̅𝐿𝑇 0.72
∴ 𝒳𝐿𝑇 = 0.821
For taking into account the moment distribution between the lateral restraints of members,
the reduction factor 𝒳𝐿𝑇 may be modified as follows:

𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 1.0
𝒳𝐿𝑇
𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 {𝒳 1
𝑓 𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 2
λ̅𝐿𝑇
The following minimum values are recommended for f:
2
𝑓 = 1 − 0.5(1 − 𝑘𝑐 ) [1 − 2.0(λ̅𝐿𝑇 − 0.8) ]
kc is a correction factor according to Table 6.6, EN1993-1-1.
272.9
𝜓= = 0.88
311.0
1 1
−1 ≤ 𝜓 ≤ 1 ⇒ 𝑘𝑐 = = = 0.96
1.33 − 0.33𝜓 1.33 − 0.33 × 0.88
𝑓 = 1 − 0.5(1 − 0.96)[1 − 2.0(0.7 − 0.8)2 ] = 0.98
𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 1.0
0.82
𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 = = 0.854 𝑏𝑢𝑡 {𝒳 1 1
0.96 𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 2 = 0.72 = 2.04
λ̅𝐿𝑇
∴ 𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 0.854
𝑓𝑦 275
𝑀𝑏.𝑅𝑑 = 𝒳𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 0.854 × 1,346 × 103 × 10−6 = 316.11𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝛾𝑀1 1.0

𝑀𝐸𝑑 311
= = 0.984 ≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 316.11
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The bending strength of UB406x178x67 is sufficient

(VII) Verification of shear force
 The design value of the shear force VEd at each cross section shall satisfy:
𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛, 𝑉𝑐,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3)
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝛾𝑀0
For rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

h may be conservatively taken equal 1.0.

𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓 + (𝑡𝑤 + 2𝑟)𝑡𝑓 ≥ 𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤

𝜂ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 = 1 × (40.94 − 2 × 1.43) × 0.88 = 35.51𝑐𝑚2
𝐴𝑣 = 85.5 − 2 × 17.88 × 1.43 + (0.88 + 2 × 1.02) × 1.43 = 38.54𝑐𝑚2 > 35.51𝑐𝑚2 𝑜𝑘!
∴ 𝐴𝑣 = 38.54𝑐𝑚2

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3) 38.54 × 102 (275⁄√3)

𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 611.9𝑘𝑁 > 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 106.3𝑘𝑁 𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
(VIII) Shear buckling of unstiffened web
ℎ𝑤 72
 For an unstiffened web, > 𝜀 should be checked for resistance to shear buckling and
𝑡𝑤 𝜂
should be provided with transverse stiffeners at the supports. But, shear buckling of the
ℎ𝑤 72
unstiffened web need not be considered for ≤ 𝜀.
𝑡𝑤 𝜂

72 72
𝜀= × 0.92 = 66.24
𝜂 1
ℎ𝑤 40.94 − 2 × 1.43 72
= = 43.27 < 𝜀 = 66.24 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
𝑡𝑤 0.88 𝜂
⟹ 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏.
Therefore, the UB406x178x67 cross section meets the requirements concerning shear force.
(IX) Bending – shear force interaction
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Where the shear force is less than half the plastic shear resistance its effect on the moment
resistance may be neglected except where shear buckling reduces the section resistance, see
EN 1993-1-5.
611.9
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 106.3𝑘𝑁 < 50%𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = 305.95𝑘𝑁
2
It is not necessary to reduce the bending resistance to account for the shear force.
(X) Deformation Verification: serviceability limit state unfactored imposed actions

A simple approach is to find the distributed load that would cause the same maximum bending
moment, then to check whether the deflection caused by that distributed load is acceptable.
𝑤𝐿2 𝑤 × 92
122.1𝑘𝑁𝑚 = = → 𝑤 = 12.06 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
8 8
5 𝑤𝐿4 5 12.06 × 9,0004
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × = × = 20.16𝑚𝑚
384 𝐸𝐼𝑦 384 210,000 × 24,330 × 104

Vertical deflection limit:

𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 9,000
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20.16𝑚𝑚 < = = 25.7𝑚𝑚 − − − −𝑜𝑘!
350 350
The UB406x178x67 cross section meets the deflection criteria.

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4 Design of beam- column members

4.1 Introduction

Beam-columns are structural members, which combine the beam function of transmitting
transverse forces or moments with the compression (or tension) member function of
transmitting axial forces. Figure 3.66 shows examples of members subject to bending and axial
force. The behaviour of such members results from the combination of both effects and varies
with slenderness. At low slenderness, the cross sectional resistance dominates. With increasing
slenderness, pronounced second-order effects appear, significantly influenced by both
geometrical imperfections and residual stresses. Finally, in the high slenderness range,
buckling is dominated by elastic behaviour, failure tending to occur by flexural buckling
(typical of members in pure compression) or by lateral-torsional buckling (typical of members
in bending).

Figure 4-1 – Steel members subjected to bending and axial force

The behaviour of a member under bending and axial force results from the interaction between
instability and plasticity and is influenced by geometrical and material imperfections. The
verification of the safety of members subject to bending and axial force is made in two steps:

 Verification of the resistance of cross sections.

 Verification of the member buckling resistance (in general governed by flexural or
lateral-torsional buckling).
4.2 Bending and Axial Force (Clause 6.2.9 of EN1993-1-1)
4.2.1 Class 1 and 2 Cross Sections

Where an axial force is present, allowance should be made for its effect on the plastic moment
resistance.

For class 1 and 2 cross sections, the fol1owing criterion shall be satisfied:

𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑

Where, MN,Rd is the design plastic moment resistance reduced due to the axial force NEd.

For a rectangular solid section without fastener holes MN,Rd should be taken as:
2
𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 [1 − (𝑁𝐸𝑑 ⁄𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 ) ]

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For doubly symmetrical I- and H-sections or other flanges sections, allowance need not be
made for the effect of the axial force on the plastic resistance moment about the y-y axis when
both the following criteria are satisfied:

0.5ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 0.25𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤
𝛾𝑀0

For doubly symmetrical I- and H-sections, allowance need not be made for the effect of the
axial force on the plastic resistance moment about the z-z axis when:

0.5ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤
𝛾𝑀0

For bi-axial bending, the following criterion may be used:

𝛼 𝛽
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
[ ] +[ ] ≤1
𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 𝑀𝑁,𝑧,𝑅𝑑

𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:

 I and H sections:
𝛼 = 2; 𝛽 = 5𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛽 ≥ 1

 circular hollow sections:

𝛼 = 2; 𝛽=2

𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑁,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 (1 − 𝑛1.7 )

 rectangular hollow sections:

1.66
𝛼=𝛽=
1 − 1.13𝑛2
𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

MN,y,Rd is the reduced plastic moment resistances about y - axis

MN,z,Rd is the reduced plastic moment resistances about z-axis

For cross-sections where fastener holes are not to be accounted for, the following
approximations may be used for standard rolled I or H sections and for welded I or H sections
with equal flanges:

1−𝑛
𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑
1 − 0.5a

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≤ a: 𝑀𝑁,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑

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𝑛−a 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > a: 𝑀𝑁,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 [1 − ( ) ]
1−a

𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓
where n = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 a = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 a ≤ 0.5
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 𝐴

For cross-sections where fastener holes are not to be accounted for, the following
approximations may be used for rectangular structural hollow sections of uniform thickness
and for welded box sections with equal flanges and equal webs:

1−𝑛
𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑
1 − 0.5a𝑤

1−𝑛
𝑀𝑁,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑁,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑
1 − 0.5a𝑓

where;

𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡
a𝑤 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 a𝑤 ≤ 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴
𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡𝑓
a𝑤 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 a𝑤 ≤ 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴
𝐴 − 2ℎ𝑡
a𝑓 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 a𝑓 ≤ 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴
𝐴 − 2ℎ𝑡𝑤
a𝑓 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 a𝑓 ≤ 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴
𝑁𝐸𝑑
n=
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

4.2.2 Class 3 cross-sections

In the absence of shear force, for Class 3 cross-sections the maximum longitudinal stress shall
satisfy the criterion:

𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝐷 ≤
𝛾𝑀0

Where 𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝐷 is the design value of the local longitudinal stress due to moment and axial force
taking account of fastener holes where relevant, see 6.2.3, 6.2.4 and 6.2.5 of EN1993-1-1.
4.2.3 Class 4 cross-sections

In the absence of shear force, for Class 4 cross-sections the maximum longitudinal stress 𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝐷
calculated using the effective cross sections (see 5.5.2(2), EN1993-1-1) shall satisfy the
criterion:
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𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝐷 ≤
𝛾𝑀0

Where 𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝐷 is the design value of the longitudinal stress due to moment and axial force taking
account of fastener holes where relevant, see 6.2.3, 6.2.4 and 6.2.5 of EN1993-1-1.
𝑓𝑦
As an alternative to the criterion of 𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝐷 ≤ 𝛾 , the following simplified criterion may be
𝑀0
used:

𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 + 𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑒𝑁𝑦 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 + 𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑒𝑁𝑧

+ + ≤1
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑦,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑧,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦 ⁄𝛾𝑀0

Where;

Aeff is the effective area of the cross-section when subjected to uniform compression

Weff,min is the effective section modulus (corresponding to the fiber with the maximum elastic
stress) of the cross-section when subjected only to moment about the relevant axis

eN is the shift of the relevant centroidal axis when the cross-section is subjected to compression
only, sec 6.2.2.5(4), EN1993-1-1.

NOTE The signs of NEd, My,Ed , Mz,Ed and ∆Mi =NEd eNi depend on the combination of the
respective direct stresses.
4.3 Bending, shear and axial force (Clause 6.2.10 of EN1993-1-1)

Where shear and axial force are present, allowance should be made for the effect of both shear
force and axial force on the resistance moment.

Provided that the value of the shear force VEd does not exceed 50% of the design plastic shear
resistance Vpl,Rd no reduction of the resistances defined for bending and axial force in clause
6.2.9, EN1993-1-1 need be made, except where shear buckling reduces the section resistance,
see EN 1993-1-5.
Where VEd exceeds 50% of Vpl,Rd the design resistance of the cross-section to combinations
of moment and axial force should be calculated using a reduced yield strength (1 − 𝜌)𝑓𝑦 for
2
2𝑉𝐸𝑑
the shear area, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜌 = (𝑉 − 1) and VpLRd is obtained from 6.2.6(2), EN1993-1-1.
𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑

NOTE: Instead of reducing the yield strength also, the plate thickness of the relevant part of
the cross section may be reduced.
4.4 Member stability (Clause 6.3.3 of EN1993-1-1)

(1) Unless second order analysis is carried out using the imperfections as given in clause 5.3.2
of EN1993-1-1, the stability of uniform members with double symmetric cross sections for
sections not susceptible to distortional deformations should be checked as given in the
following clauses, where a distinction is made for:
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 members that are not susceptible to torsional deformations, e.g. circular hollow sections
or sections restraint from torsion. Here, flexural buckling is the relevant instability mode.
 members that are susceptible to torsional deformations, e.g. members with open cross
sections (I or H sections) and not restraint from torsion. Here, lateral torsional buckling
tends to be the relevant instability mode.
(2) In addition, the resistance of the cross-sections at each end of the member should satisfy
the requirements given in clause 6.2 of EN1993-1-1.
NOTE 1 The interaction formulae are based on the modelling of simply supported single span
members with end fork conditions and with or without continuous lateral restraints, which are
subjected to compression forces, end moments and/or transverse loads.
NOTE 2 In case the conditions of application expressed in (1) and (2) are not fulfilled, see
clause 6.3.4 of EN1993-1-1.
(3) For members of structural systems the resistance check may be carried out on the basis of
the individual single span members regarded as cut out of the system. Second order effects
of the sway system (P-∆-effects) have to be taken into account, either by the end moments
of the member or by means of appropriate buckling lengths respectively, see 5.2.2(3)c) and
5.2.2(8), EN1993-1-1.
(4) Members which are subjected to combined bending and axial compression should satisfy:
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 + ∆𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 + ∆𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑦𝑦 + 𝑘𝑦𝑧 ≤ 1 − − − − − −(4𝑎)
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑧,𝑅𝑘
𝛾𝑀1 𝑥 𝐿𝑇 𝛾 𝛾𝑀1
𝑀1

𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 + ∆𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 + ∆𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑

+ 𝑘𝑧𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧𝑧 ≤ 1 − − − − − −(4𝑏)
𝑥𝑧 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑧,𝑅𝑘
𝛾𝑀1 𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝛾 𝛾𝑀1
𝑀1

Where,
𝑁𝐸𝑑 , 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 are the design values of the compression force and the maximum
moments about the y-y and z-z axis along the member, respectively
∆𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 are the moments due to the shift of the centroidal axis according to clause
6.2.9.3 of EN1993-1-1 for class 4 sections, see Table 6.7,EN1993-1-1
𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑧 are the reduction factors due to flexural buckling from clause 6.3.1 of EN1993-1-1.

𝑥𝐿𝑇 is the reduction factor due to lateral torsional buckling from clause 6.3.2 of EN1993-1-1.

𝑘𝑦𝑦 , 𝑘𝑦𝑧 , 𝑘𝑧𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑧𝑧 are the interaction factors

NOTE For members not susceptible to torsional deformation 𝑥𝐿𝑇 would be 𝑥𝐿𝑇 = 1.0.
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(5) The interaction factors kyy, kyz , kzy, kzz depend on the method which is chosen.
The interaction factors kyy, kyz , kzy, and kzz have been derived from two alternative approaches.
Values of these factors may be obtained from Annex A (alternative method 1) or from Annex
B (alternative method 2) of EN1993-1-1.
In EN1993-1-1 two methods are given for the calculation of the interaction factors kyy, kyz , kzy,
and kzz; Method 1, developed by a group of French and Belgian researchers, and Method 2,
developed by a group of Austrian and German researchers (Boissonnade et al, 2006).
NOTE For simplicity verifications may be performed in the elastic range only.
In members that are not susceptible to torsional deformation, it is assumed that there is no risk
of lateral torsional buckling. The stability of the member is then verified by checking against
flexural buckling about y and about z. This procedure requires application of expressions (4a)
(flexural buckling around y) and (4b) (flexural buckling around z), considering xLT = 1.0 and
calculating the interaction factors kyy, kyz , kzy, and kzz for a member not susceptible to torsional
deformation.
In members that are susceptible to torsional deformation, it is assumed that lateral torsional
buckling is more critical. In this case, expressions (4a) and (4b) should be applied, with xLT
evaluated according to clause 6.3.2, EN1993-1-1 and calculating the interaction factors for a
member susceptible to torsional deformation.
According to Method 1, a member is not susceptible to torsional deformations if IT ≥ Iy, where
IT and Iy are the torsion constant and the second moment of area about y, respectively. If the
section is such that IT < Iy, but there are lateral restraints along the member, this situation could
still be considered as not susceptible to torsional deformations, if the following condition is
verified:

4 𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝜆̅0 ≤ 0.2√𝐶1 √(1 − ) (1 − ) − − − (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴. 1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1)
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑧 𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑇𝐹

Next, the following tables from Annex A of EN1993-1-1 are presented, for the calculation of
the interaction factors according to Method 1.

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According to Method 2, the following members may be considered as not susceptible to

torsional deformation:
 members with circular hollow sections;
 members with rectangular hollow sections but, according to some authors (Kaim, 2004),
only if 𝑏⁄ℎ ≤ 10⁄𝜆̅𝑧 , where h and b are the depth and width of the cross section
respectively, and 𝜆̅𝑧 is the non-dimensional slenderness relative to the z axis;
 members with open cross section, provided that they are torsionally and laterally restrained.
According to Boissonnade et al, (2006) a member with open I or H section, restrained by
continuous restraints, may be classified as not susceptible to torsional deformation if the
conditions predicted in the Annex BB.2 of EN1993-1-1 are fulfilled; other situations must
be demonstrated (Boissonnade et al, (2006).
Members of open section, such as I or H sections, are considered as members susceptible to
torsional deformations if they are not adequately torsionally and laterally restrained. Laterally
restrained means that the cross section is laterally restrained at the compression level.
For the calculation of the interaction factors according to Method 2, tables from Annex B of
EN3-1-1 are presented.

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Example 4.1: Consider column A-B that supports a steel cantilever B-C, represented in Figure
4-2. The column is fixed at section A, while the top section (B) is free to rotate, but restrained
from horizontal displacements in both directions. The column has a rectangular hollow section
RHS200x150x8 mm in S 355 steel (E = 210GPa and G = 81GPa). Assuming that the indicated
loading is already factored for ULS, verify the column according to EN1993-1-1.

Figure 4-2 – Hot-finished rectangular hollow section structure

Solution
1) Internal force diagrams
For the given design loading, the internal force diagrams are represented in Figure 3.71

Figure 4-3– Internal force diagrams

2) Classification of the cross section
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10210 − 1)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 = 210,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
} 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 3.2.6, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐺 = 81,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2

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The relevant geometrical characteristics of a SHS 200x150x8 mm are the following:

𝐴 = 52.8𝑐𝑚2 , ℎ = 200𝑚𝑚, 𝑏 = 150𝑚𝑚, 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚, 𝐼𝑦 = 2,970𝑐𝑚4 ,

𝑖𝑦 = 7.50𝑐𝑚, 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 = 297𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 = 359𝑐𝑚3 , 𝐼𝑧 = 1,890𝑐𝑚4 ,

𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 = 253𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 = 294𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑖𝑧 = 5.99𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑇 = 3,640𝑐𝑚4

As the cross section of the member is already known, the verification of its class is carried out
according to clause 5.5, EN1993-1-1. For a member subjected to varying bending and
compression, the class of the cross section may vary along the member. While this does not
introduce any type of difficulty in the verification of the cross section resistance (each section
is designed according to its own class), it is more difficult to define the class of the cross section
for the verification of the member’s stability, as this is a global verification. In this example, a
simplified approach is adopted, whereby the class of the cross section is verified for the most
unfavourable situation (compressed section only). Thus, for the longer side, according to Table
5.2 in EN1993-1-1,
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟓. 𝟐 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑵𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑 − 𝟏 − 𝟏:
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 ∶ 𝑐⁄𝑡 ≤ 33𝜀 ⟹ 𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≤ 33 𝑎𝑛𝑑

275 235
 𝜀= √𝑓 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) ⟹ 𝜀 = √355 = 0.81
𝑦

ℎ−3𝑡 200−3×8
𝑐⁄𝑡𝜀 ≈ = = 27.16 < 33 → 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
𝑡𝜀 8×0.81

The cross section is class 1 in compression and can be treated as a class 1 cross section for any
other combination of stresses.
3) Verification of the cross section resistance

Where, MN,Rd is the design plastic moment resistance reduced due to the axial force NEd.
The design resistance for bending about one principal axis of a cross-section is determined as
follows (6.2.5(2), EN1993-1-1):
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑦 359 × 103 × 355
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−6 = 127.45𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝛾𝑀0 1.0

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The design resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be
determined as follows (6.2.4(2), EN1993-1-1):
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝛾𝑀0
𝐴𝑓𝑦 52.8 × 102 × 355
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 1,874.4𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀0 1.0

For cross-sections where fastener holes are not to be accounted for, the following
approximations may be used for rectangular structural hollow sections of uniform thickness
and for welded box sections with equal flanges and equal webs (6.2.9.1(5), EN1993-1-1):

1−𝑛
𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑
1 − 0.5a𝑤

𝐴 − 2𝑏𝑡 5280 − 2 × 150 × 8

a𝑤 = = = 0.55, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 a𝑤 ≤ 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴 5280
∴ a𝑤 = 0.5
𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 965𝑘𝑁
𝑁𝐸𝑑 965
n= = = 0.515
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 1,874.4
1 − 0.515
𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 127.45 × = 82.42 < 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 127.45𝑘𝑁𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
1 − 0.5 × 0.5
∴ 𝑀𝑁,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 = 82.42𝑘𝑁𝑚

𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

⟹ 𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 67.5𝑘𝑁𝑚 < 𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑 = 82.42𝑘𝑁𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘!

4) Verification of shear resistance(6.2.6(1)-(3), EN1993-1-1)
For plastic design, the design value of the shear force VEd at each cross section shall satisfy

𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3)
𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
For rolled rectangular hollow sections of uniform thickness and load parallel to depth, the shear
area (Av) given by
𝐴ℎ 5280 × 200
𝐴𝑣 = = = 3,017.14𝑚𝑚
𝑏+ℎ 150 + 200
𝐴𝑣 (𝑓𝑦 ⁄√3) 3017.14(355⁄√3)
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 16.9𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑝𝑙 = = × 10−3 = 618.39𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
The resistance to shear is satisfactory.

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5) Shear buckling of unstiffened web(6.2.6(6), EN1993-1-1)

ℎ𝑤 72
 For an unstiffened web, > 𝜀 should be checked for resistance to shear buckling and
𝑡𝑤 𝜂
should be provided with transverse stiffeners at the supports. But, shear buckling of the
ℎ𝑤 72
unstiffened web need not be considered for ≤ 𝜀.
𝑡𝑤 𝜂

72 72
𝜀= × 0.8 = 58.32
𝜂 1
ℎ𝑤 ℎ − 3𝑡 200 − 3 × 8 72
≈ = = 22 < 𝜀 = 58.32 − − − 𝑜𝑘!
𝑡𝑤 𝑡 8 𝜂
⟹ 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑏.
6) Verification of the interaction of bending and compression with shear
Where shear and axial force are present, allowance should be made for the effect of both shear
force and axial force on the resistance moment.
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 16.9𝑘𝑁 < 50%𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 0.5 × (618.39) = 309.20𝑘𝑁

According to 6.2.10(2), EN1993-1-1, when 𝑉𝐸𝑑 < 50%𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 no reduction of the resistances
defined for bending and axial force in clause 6.2.9, EN1993-1-1 need be made, except where
shear buckling reduces the section resistance, see EN 1993-1-5.
7) Verification of the stability of the member
For the beam-column subject to uniaxial bending (about y) and compression, using a class 1
section, the following conditions must be verified(6.3.3(4), EN1993-1-1):
𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.7, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1) ∆𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 = ∆𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 = 0
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑦𝑦 ≤1
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘
𝛾𝑀1 𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝛾
𝑀1

𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑧𝑦 ≤1
𝑥𝑧 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘
𝛾𝑀1 𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝛾
𝑀1

a) Characteristic resistance of the section

𝑁𝑅𝑘 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 = 5280 × 355 × 10−3 = 1,874.4𝑘𝑁
𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.7, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1 ⟹ { 3
𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘 = 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑦 = 359 × 10 × 355 × 10−6 = 127.45𝑘𝑁𝑚

b) 𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑧 are the reduction factors due to flexural buckling from clause 6.3.1 of EN1993-
1-1.
(I) Determination of the slenderness coefficients
Slenderness for flexural buckling;

𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
𝜆̅ = √ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖 𝜆1
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𝐸 235
𝜆1 = 𝜋√ = 93.9𝜀 , 𝜀= √ 𝑓𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

235 235
𝜆1 = 93.9√ = 93.9√ = 76.40
𝑓𝑦 355

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥𝑧 (𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦): 𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = 0.7 × 6 = 4.2𝑚

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥𝑦 (𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑧): 𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = 0.7 × 6 = 4.2𝑚

𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 1 4.2 × 1000 1
𝜆̅𝑦 = = × = 0.733
𝑖𝑦 𝜆1 7.50 × 10 76.40
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑧 1 4.2 × 1000 1
𝜆̅𝑧 = = × = 0.918
𝑖𝑧 𝜆1 5.99 × 10 76.40
(II) Calculation of the reduction factor
For axial compression in members, the value of x for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ should be determined from the relevant buckling curve according to:
1
𝑥= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ≤ 1.0
Φ + √Φ2 − 𝜆2̅
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Φ = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̅ − 0.2) + 𝜆̅2 ]

𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 , 𝑆355

𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎
⟹ } 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.2 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑧 − 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝛼: 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎 (𝛼 = 0.21)} 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6.1, 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1
Φ𝑦 = 0.5[1 + 0.21 × (0.733 − 0.2) + 0.7332 ] = 0.825

Φ𝑧 = 0.5[1 + 0.21 × (0.918 − 0.2) + 0.9182 ] = 0.997

1
𝑥𝑦 = = 0.831
0.825 + √0.8252 − 0.7332

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1
𝑥𝑧 = = 0.722
0.997 + √0.9972 − 0.9182
c) 𝑥𝐿𝑇 is the reduction factor due to lateral torsional buckling from clause 6.3.2 of EN1993-
1-1.
Method 1: Since the member has a rectangular hollow section with IT=3640cm2 > Iy=2970cm2,
the member is not susceptible to torsional deformation, so flexural buckling constitutes the
relevant instability mode. Therefore it is not necessary to verify lateral-torsional buckling and
𝑥𝐿𝑇 = 1.0
Method 2: As the member has a rectangular hollow section, due to its high lateral bending and
torsional stiffness the verification of lateral torsional buckling is not required, and 𝑥𝐿𝑇 = 1.0
𝑏 150 10 10
= = 0.75 ≤ = = 10.89 − − − −𝑜𝑘!
ℎ 200 𝜆̅𝑧 0.918
d) 𝑘𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑧𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

The interaction factors 𝑘𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑧𝑦 can be obtained using one of the methods given in clause
6.3.3 of EN1993-1-1 Method 1 or Method 2; for the sake of comparison, both are used in this
example.
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝟏: 𝒌𝒚𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝒛𝒚

Plastic cross-sectional properties class 1

𝜇𝑦 1
𝑘𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦 𝐶𝑚𝐿𝑇
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝐶𝑦𝑦
1−𝑁
𝑐𝑟,𝑦

𝜇𝑧 1 𝑤𝑦
𝑘𝑧𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦 𝐶𝑚𝐿𝑇 0.6√
𝑁
1 − 𝑁 𝐸𝑑 𝐶𝑧𝑦 𝑤𝑧
𝑐𝑟,𝑦

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 𝜋 2 × 210 × 103 × 2970 × 104

𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 = = × 10−3 = 3,489.61𝑘𝑁
𝐿𝑐𝑟,𝑦 2 4,2002

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 𝜋 2 × 210 × 103 × 1890 × 104

𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑧 = = × 10−3 = 2,220.66𝑘𝑁
4,2002 4,2002
𝑁 965
1 − 𝑁 𝐸𝑑 1 − 3,489.61
𝑐𝑟,𝑦
𝜇𝑦 = = = 0.94
𝑁𝐸𝑑 965
1 − 𝑥𝑦
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦 1 − 0.831 ×
3,489.61
𝑁 965
1 − 𝑁 𝐸𝑑 1−
𝑐𝑟,𝑧 2,220.66
𝜇𝑧 = = = 0.82
𝑁 965
1 − 𝑥𝑧 𝑁 𝐸𝑑 1 − 0.722 ×
𝑐𝑟,𝑧 2,220.66
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 359
𝑤𝑦 = = = 1.21 ≤ 1.5 − −𝑜𝑘!
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 297

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𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑧 294
𝑤𝑍 = = = 1.16 ≤ 1.5 − −𝑜𝑘!
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑧 253
𝑁𝐸𝑑 965
𝑛𝑝𝑙 = = = 0.51
𝑁𝑅𝑘 ⁄𝛾𝑀0 1,874.4⁄1.0
𝐼𝑇 3,640
a𝐿𝑇 = 1 − =1− = −0.23 ≥ 0
𝐼𝑦 2,970
⟹ a𝐿𝑇 = 0
𝐴𝑠 a𝐿𝑇 = 0 ⟹ b𝐿𝑇 = d𝐿𝑇 = 0

𝜆̅𝑦 = 0.733
𝜆̅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 { ⟹ 𝜆̅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.918
𝜆̅𝑧 = 0.918
As the member is not susceptible to torsional deformations, in accordance with Table A.1 of
EN1993-1-1, the equivalent factors of uniform moment are defined by Cmy = Cmy,0 and CmLT
=1.0, where Cmy,0 is the factor obtained based on Table A.2 of EN1993-1-1. For a linear bending
moment diagram, with My,Ed,base =-33.8kNm and My,Ed,top = 67.5kNm

𝜓𝑦 = 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑,𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⁄𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑,𝑡𝑜𝑝 = −33.8⁄67.5 = −0.50

𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝐶𝑚𝑦,0 = 0.79 + 0.21𝜓𝑦 + 0.36(𝜓𝑦 − 0.33)
𝑁𝑐𝑟,𝑦
965
𝐶𝑚𝑦,0 = 0.79 + 0.21(−0.5) + 0.36(−0.5 − 0.33) = 0.60
3,489.61
𝐶𝑚𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦,0 = 0.60
1.6 2 1.6 2 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦
𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 1 + (𝑤𝑦 − 1) [(2 − 𝐶 𝑚𝑦 𝜆̅𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐶 𝑚𝑦 𝜆2̅ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑛𝑝𝑙 − 𝑏𝐿𝑇 ] ≥
𝑤𝑦 𝑤𝑦 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦
1.6 1.6 2
𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 1 + (1.21 − 1) [(2 − × 0.62 × 0.918 − × 0.62 × 0.918 ) × 0.51 − 0] = 1.124
1.21 1.21
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 297
𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 1.124 > = = 0.827 − − − − − − − 𝑜𝑘!
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 359

𝐶 2 𝑚𝑦 𝜆2̅ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦

𝐶𝑧𝑦 = 1 + (𝑤𝑦 − 1) [(2 − 14 × 5 ) 𝑛𝑝𝑙 − 𝑑𝐿𝑇 ] ≥ 0.6√
𝑤 𝑦 𝑤𝑧 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦

2
0.62 × 0.918
𝐶𝑧𝑦 = 1 + (1.21 − 1) [(2 − 14 ) × 0.51 − 0] = 1.039
1.215

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1.21 297
𝐶𝑧𝑦 = 1.039 > 0.6√ × = 0.845 − − − − − −𝑜𝑘!
1.16 359

𝜇𝑦 1 0.94 1
⟹ 𝑘𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦 𝐶𝑚𝐿𝑇 = 0.6 × 1 × = 0.694
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝐶𝑦𝑦 965 1.124
1−𝑁 1−
𝑐𝑟,𝑦 3,489.61

𝜇𝑧 1 𝑤𝑦 0.82 1 1.21
⟹ 𝑘𝑧𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦 𝐶𝑚𝐿𝑇 0.6√ = 0.6 × 1 × × 0.6√ = 0.401
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝐶𝑧𝑦 𝑤𝑧 965 1.039 1.16
1−𝑁 1−
𝑐𝑟,𝑦 3,489.61
Verification of the stability of the member-Method 1
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑦𝑦 ≤1
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘
𝑥𝐿𝑇
𝛾𝑀1 𝛾𝑀1
965 67.5
+ 0.694 × = 0.987 < 1 − − − − − −𝑜𝑘!
0.831 × 1,874.4 127.45
1.0 × 1.0
1.0
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑧𝑦 ≤1
𝑥𝑧 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘
1.0 𝑥𝐿𝑇
1.0
965 67.5
+ 0.401 × = 0.925 < 1 − − − − − −𝑜𝑘!
0.722 × 1,874.4 127.45
1.0 1.0 × 1.0
The rectangular hollow section 200x150x8 mm in S 355 steel is verified according to Method
1.
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝟐: 𝒌𝒚𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝒛𝒚

Because Method 2 only differs from Method 1 with respect to the interaction factors, the
calculation of these factors is done directly. As the member is not susceptible to torsional
deformations, the interaction factors must be obtained from Table B.1 of EN1993-1-1.
For RHS section and plastic cross-sectional properties class 1 (Table B.1 of EN1993-1-1)
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝑘𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦 (1 + (𝜆̅𝑦 − 0.2) ) ≤ 𝐶𝑚𝑦 (1 + 0.8 )
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 ⁄𝛾𝑀1 𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 ⁄𝛾𝑀1

𝑘𝑧𝑦 = 0.6𝑘𝑦𝑦

𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐼 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 &
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝑧𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑘𝑧𝑦 = 0 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐵. 1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1).

Cmy, Cmz and CmLT are the factor obtained based on Table B.3 of EN1993-1-1. For a linear
bending moment diagram, with My,Ed,base =-33.8kNm and My,Ed,top = 67.5kNm

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𝜓𝑦 = 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑,𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ⁄𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑,𝑡𝑜𝑝 = −33.8⁄67.5 = −0.50

𝐶𝑚𝑦 = 0.6 + 0.4𝜓𝑦 = 0.6 + 0.4 × (−0.5) = 0.4 ≥ 0.4 − − − 𝑜𝑘!

𝑁𝐸𝑑 965
𝑘𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝑚𝑦 (1 + (𝜆̅𝑦 − 0.2) ) = 0.4 (1 + (0.733 − 0.2) × )
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 ⁄𝛾𝑀1 0.831 × 1,874.4⁄1.0
𝑁𝐸𝑑 965
𝑘𝑦𝑦 = 0.532 ≤ 𝐶𝑚𝑦 (1 + 0.8 ) = 0.4 (1 + 0.8 × ) = 0.598 − 𝑜𝑘!
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 ⁄𝛾𝑀1 0.831 × 1,874.4⁄1.0
For a rectangular hollow section subject to compression and uniaxial bending about y, may be
assumed 𝑘𝑧𝑦 = 0
Verification of the stability of the member-Method 2
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑦𝑦 ≤1
𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘
𝑥𝐿𝑇
𝛾𝑀1 𝛾𝑀1
965 67.5
+ 0.532 × = 0.901 < 1 − − − − − −𝑜𝑘!
0.831 × 1,874.4 127.45
1.0 × 1.0
1.0
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑘𝑧𝑦 ≤1
𝑥𝑧 𝑁𝑅𝑘 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘
1.0 𝑥𝐿𝑇
1.0
965 67.5
+0× = 0.713 < 1 − − − − − −𝑜𝑘!
0.722 × 1,874.4 127.45
1.0 1.0 × 1.0
So that the rectangular hollow section 200x150x8 mm in S 355 steel is also verified by Method
2. It is noted that, for this case, Method 2 yields less conservative results than Method 1.

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5 Design of structural connections

All joints shall have a design resistance such that the structure is capable of satisfying all the
basic design requirements in EN1993-1-8 and in EN 1993-1-l.
The partial factors γM for joints are given in Table 2.1 of EN1993-1-8 (see Table 5-1).
Table 5-1: The partial factors γM for joints

Resistance of members and cross-sections Partial factors γM Recommended values

Resistance of bolts
Resistance of welds 𝛾𝑀2 1.25
Resistance of plates in bearing
Slip resistance
- at ultimate limit state (Category C) 𝛾𝑀3 1.25
- at serviceability limit state (Category B) 𝛾𝑀3,𝑠𝑒𝑟 1.1
Preload of high strength bolts 𝛾𝑀7 1.1

Joints subject to fatigue shall also satisfy the principles given in EN J 993-1-9.
5.1 Bolted Connections

In steel construction, the most typical mechanical fasteners to connect plates or profiles are
bolts, or more precisely: bolt assemblies (sets) including the bolt itself, a nut and one or more
washers, see Figure 5-1.

Figure 5-1: Bolt, nut and washer

The bolts may be preloaded to improve serviceability performance or fatigue resistance. Joints
made with preloaded bolts normally have a slight higher stiffness, but this effect is not taken
into account in the design rules. However, preloading requires a controlled tightening which
leads to additional work during erection.
All bolts, nut and washers should comply with the standards listed in section 1.2.4 of EN 1993-
1-8. Most important standards are EN 15048 (Non-preloaded structural bolting assemblies) for
non-preloaded bolts (CEN, 2007b) and EN 14399 (High strength structural bolting for
preloading) for preloaded bolts (CEN, 2015). Mechanical properties are specified in EN ISO
898 (CEN, 2013). The design rules in EN 1993-1-8 are valid for all bolt classes listed in Table
3.1 of EN 1993-1-8 (see Table 5-2), but the National Annex may exclude certain bolt classes.
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Table 5-2: Nominal values of the yield strength fyb and the ultimate tensile strength fub for
bolts

Bolt class 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

𝒇𝒚𝒃 ((𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎 ) 240 320 300 400 480 640 900
𝟐

𝒇𝒖𝒃 ((𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000

The name of the bolt classes indicates the nominal values of the ultimate tensile strength fub
and the yield strength fyb as follows. The name consists of two numbers separated by a dot. The
first number is the ultimate tensile strength fub divided by 100. The fractional part indicates the
ratio fyb/fub, for example for a 10.9 bolt, the ultimate tensile strength fub is 10 ×100 = 1000
(N/mm2) and the yield strength fyb is obtained as 1000 × 0.9 = 900 (N/mm2)
For preloaded bolt, only bolt assemblies of classes 8.8 and 10.9 may be used. Requirements for
controlled tightening are given in EN 1090 Part 2. Bolt areas for common sizes of structural
bolts are given in Table 5-3 where A is the gross section area and As is the tensile stress area
(treaded portion of the bolt).
Table 5-3: – Bolt areas in accordance with EN ISO 898 (CEN, 2013)

𝒅 (𝒎𝒎) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 36
𝑨 (𝒎𝒎 ) 78 113 154 201 254 314 380 452 573 707 1018
𝟐

𝑨𝒔 (𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 58 84 115 157 192 245 303 353 459 561 817
5.1.1 Categories of Bolted Connections (Clause 3.4 of EN1993-1-8)

EN 1993-1-8 distinguishes different categories of bolted connections. The two main categories,
dependent on the loading applied to the bolt, are shear connections and tension connections.
5.1.1.1 Shear connections

Shear connections (the bolt is subjected to shear) are subdivided into 3 sub-categories:

a) Category A: Bearing type

In this category bolts from class 4.6 up to and including class 10.9 should be used. No
preloading and special provisions for contact surfaces are required. The design ultimate shear
load (Fv,Ed) should not exceed the design shear resistance(Fv,Rd) nor the design bearing
resistance(Fb,Rd).

b) Category B: Slip-resistant at serviceability limit state

With regards to the design resistance at ultimate limit state, a category B connection should
meet the same requirement as a category A connection. In addition, at serviceability limit state,
the connection should be designed so that no slip will occur. Therefore, preloaded bolts should
be used. The design serviceability shear load (Fv,Ed,ser) should not exceed the design slip
resistance (Fs,Rd,ser). The design ultimate shear load (Fv,Ed) should not exceed the design shear
resistance(Fv,Rd) nor the design bearing resistance(Fb,Rd).

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c) Category C: Slip-resistant at ultimate limit state

In this category, slip should not occur at the ultimate limit state. This will result in most severe
design criteria for a shear connection. The design ultimate shear load will be transferred by
friction between the connected plates only. This means, in theory, the connection only need to
be checked for slip resistance. The design ultimate shear load (Fv,Ed) should not exceed the
design slip resistance (Fs,Rd) nor the design bearing resistance(Fb,Rd). In addition for a
connection in tension, the design plastic resistance of the net cross-section at bolt holes Nnet,Rd
( see 6.2.3 (4) of EN 1993-1-1), should be checked, at the ultimate limit state.

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑁𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0

Note. For category A and category B connections, if the connected plates are loaded in tension,
the design tension resistance Nt,Rd should be checked at ultimate limit state as well:

𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑

Where Nt,Rd is the smaller of the design plastic resistance of the gross cross section (Npl,Rd) and
the design ultimate resistance of the net cross section at holes for fasteners (Nu,Rd).

𝐴𝑓𝑦 0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = , 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0 𝛾𝑀2
5.1.1.2 Tension connections

In a tension connection the bolt is subjected to tension forces. Here, two sub-categories are
defined:

a) Category D: Non-preloaded

In this category bolts from class 4.6 up to and including class 10.9 should be used. No
preloading is required. This category should not be used where the connections are frequently
subjected to variations of tensile loading. However, they may be used in connections designed
to resist normal wind loads. The design criteria are as follow:

𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐵𝑝,𝑅𝑑

Where,

𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑 is the design tensile force per bolt for the ultimate limit state

𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 is the design tension resistance per bolt

𝐵𝑝,𝑅𝑑 is the design punching shear resistance of the bolt head and the nut

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b) Category E: preloaded

In preloaded tension connections, only bolt classes 8.8 and 10.9 should be used. This category
relates to connections which are frequently subjected to variations of loading, for example in
crane supporting structures. The design criteria are the same as for category D connection (non-
preloaded). Note that, for preloaded bolts, controlled tightening according to EN 1090 Part 2
is required.

The checks for these connections are summarized in Table 3.2 of EN 1993-1-8 (see Table 5-4).
When bolts are subjected to both shear and tension forces, interaction should also be checked.
If preloaded bolts are used in category A or category D connections where preloading is used
to improve for example serviceability performance or durability or where preloading is
required for execution purposes, but where preloading is not explicitly used in the design
checks for slip resistance, then the level of preload can differ from the requirements in EN 1090
Part 2. In this case, the National Annex can specify less strict requirements.
Table 5-4: Categories of bolted connections

Category Criteria Remarks

Shear connections
A Fv,Ed ≤ Fv,Rd No preloading required. Bolt classes
bearing type Fv,Ed ≤ Fb,Rd from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used.
B Fv,Ed,ser ≤ Fs,Rd,ser Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be
slip-resistant at Serviceability Fv,Ed ≤ Fv,Rd used. For slip resistance at serviceability
Fv,Ed ≤ Fb,Rd
C Fv,Ed ≤ Fs,Rd Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bo1ts should be
slip-resistant at ultimate Fv,Ed ≤ Fb,Rd used. For slip resistance at ultimate
∑ Fv,Ed ≤ Nnet,Rd
Tension connections
D Ft,Ed ≤ Ft,Rd No preloading required. Bolt classes
non-preloaded Ft,Ed ≤ Bp,Rd from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used.
E Ft,Ed ≤ Ft,Rd Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be
preloaded Ft,Ed ≤ Bp,Rd used.
Bolts subjected to both shear force and tensile force should also satisfy the criteria given in Table 3.4
of EN 1993-1-8 (see Table 5-9).
Where
𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 is the design shear force per bolt for the serviceability limit state;
𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑 is the design shear force per bolt for the ultimate limit state;
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 is the design shear resistance per bolt;
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 is the design bearing resistance per bolt;
𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 is the design slip resistance per bolt at the serviceability limit state;
𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 is the design slip resistance per bolt at the ultimate limit state;
𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑 is the design tensile force per bolt for the ultimate limit state;
𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 is the design tension resistance per bolt;
𝐵𝑝,𝑅𝑑 is the design punching shear resistance of the bolt head and the nut.

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5.1.2 Bolt performance in the connection

The ultimate strength of bolted connections is evaluated assuming simplifications on the

redistribution of internal forces as suggested by experimental evidence. Considering the load
transfer across the joint, bolts may behave as either:

1) Bearing-type bolts. This means that the plates joined are restricted from moving primarily
by the bolt shank;
2) Pre-loaded friction-grip connection made with high-strength bolts. This means that the
plates are clamped together by the tension induced in the bolts by tightening them; or
3) Bolts in tension.
5.1.3 Dimensions of holes

Bolt holes are larger than bolt shanks in order to allow an easy placement of the bolt.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜: 𝑑𝑜 = 𝑑 + 𝑐

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑑𝑜 = ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

The nominal clearance c, is defined as:

 the difference between the nominal hole diameter and the nominal bolt diameter for
round holes;
 the difference between respectively the length or the width of the hole and the
nominal bolt diameter for slotted holes.
The nominal clearances for bolts not intended to act in fitted conditions shall be as specified
in Table 1.1 of EN 1090-2 (see Table 5-5).
Table 5-5: Nominal clearances for bolts pins (mm)

diameter of bolt (d), mm 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 ≥27

a bc
Normal round holes 1 2 3
Oversize round holes 3 4 6 8
d
Short slotted holes (on the length) 4 6 8 10
d
Long slotted holes (on the length) 1.5d
a
For applications such as towers and masts the nominal clearance for normal round holes shall be
reduced by 0,5 mm unless otherwise specified.

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b
For coated fasteners, 1 mm nominal clearance can be increased by the coating thickness of the fastener.
c
Bolts with nominal diameter 12 and 14 mm, or countersunk bolts may also be used in 2 mm clearance
holes under conditions given in EN 1993-1-8.
d
For bolts in slotted holes the nominal clearances across the width shall be the same as the clearances
on diameter specified for normal round holes.

For fit bolts the nominal hole diameter shall be equal to the shank diameter of the bolt.
NOTE For fit bolts to EN 14399-8 the nominal diameter of the shank is 1mm larger than
nominal diameter of the threaded portion.
5.1.4 Positioning of Bolt Holes (Clause 3.5 of EN1993-1-8)

In bolted connections, independently of the type of loading, the bolt holes must fulfil certain
requirements with respect to minimum and maximum spacing between the holes, end distances
and edge distances. These requirements are given in Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8 (see Table 5-6).
The symbols for the spacing and distances are defined in Figure 3.1 of EN 1993-1-8. Note that
these limits are valid for predominantly static loaded joints. For structures subjected to fatigue,
requirements are given in EN 1993-1-9.
Table 5-6: Minimum and maximum spacing, end and edge distances

Distances and spacings, see Minimum Maximum

Figure 5-2 Structures made from steels Structures made
conforming to Structures made from steels
from EN 10025 except steels conforming to
conforming to EN 10025-5 EN 10025-5
Steel exposed to Steel not S1eel used
the weather or exposed to the unprotected
other corrosive weather or
influences other corrosive
influences
𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒1 1.2𝑑0 4t+40 mm The larger of 8t or
125mm
𝐸𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒2 1.2𝑑0 4t+40 mm The larger of 8t or
125mm
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒3 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 1.5𝑑0
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒4 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 1.5𝑑0
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝1 2.2𝑑0The smaller of The smaller of The smaller of
14t or 200mm 14t or 200mm 14tmin or 175mm
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝1,0 The smaller of
14t or 200mm
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝1,𝑖 The smaller of
28t or 400mm
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝2 2.4𝑑0 The smaller of The smaller of The smaller of
14t or 200mm 14t or 200mm 14tmin or 175mm
Maximum values for spacings, edge and end distances are unlimited, except in the following cases:

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 for compression members in order to avoid local buckling and to prevent corrosion in exposed
members (the limiting values are given in the table) and;
 for exposed tension members to prevent corrosion (the limiting values are in the table)
The local buckling resistance of the plate in compression between the fasteners sbould be calculated
according to EN 1993-1-1 using 0.6P1 as buckling length. Local buckling between the fasteners
need not to be checked if p1/t is smaller than 9ε. The edge distance should not exceed the local
buckling requirements for an outstand element in the compression see EN 1993-1-1. The
end distance is not affected by this requriment.
t is the thickness of the thinner outer connected part.

Figure 5-2: Symbols for end and edge distances and spacing of fasteners

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5.1.5 Design of Bolted Joints (Clause 3.6 of EN1993-1-8)

5.1.5.1 Bolts in Shear

If the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt, the design resistance of
bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = − − − − − −5. 1
𝛾𝑀2

Where

𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒) 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 4.6, 5.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8.8

𝛼𝑣 = 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒) 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 4.8, 5.8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6.8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10.9

𝐴𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

If the shear plane passes through the shank (unthreaded portion) of the bolt, the design
resistance of bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = − − − − − −5. 2
𝛾𝑀2

Where, 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

The design shear resistance(Fv,Rd ) according to Eq. (5.1) and Eq. (5.2) should only be used
where the bolts are used in holes with nominal clearances as specified in EN 1090-2 (CEN,
2011), i.e. 1 mm for M12 or M14, 2 mm for M16 to M24 and 3 mm for M27 and thicker bolts.

The design shear resistance for fit bolts, where the nominal diameter of the hole is the same as
the nominal diameter of the bolt, i.e. holes with no clearance, should be determined using Eq.
(5.2). The thread of a fit bolt should not be included in the shear plane. The length of the
threaded portion of a fit bolt included in the bearing length should not exceed 1/3 of the
thickness of the plate, see Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3: Bolted connection

M12 and M14 bolts may also be used in 2mm clearance holes provided that the design
resistance of the bolt group based on bearing is less than or equal to the design resistance of
the bolt group based on bolt shear. In addition for class 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9 bolts the design
shear resistance (Fv,Rd ) should be taken as 0.85 times the value given in Eq. (5.1) and Eq. (5.2)

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5.1.5.2 Long joints

Where the distance Lj between the centers of the end fasteners in a joint, measured in the
direction of force transfer (see Figure 5-4), is more than 15d, the design shear resistance Fv,Rd
𝐿𝑗 −15𝑑
should be reduced by multiplying it by a reduction factor 𝛽𝐿𝑓 = 1 − , 0.75 ≤ 𝛽𝐿𝑓 ≤ 1.0
200𝑑
This provision does not apply where there is a uniform distribution of force transfer over the
length of the joint, e.g. the transfer of shear force between the web and the flange of a section.

Figure 5-4: Long joints

5.1.5.3 Bolts in Tension

The design tension resistance (Ft,Rd ) of a (non-preloaded or preloaded) bolt is determined

according to EN1993-1-8 as follows:

𝑘2 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘2 = 0.63 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑘2 = 0.9

5.1.5.4 Bolts in Shear and Tension

When bolts are subjected to shear and tension forces, the following design criteria should be
satisfied:

𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑 𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑
+ ≤ 1.0
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 1.4𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑

If the shear load in a bolt does not exceed about 28% of its shear resistance, the design tension
resistance of a bolt must not be reduced. In other words, the interaction check is not needed, if
𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑 ≤ (1 − 1⁄1.4)𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 ≈ 0.286𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑
5.1.5.5 Preloaded bolts

Dependent on the performance specification of a connection, bolts may be used as preloaded

or non-preloaded bolts. In some particular cases, for example in connections subjected to
dynamic loading, it is or it could be required that bolts be preloaded in order to ensure a
minimum clamping force between connected plates. In such cases, a particular preparation of
the surfaces as well as a controlled tightening is to be requested, see EN 1090-2. In these cases,
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the preload can be used in the design calculations, for example in slip resistant connections.
The design preload (Fp,Cd) is determined as follows:

0.7𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑝,𝐶𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀7

However, procedures to control preloading are cost-intensive. Also, controlled pre-loading of

bolts will decrease the speed of fabrication and erection of the steel structures. So, it is obvious
that preloaded bolts with controlled tightening should only be used when it is absolutely
necessary. On the other hand, if bolts are preloaded to some extent, even if the level of
preloading is not controlled by a particular tightening procedure, this will improve the stiffness
performance of a bolted connection, for example by decreasing deformations (for example for
execution purposes). However, in this case, the preload cannot be used in the design
calculations.

a) Preloaded bolts in shear connections

The structural response in a connection is different depending of the load case. In a shear
connection, as long as the bolts are not preloaded, the internal forces will be transferred by
bearing between the plates and the bolt and by shear in the bolt shank respectively, see Figure
5-5. If the bolts are preloaded, a clamping pressure will develop between the connected parts.
The internal forces are transferred directly between the connected parts. Friction will prevent
slipping of the connection, see Figure 5-5. This is called a slip resistant connection. In this case
the resulting deformation of the connection is significantly smaller that the deformation of a
bearing type connection.

Figure 5-5: Load transfer in a non-preloaded and a preloaded connection in a shear

connection
The maximum load which can be transferred by friction is the design slip resistance at the
ultimate limit state (Fs,Rd) which is dependent on the preload of the bolts (Fp,C) and on the
friction coefficient or slip factor of the clamped plates. The design slip resistance of a preloaded
class 8.8 or 10.9 bolt should be taken as:

𝑘𝑠 𝑛𝜇
𝐴𝑡 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝐶) ⟹ 𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹
𝛾𝑀3 𝑝,𝑐

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𝑘𝑠 𝑛𝜇
𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝐵) ⟹ 𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹
𝛾𝑀3,𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑝,𝑐

Where

𝐹𝑝,𝑐 = 0.7𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠

𝑘𝑠 is a reduction factor shape and size of the hole, see Table 5-7

𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠

𝜇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Slip factors µ and friction surface classes are defined in section 8.4 of EN 1090-2, see Table
5-8.
Table 5-7: Values of ks

Description 𝑘𝑠
Bolts in normal holes. 1.0
Bolts in either oversized holes or short slotted holes with the axis of the 0.85
slot perpendicular to the direction of load transfer.
Bolts in long slotted holes with the axis of the slot perpendicular to the 0.7
direction of load transfer.
Bolts in short slotted holes with the axis of the slot parallel to the 0.76
direction of load transfer.
Bolts in long slotted holes with the axis of the slot parallel to the direction 0.63
of load transfer.

Table 5-8: Slip factor, µ, for pre-loaded bolts

Surface treatment Class of friction Slip

surfaces factor, μ

Surfaces blasted with shot or grit with loose rust removed, not pitted A 0.5

Surfaces blasted with shot or grit: B 0.4

a) spray-metallized with an aluminum or zinc based product;

b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a thickness of 50 to 80 µ

Surfaces cleaned by wire-brushing or flame cleaning, with loose rust C 0.3

removed

Surfaces as rolled D 0.2

If the applied load exceeds the design slip resistance (Fs,Rd), the connection transforms into a
bearing type connection.

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b) Preloaded bolts in Combined tension and shear

If a slip-resistant connection is subjected to an applied tensile force, 𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑 or 𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 , in
addition to the shear force, 𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑 or 𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 , tending to produce slip, the design slip resistance
per bolt should be taken as follows:

𝑘𝑠 𝑛𝜇(𝐹𝑝,𝑐 − 0.8𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑 )
𝐴𝑡 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝐶) ⟹ 𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀3

𝑘𝑠 𝑛𝜇(𝐹𝑝,𝑐 − 0.8𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 )
𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝐵) ⟹ 𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑,𝑠𝑒𝑟 =
𝛾𝑀3,𝑠𝑒𝑟
5.1.5.6 Bolts in bearing

In bearing type connections, the internal force in the plate is transferred to the bolt by hole
bearing. The design bearing resistance per bolt (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ) is determined as follows:
𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = − − − − − −5. 3
𝛾𝑀2

Where,

d is the nominal bolt diameter

t is thickness of the plate

 Perpendicular to the direction of load transfer:

𝑒2 𝑝2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑘1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2.8 − 1.7; 1.4 − 1.7; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.5
𝑑0 𝑑0
𝑝2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑘1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1.4 − 1.7; 𝑜𝑟 2.5
𝑑0

𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝛼𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝛼𝑑 ; 𝑜𝑟 1.0;
𝑓𝑢

 In the direction of load transfer:

𝑒1 𝑝1 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝛼𝑑 = ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝛼𝑑 = −
3𝑑0 3𝑑0 4

The bearing resistance Fb,Rd for bolts

 In oversized holes is 0.8 times the bearing resistance for bolts in normal holes.
 In slotted holes, where the longitudinal axis of the slotted hole is perpendicular to the
direction of the force transfer, is 0.6 times the bearing resistance for bolts in round, normal
holes.

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It should be noted that Eq. (5.3) covers two failure modes, see Figure 5-6. For small end
distances or small bolt pitches in the direction of load transfer, the plate can fail by plate shear
(Figure 5-6a). Otherwise it will fail by elongation of the hole (Figure 5-6b). Plate shear failure
is taken into account by the factor αd (Figure 5-6c). The factor k1 considers that the bearing
resistance is reduced if the edge distance e2 or hole distance p2 perpendicular to the direction
of load transfer is small. If e2 and p2 are large enough, the full bearing capacity can develop.

Figure 5-6: Failure modes for a plate in bearing

The bearing resistance is calculated using the ultimate resistance of the plate.

For countersunk bolt, the bearing resistance Fb,Rd should be based on a plate thickness t equal
to the thickness of the connected plate minus half the depth of the countersinking.

In single lap joints with only one bolt row, see Figure 5-7, the bolts should be provided with
washers under both the head and the nut. The design bearing resistance Fb,Rd for each bolt
should be limited to:

1.5𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ≤
𝛾𝑀2

Figure 5-7: Single lap joint with one row of bolts

In the case of class 8.8 or 10.9 bolts, hardened washers should be used for one bolt or one
row of bolts.
5.1.5.7 Block tearing

Block tearing consists of failure in shear at the row of bolts along the shear face of the hole
group accompanied by tensile rupture along the line of bolt boles on the tension face of the
bolt group. Figure 5-8 shows block tearing.

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Figure 5-8: Block tearing

For a symmetric bolt group subject to concentric loading the design block tearing resistance,
Veff,1,Rd is given by:
𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡 1 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓,1,𝑅𝑑 = +
𝛾𝑀2 √3 𝛾𝑀0
Where:
𝐴𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟.
For a bolt group subject to eccentric loading the design block shear tearing resistance is
Veff,2,Rd by:
0.5𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡 1 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓,2,𝑅𝑑 = +
𝛾𝑀2 √3 𝛾𝑀0
5.1.6 Group of bolts

The design resistance of a group of bolts (Ngb,Rd) may be taken as the sum of the design bearing
resistances Fb,Rd of the individual fasteners provided that the shear resistance Fv,Rd of each
individual fastener is greater than or equal to the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd. Otherwise the
design resistance of a group of fasteners should be taken as the number of fasteners multiplied
by the smallest design resistance of any of the individual fasteners.
𝑛

𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 ≥ 𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ⟹ 𝑁𝑔𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = ∑ 𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑

𝑖=1
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 < 𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ⟹ 𝑁𝑔𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑛𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
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Table 5-9: Design resistance for a bolt subjected to shear and/or tension (Table 3.4, EN
1993-1-8)

Failure mode
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
Shear resistance per 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
shear plane
Where the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt (A is the
tensile stress area of the bolt AS)

𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 4.6, 5.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8.8

𝛼𝑣 = 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10.9

where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the bolt (A is
the gross cross section of the bolt): 𝛼𝑣 = 0.6
𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
Bearing resistance 𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
 Perpendicular to the direction of load transfer:
𝑒2 𝑝2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑘1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2.8 − 1.7; 1.4
𝑑0 𝑑0
− 1.7; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.5
𝑝2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑘1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1.4 − 1.7; 𝑜𝑟 2.5
𝑑0
𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝛼𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝛼𝑑 ; 𝑜𝑟 1.0;
𝑓𝑢

 In the direction of load transfer:

𝑒1 𝑝1 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝛼𝑑 = ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝛼𝑑 = −
3𝑑0 3𝑑0 4

Tension resistance 𝑘2 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠

𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝑘2 = 0.63 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑘2 = 0.9
𝐵𝑝,𝑅𝑑 = 0.6𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑡𝑝 𝑓𝑢 ⁄𝛾𝑀2
Punching shear resistance
𝐹𝑣,𝐸𝑑 𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑
Combined shear and + ≤ 1.0
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 1.4𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑
tension
The bearing resistance Fb,Rd for bolts
 in oversized holes is 0,8 times the bearing resistance for bolts in normal holes.
 in slotted holes, where the longitudinal axis of the slotted hole is perpendicular to the direction of
the force transfer, is 0.6 times the bearing resistance for bolts in round, normal holes,
For countersunk bolt, the bearing resistance Fb,Rd should be based on a thickness t equal to the thickness of
the connected plate minus half the depth of the countersinking.
When the load on a bolt is not parallel to the bearing resistance may be verified separately for the bolt load
components parallel and normal to the end.

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Example 5.1: Design a lap joint to connect two plates each of width 100 mm, if the thickness
of one plate is 12 mm and the other is 10 mm. The joint has to transfer a design tensile load of
150kN. The plates are of S275 grade. Use bearing type of bolts and M16 bolts of grade 4.6.
Solution:
1) Steel grade for bolt and plate
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 8; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 4.6
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = 240 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 400 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆275 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
2) Positioning of holes for bolts according Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8
𝑑0 = 𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑀24, 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 ⟹ 𝑑0 = 16 + 2 = 18𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑚
Distance(ei) and Minimum Maximum
spacing(pi)
End distance, e1 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 18 = 21.6𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 80𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 18 = 21.6𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 80𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 2.2𝑑0 = 2.2 × 18 = 39.6𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 140𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p2) 2.4𝑑0 = 2.4 × 18 = 43.2𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 140𝑚𝑚

Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Adopted

End distance, e1 30𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 25𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 40𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p2) 50𝑚𝑚

Since it is a lap joint, the bolt is in single shear, the critical section being at the roots of the
thread of the bolts.
3) Bolt in Shear

If the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt, the design resistance of
bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
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𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 4.6

𝐴𝑠 = 157𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠 0.6 × 400 × 157
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 30.14𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25

If the shear plane passes through the shank (unthreaded portion) of the bolt, the design
resistance of bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

A = 201𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴 0.6 × 400 × 201
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 38.59𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25

∴ 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 30.14𝑘𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

4) Bolt in bearing

The design bearing resistance per bolt (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ) is determined as follows:

𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
a) Bearing of end bolt

𝑒2 25
2.8
− 1.7 = 2.8 × − 1.7 = 2.19
𝑑0 18
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 50 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.19
1.4 − 1.7 = 1.4 × − 1.7 = 2.19
𝑑0 18
{ 2.5
𝑒1 30
= = 0.56
3𝑑0 3 × 18
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 400 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.56
= = 0.93
𝑓𝑢 430
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.19 × 0.56 × 430 × 16 × 10
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 67.50𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

b) Bearing of inner bolt

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𝑝2 50
1.4 − 1.7 = 1.4 × − 1.7 = 2.19
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑑0 18 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.19
2.5
𝑝1 1 40 1
− = − = 0.49
3𝑑0 4 3 × 18 4
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 400 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.49
= = 0.93
𝑓𝑢 430
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.19 × 0.49 × 430 × 16 × 10
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 59.06𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fb,Rd = 59.06𝑘𝑁

5) The design resistance of a group of bolts

The design resistance of a group of fasteners may be taken as the sum of the design bearing
resistances Fb,Rd of the individual fasteners provided that the shear resistance Fv,Rd of each
individual fastener is greater than or equal to the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd. Otherwise
the design resistance of a group of fasteners should be taken as the number of fasteners
multiplied by the smallest design resistance of any of the individual fasteners.

Fv,Rd = 30.14kN < Fb,Rd = 59.06𝑘𝑁

⟹ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, 𝑛)(𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fv,Rd )

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 𝑛(𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fv,Rd ) ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 150
𝑛≥ = = 5.00 ⟹ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑛 = 6
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fv,Rd 30.14

6) Check if it is long joint (𝐿𝑗 > 15𝑑)

Lj is distance between the centers of the end fasteners in a joint, measured in the direction of
force transfer

𝐿𝑗 > 15𝑑 → multiply the design shear resistance(𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 ) by 𝛽𝐿𝑓

𝐿𝑗 − 15𝑑
𝛽𝐿𝑓 = 1 − , 0.75 ≤ 𝛽𝐿𝑓 ≤ 1.0
200𝑑

𝐿𝑗 = 40 + 40 = 80𝑚𝑚 < 15𝑑 = 15 × 16 = 240𝑚 − − − − 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑

7) Calculate the net area of the thinner plate

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑚:

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟏 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
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𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 100 × 10 − 2 × 18 × 10 = 640𝑚𝑚2

𝒔𝟐
𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟐 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒕 ∑ (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 )
𝟒𝒑
402
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 100 × 10 − 2 × 18 × 10 + 10 × ( ) = 720𝑚𝑚2
4 × 50

∴ 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕, = 𝒎𝒊𝒏. (𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟏 , 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟐 ) = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒎𝟐

8) Check the section capacity for the design tensile load Nt,Ed
𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑
Where, Nt,Rd is design tension resistance
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
{ 𝛾𝑀2
(100 × 10) × 275
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 275𝑘𝑁
1
0.9 × 640 × 430
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 198.14𝑘𝑁
1.25
∴ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 198.14𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 = 150𝑘𝑁 − − − −𝑜𝑘
Example 5.2: Design the bolted connection of tension element from double angle bar of section
L80mm×6mm, steel S355. The element is loaded by tensile force NEd =500kN and is connected
to gusset plate of thickness 8mm, see Figure 5-9. Use bolts M20 Class 6.8.

Figure 5-9: Bolted connection of double angle bar

Solution:
1) Steel grade for bolt and plate
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 8; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 6.8
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = 480 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 600 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 355 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 490 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
2) Positioning of holes for bolts according Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8
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𝑑0 = 𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑀24, 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑚)

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 ⟹ 𝑑0 = 20 + 2 = 22𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 6𝑚𝑚
A single angle in tension connected by a row of bolts in one leg:
Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Minimum Maximum
End distance, e1 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 64𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 64𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 2.2𝑑0 = 2.2 × 22 = 48.4𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 84𝑚𝑚
Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Adopted
End distance, e1 40𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 35𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 70𝑚𝑚

3) Bolt in Shear

If the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt, the design resistance of
bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠; 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 2 ×
𝛾𝑀2

𝛼𝑣 = 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 6.8

𝐴𝑠 = 245𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠 0.5 × 600 × 245
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 2 × = 2× × 10−3 = 117.60𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25

If the shear plane passes through the shank (unthreaded portion) of the bolt, the design
resistance of bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠; 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 2 ×
𝛾𝑀2

A = 314𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴 0.6 × 600 × 314
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 2 × = 2× × 10−3 = 180.86𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
∴ 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 117.60𝑘𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

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4) Bolt in bearing

The design bearing resistance per bolt (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ) is determined as follows:

𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
The bearing action is decisive to the gusset plate since the 8 mm thick plate is thinner than the
angles (12 mm thick).
a) Bearing of end bolt

𝑒2 35
2.8 − 1.7 = 2.8 × − 1.7 = 2.75
𝑑0 22
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
1.4 − 1.7 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝2 = 0
𝑑0
{ 2.5
𝑒1 40
= = 0.61
3𝑑0 3 × 22
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 600 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.61
= = 1.22
𝑓𝑢 490
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.61 × 490 × 20 × 8
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 95.65𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

b) Bearing of inner bolt

𝑝2
1.4 − 1.7 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝2 = 0
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑑0 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
2.5
𝑝1 1 70 1
− = − = 0.81
3𝑑0 4 3 × 22 4
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 600 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.81
= = 1.22
𝑓𝑢 490
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.81 × 490 × 20 × 8
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 127.01𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fb,Rd = 95.65𝑘𝑁

5) The design resistance of a group of bolts

The design resistance of a group of fasteners may be taken as the sum of the design bearing
resistances Fb,Rd of the individual fasteners provided that the shear resistance Fv,Rd of each
individual fastener is greater than or equal to the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd. Otherwise

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the design resistance of a group of fasteners should be taken as the number of fasteners
multiplied by the smallest design resistance of any of the individual fasteners.

Fv,Rd = 117.60kN > Fb,Rd = 95.65𝑘𝑁

Since the bearing resistance is lower than the shear resistance, the design is governed by bearing
action.
𝑛

⟹ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = ∑ Fb,Rd ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑

𝑖=1

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑦

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠,

𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 → 𝑛𝑒 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠 → 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 + 2

𝑛

∑ Fb,Rd = 2 × 95.65 + 127.01𝑛𝑖 ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 = 580

𝑖=1

500 − 2 × 95.65
𝑛𝑖 ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 = = 2.4 ≈ 3
127.01

∴⟹ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑛 = 3 + 2 = 5
6) Calculate the net area of the angle

𝑳𝟖𝟎𝒎𝒎 × 𝟔𝒎𝒎 → 𝐴 = 9.4𝑐𝑚2 = 940𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 6𝑚𝑚:

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟗𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟔 = 𝟖𝟎𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐

7) Check the section capacity for the design tensile load Nt,Ed
𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑
Where, Nt,Rd is design tension resistance
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
{ 𝛾𝑀2
(2 × 940) × 355
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 667.4𝑘𝑁
1

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A single angle in tension connected by a single row of five bolts in one leg may be treated as
concentrically loaded over an effective net section for which the design ultimate resistance
should be determined as follows(see EN 1993-1-8, Clause 3.10.3):
𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
The factor 𝛽3,both evaluated according to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑0 = 22 𝑚𝑚 , 2.5𝑑0 = 55𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑑0 = 110𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 : 42.5 < 70𝑚𝑚 < 85𝑚𝑚, ⟹ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.4&0.7
𝑝1 − − 𝛽3
55 − − 0.5 55 − 70 0.5 − 𝑥
70 − − 𝑥 ⟹ 70 − 110 = 𝑥 − 0.7 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝛽3 = 0.555
110 − −0.7
0.555 × (2 × 808) × 490
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 351.58𝑘𝑁
1.25
∴ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 351.58𝑘𝑁 < 𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 = 500𝑘𝑁 − − − −𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒

𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝟖𝟎𝒎𝒎 × 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 → 𝐴 = 15.2𝑐𝑚2 = 1520𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑚:

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟖 = 𝟏, 𝟑𝟒𝟒𝒎𝒎𝟐

(2 × 1520) × 355
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 1,079.2𝑘𝑁
1
0.555 × (2 × 1344) × 490
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 584.80𝑘𝑁
1.25
∴ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 584.80𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 = 500𝑘𝑁 − − − −𝑜𝑘
Example 5.3: Check the bolted connection of an angle L120 × 80 × 12, S275 brace in tension
to a gusset plate 250 × 300 × 15, S275 welded to a column web. Design axial tensile force
applied by the angle brace to the gusset plate, NEd is 250kN. Non preloaded bolts M20 grade
8.8 are used (Category A: bearing type). These types of connections are typical for cross
bracings used both in facades and in roofs to withstand the actions of the horizontal wind load
in the longitudinal axis of the single story building. In order to avoid eccentricities of the loads
brought to the foundation, the angle axis is aligned to meet the column vertical axis plane at
the base plate and the gusset plate is placed as close as possible to the column major axis
plane.

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Solution:
1) Steel grade for bolt and plate
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 8; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 8.8
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = 640 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 800 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆355 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 275 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 430 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
2) Positioning of holes for bolts according Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8
𝑑0 = 𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑀24, 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 ⟹ 𝑑0 = 20 + 2 = 22𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 12𝑚𝑚
A single angle in tension connected by a row of bolts in one leg:
Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Minimum Maximum
End distance, e1 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 88𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 88𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 2.2𝑑0 = 2.2 × 22 = 48.4𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 164𝑚𝑚

Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Adopted Remark

End distance, e1 50𝑚𝑚 Within limit
Edge distance, e2 80𝑚𝑚 Within limit
Spacing (p1) 80𝑚𝑚 Within limit

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3) Bolt in Shear

If the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt, the design resistance of
bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 8.8

𝐴𝑠 = 245𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠 0.6 × 800 × 245
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 94.08𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25

If the shear plane passes through the shank (unthreaded portion) of the bolt, the design
resistance of bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

A = 314𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴 0.6 × 800 × 314
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 120.58𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25

∴ 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 94.08𝑘𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

4) Bolt in bearing

The design bearing resistance per bolt (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ) is determined as follows:

𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
The angle leg thickness , 12mm, being less than that of the gusset plate,15mm, and assuming
an end distance of 50 mm or greater for the gusset plate, only the attached angle leg requires
a design check for bearing.

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a) Bearing of end bolt

𝑒2 80
2.8 − 1.7 = 2.8 × − 1.7 = 8.48
𝑑0 22
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
1.4 − 1.7 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝2 = 0
𝑑0
{ 2.5
𝑒1 50
= = 0.76
3𝑑0 3 × 22
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 800 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.76
= = 1.86
𝑓𝑢 430
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.76 × 430 × 20 × 12
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 156.86𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

b) Bearing of inner bolt

𝑝2
1.4 − 1.7 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝2 = 0
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑑0 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
2.5
𝑝1 1 80 1
− = − = 0.96
3𝑑0 4 3 × 22 4
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 800 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.96
= = 1.86
𝑓𝑢 430
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.96 × 430 × 20 × 12
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 198.14𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fb,Rd = 156.68𝑘𝑁

5) The design resistance of a group of bolts

The design resistance of a group of fasteners may be taken as the sum of the design bearing
resistances Fb,Rd of the individual fasteners provided that the shear resistance Fv,Rd of each
individual fastener is greater than or equal to the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd. Otherwise
the design resistance of a group of fasteners should be taken as the number of fasteners
multiplied by the smallest design resistance of any of the individual fasteners.

Fv,Rd = 94.08kN < Fb,Rd = 156.68𝑘𝑁

Since the bearing resistance of the end bolt and of the inner bolt is greater than the bolt shear
resistance, the design is governed by shear action. The least value for the shear resistance of a
bolt in the connection is adopted for all bolts.

⟹ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 𝑛Fv,Rd ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑

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𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠

𝑛Fv,Rd = 3 × 94.08 = 282.24kN ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 = 250𝑘𝑁 − − − 𝑜𝑘!

6) Calculate the net area of the angle

𝑳𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒎 → 𝐴 = 22.7𝑐𝑚2 = 2,270𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 12𝑚𝑚:

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟐, 𝟐𝟕𝟎 − 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝒎𝟐

7) Check the section capacity for the design tensile load Nt,Ed
𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑
Where, Nt,Rd is design tension resistance
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀0
𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
{ 𝛾𝑀2
2,006 × 275
𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 551.65𝑘𝑁
1
A single angle in tension connected by a single row of three bolts in one leg may be treated as
concentrically loaded over an effective net section for which the design ultimate resistance
should be determined as follows(see EN 1993-1-8, Clause 3.10.3):
𝛽3 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠: 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
The factor 𝛽3,both evaluated according to Clause 3.10.3 of EN 1993-1-8.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑0 = 22 𝑚𝑚 , 2.5𝑑0 = 55𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑑0 = 110𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 : 42.5 < 70𝑚𝑚 < 85𝑚𝑚, ⟹ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.4&0.7
𝑝1 − − 𝛽3
55 − − 0.5 55 − 80 0.5 − 𝑥
80 − − 𝑥 ⟹ = ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝛽3 = 0.59
80 − 110 𝑥 − 0.7
110 − −0.7
0.59 × 2,006 × 430
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = × 10−3 = 407.14𝑘𝑁
1.25
∴ 𝑁𝑡.𝑅𝑑 = 407.14𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑡.𝐸𝑑 = 250𝑘𝑁 − − − − 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒
Some modes of failure are not checked. For example, the gusset plate in bearing and in tension
is not checked because its thickness is greater than that of the angle, and therefore the angle
cleat would fail before the plate.

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Example 5.4: Evaluate shear design resistance, according to EN 1993-1-8, of connection

illustrated in Figure 5-10 (all dimensions are in millimeters). The connection is category C slip-
resistant at an ultimate limit state. Bolts have a 20 mm diameter, class 10.9, preloaded. Holes
have a 22 mm diameter. Each bolt has two friction surfaces. Elements to be connected and
cover plates are made of S235 steel. Friction surfaces are in class A (surfaces blasted with shot
or grit with loose rust removed, not pitted).

Figure 5-10
Solution:
(1). Steel grade for bolt and plate
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 8; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 10.9
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = 900 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 1,000 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆235 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 235 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 360 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2

(2). Check of positioning of the holes (spacing and end and edge distances);
𝑑0 = 𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑀24, 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 ⟹ 𝑑0 = 20 + 2 = 22𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚
Distance(ei) and Minimum Maximum
spacing(pi)
End distance, e1 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 72𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 72𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 2.2𝑑0 = 2.2 × 22 = 48.4𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 112𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p2) 2.4𝑑0 = 2.4 × 22 = 52.8𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 112𝑚𝑚

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Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Adopted Remark

End distance, e1 35𝑚𝑚 Within limit
Edge distance, e2 35𝑚𝑚 Within limit
Spacing (p1) 50𝑚𝑚 Within limit
Spacing (p2) 70𝑚𝑚 Within limit

(3). Check if it is long joint (𝐿𝑗 > 15𝑑)

Lj is distance between the centers of the end fasteners in a joint, measured in the direction of
force transfer

𝐿𝑗 > 15𝑑 → multiply the design shear resistance(𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 ) by 𝛽𝐿𝑓

𝐿𝑗 − 15𝑑
𝛽𝐿𝑓 = 1 − , 0.75 ≤ 𝛽𝐿𝑓 ≤ 1.0
200𝑑

𝐿𝑗 = 50𝑚𝑚 < 15𝑑 = 15 × 20 = 300𝑚 − − − − 𝑁𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑

(4). Evaluation of minimum bolt preloading force (𝐹𝑝.𝑐 );

𝐴𝑠 = 245𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20

𝐹𝑝,𝑐 = 0.7𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠 = 0.7 × 1,000 × 245 × 10−3 = 171.5𝑘𝑁

(5). Evaluation of design slip resistance at ultimate limit states (𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 )

𝑘𝑠 𝑛𝜇
𝐴𝑡 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝐶) ⟹ 𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹
𝛾𝑀3 𝑝,𝑐
𝑘𝑠 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝜇 = 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒

𝐸𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 ⟹ 𝑛 = 2
𝑘𝑠 𝑛𝜇 1.0 × 2 × 0.5
𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑝,𝑐 = × 171.5 = 137.2𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀3 1.25
Compute design slip resistance of the connection:
𝑁𝑅𝑑 = 4𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 , 4 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑁𝑅𝑑 = 4𝐹𝑠,𝑅𝑑 = 4 × 137.2 = 548.8𝑘𝑁

(6). Evaluation of the design bearing resistance (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 )

The bearing action is equally decisive to the connected element 16mm thick and cover plate
(8+8=16 mm thick).
a) Bearing of end bolt

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𝑒2 35
2.8− 1.7 = 2.8 × − 1.7 = 2.75
𝑑0 22
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 70 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
1.4 − 1.7 = 1.4 × − 1.7 = 2.75
𝑑0 22
{ 2.5
𝑒1 35
= = 0.53
3𝑑0 3 × 22
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 1,000 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.53
= = 2.78
𝑓𝑢 360
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.53 × 360 × 20 × 16
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 122.11𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

b) Bearing of inner bolt

𝑝2 70
. 4 − 1.7 = 1.4 × − 1.7 = 2.75
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑑0 22 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
2.5
𝑝1 1 50 1
− = − = 0.51
3𝑑0 4 3 × 22 4
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 1,000 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.51
= = 2.78
𝑓𝑢 360
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.51 × 360 × 20 × 16
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 117.50𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

Design bearing resistance of the connection (two edge holes and two internal holes):

∑ Fb,Rd = 2 × 122.11 + 2 × 117.50 = 479.22𝑘𝑁

(7). Calculate the net area of the thinner plate

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆, 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚:

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟏 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 140 × 8 − 2 × 22 × 8 = 768𝑚𝑚2

𝒔𝟐
𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟐 = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒅𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒕 ∑ (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 )
𝟒𝒑
502
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 140 × 8 − 2 × 22 × 8 + 8 × ( ) = 839.43𝑚𝑚2
4 × 70

∴ 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕, = 𝒎𝒊𝒏. (𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟏 , 𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕,𝟐 ) = 𝟕𝟔𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐

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8) Evaluation of design tension resistance Nt,Ed

In category C connections, the design tension resistance 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 of the net section at holes for
fasteners should be taken as 𝑁𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑅𝑑 ,

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑦 (2 × 768) × 235

𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑁𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 360.96𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀0 1.0
Design shear resistance of the connection is the minimum between design slip resistance
(548.8kN), design bearing resistance (479.22kN) and cover plates design tensile resistance
(360.96kN): so it is 360.96kN.
5.2 Welded Connections
5.2.1 Types of Welds

In the construction field, fillet welds and butt welds are widely used. One speaks about 80% of
fillet welds and 15% of butt welds. For the five remaining per cent, plug and fillet all round
welds are mostly used.

5.2.1.1 Fillet Welds

Contrarily to a butt weld, a fillet weld requires no preparation of the plates to connect. This is
an important feature in terms of fabrication costs. Fillet welds are applied to the surface of the
connected plates; they exhibit an approximately triangular shape. Lap joints, tee or cruciform
joints and corner joints are shown in Figure 5-11. In tee joints, the two plates are not necessarily
welded perpendicularly each to another. The one-sided character of the fillet weld in the corner
joint represented in Figure 5-11c is likely to negatively influence the joint response. As a way
of improvement, the outer corner could be butt welded (Figure 5-12).

Figure 5-11: Schematic representation of various fillet weld joint configurations

Figure 5-12: Improved corner joint

Fillet welds may be used for connecting parts where the fusion faces form an angle of between
60° and 120°. Angle smaller than 60° are also permitted. However, in such cases the weld
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should be considered to be a partial penetration butt weld. For angles greater than l20° the
resistance of fillet welds should be determined by testing in accordance with EN 1990 Annex
D: Design by testing. Fillet welds finishing at the ends or sides of parts should be returned
continuously, full size, around the corner for a distance of at least twice the length of the weld,
unless access or the configuration of the joint renders this impracticable. Fillet welds are either
continuous or intermittent along the whole joint, Figure 5-13.

Figure 5-13: Continuous and intermittent fillet welds

Intermittent fillet welds

 Intermittent fillet welds should not be used in corrosive conditions.
 In an intermittent fillet weld, the gaps (L1 or L2) between the ends of each length of weld
Lw should fulfil the requirement in Figure 5-14.
 In an intermittent fillet weld, the gap (L1 or L2) should be taken as the smaller of the
distances between the ends of the welds on opposite sides and the distance between the
ends of the welds on the same side.
 In any run of intermittent fillet weld there should always be a length of weld at each end
of the part connected.
 In a built-up member in which plates are connected by means of intermittent fillet welds, a
continuous fillet weld should be provided on each side of the plate for a length at each end
equal to at least three-quarters of the width of the narrower plate concerned (see Figure
5-14).

Figure 5-14: Geometry of intermittent fillet welds

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5.2.1.2 Fillet welds all round

 Fillet welds all round, comprising fillet welds in circular or elongated holes, may be used
only to transmit shear or to prevent the buckling or separation of lapped parts.
 The diameter of a circular hole, or width of an elongated hole, for a fillet weld all round
should not be less than four times the thickness of the part containing it.
 The ends of elongated holes should be semi-circular, except for those ends which extend
to the edge of the part concerned,
 The center to center spacing of fillet welds all round should not exceed the value
necessary to prevent local buckling, see Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8.
5.2.1.3 Butt Welds

A full penetration butt weld is defined as a weld that has complete penetration and fusion of
weld and parent metal throughout the thickness of the joint. Butt welds are applied within the
cross section of the abutting plates in so-called butt and tee-joints (Figure 5-15a).

Figure 5-15: Butt welds with full penetration

A partia1 penetration butt weld is defined as a we1d that has joint penetration which is less
than the ful1thickness of the parent material. The preparation of the plates, before welding,
usually appears as a prerequisite, except for thin plates, less than about 5 mm, where it can be
avoided. In all the other cases, beveled plate edges will have to be realized, as seen in Figure
5-15b and Figure 5-16. This may have an impact on the economy of the project.

Figure 5-16: Examples of types of beveled edges

According to the penetration of the weld, i.e. the degree of fusion of the weld and parent
materials throughout the thickness of the connected plates, butt welds with complete
penetration (equal to the plate thickness, see Figure 5-15) or partial penetration (less than the
plate thickness, see Figure 5-17) are distinguished.
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Figure 5-17: Butt welds with partial penetration

5.2.1.4 Plug welds

1) Plug welds may be used:

 to transmit shear,
 to prevent the buckling or separation of lapped parts, and
 to inter-connect the components of built-up members
but should not be used to resist externally applied tension.

2) The diameter of a circular hole, or width of an elongated hole, for a plug weld should be at
least 8mm more than the thickness of the part containing it.
3) The ends of elongated holes should either be semi-circular or else should have corners
which are rounded to a radius of not less than the thickness of the part containing the slot,
except for those ends which extend to the edge of the part concerned.
4) The thickness of a plug weld in parent material up to 16mm thick should be equal to the
thickness of the parent material. The thickness of a plug weld in parent material over 16mm
thick shou1d be at least half the thickness of the parent material and not less than 16mm.
5) The center to center spacing of plug welds should not exceed the value necessary to prevent
local buckling, see Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8.

Figure 5-18: Plug welds

5.2.1.5 Flare groove welds

For solid bars the design effective throat thickness of flare groove welds, when fitted flush to
the surface of the solid section of the bars, is defined in Figure 5-19. For rectangular structural
hollow sections the design throat thickness of flare groove welds is defined in Figure 5-20.

Figure 5-19: Effective throat thickness of flare groove welds in solid sections
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Figure 5-20: Design throat thickness of flare groove welds in rectangular

5.2.2 Design of Welded Connections (clause 4.5 of EN 1993-1-8)

For weld design, three fundamental assumptions are usually made:

 The welds are homogeneous and isotropic

 The connected elements are rigid and their deformations are negligible;
 Only nominal stresses due to external loads are considered. Effects of residual stresses,
stress concentrations and shape of the welds are neglected in static design.
5.2.2.1 Design resistance of a fillet weld

a) Length of welds

The effective length of a fillet weld leff should be taken as the length over which the fillet is full
size. This may be taken as the overall length of the weld reduced by twice the effective throat
thickness a. Provided that the weld is full size throughout its length including starts and
terminations, no reduction in effective length need be made for either the start or the
termination of the weld.

A fillet weld with an effective length less than 30 mm or less than 6 times its throat thickness,
whichever is larger, should not be designed to carry load.
b) Effective throat thickness
The effective throat thickness, a, of a fillet weld should be taken as the height of the largest
triangle (with equal or unequal legs) that can be inscribed within the fusion faces and the weld
surface, measured perpendicular to the outer side of this triangle, see Figure 5-21.
The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3 mm.
In determining the design resistance of a deep penetration fillet weld, account may be taken of
its additional throat thickness, see Figure 5-22, provided that preliminary tests show that the
required penetration can consistently be achieved.

Figure 5-21: Throat thickness of a fillet weld

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Figure 5-22: Throat thickness of a deep penetration fillet weld

c) Design Resistance
The design resistance of a fillet weld should be determined using either the Directional method
or the Simplified method (see, clause of 4.5.3 of EN 1993-1-8).
The most economical one, i.e. the one providing great strength for material used, is the
directional method. In the case of longitudinal (or side) welds (i.e. weld parallel to the applied
force) subjected to shear forces along the weld axis, equal results are obtained from both
methods.
i. Directional method
In this method, the forces transmitted by a unit length of weld are resolved into components
parallel and transverse to the longitudinal axis of the weld and normal and transverse to the
plane of its throat.
The design throat area Aw should be taken as 𝐴𝑤 = ∑ 𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 .

The location of the design throat area should be assumed to be concentrated in the root.
A uniform distribution of stress is assumed on the throat section of the weld, leading to the
normal stresses and shear stresses shown in Figure 5-23, as follows:
 𝜎⊥ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡
 𝜎∥ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑
 𝜏⊥ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡) 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑
 𝜏∥ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡) 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑

Figure 5-23: Stresses on the throat section of a fillet weld

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The normal stress 𝜎∥ parallel to the axis is not considered when verifying the design resistance
of the weld.
The design resistance of the fillet weld will be sufficient if the following are both satisfied:
𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑢
√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) ≤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎⊥ ≤ 0.9
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑓𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑;
𝛽𝑤 is the appropriate correlation factor taken from Table 5-10
Welds between parts with different material strength grades should be designed using the
properties of the material with the lower strength grade.
Table 5-10: Correlation factor 𝛽𝑤 for fillet welds

Standard and steel grade Correlation Standard and steel grade Correlation
factor, βw factor, βw
EN 10025 EN 10210 EN 10219 EN 10025 EN 10210 EN 10219
S 235 S 235 H S 235 H 0.8 S 420 N/NL S 420 1.0
S 235 W S 420 M/ML MH/MLH
S 275 S 275 H S 275 H S 460 N/NL S 460 S 460 NH/NLH 1.0
S 275 N/NL S 275 NH/NLH S 275 NH/NLH 0.85 S 460 M/ML NH/NLH S 460
S 275 M/ML S 275 MH/MLH S 460 Q/QL/QL1 MH/MLH
S 355 S 355 H S 355 H
S 355 N/NL S 355 S 355 NH/NLH 0.9
S 355 M/ML NH/NLH S 355 MH/MLH
S 355 W
In the case of a welded joint that is supposed to transmit a tensile force equal to F, the fillet
welds can be parallel to the direction of the force (longitudinal fillets), perpendicular to the
force (transverse fillets) or inclined through a generic angle (inclined fillets).
Longitudinal fillet welds: With reference to Figure 5-24, if the fillets are parallel to the force
(there are a total of four fillets in the figure), the resulting stresses can be calculated directly
based on the effective throat area of each fillet in its actual location, or by rotating it onto the
horizontal or vertical plane. Shearing stresses are of the τ// type, the amount of which is given
by the following expression:
𝐹
𝜏∕∕ = , 𝜎⊥ = 𝜏⊥ = 0
4𝐿𝑎

Figure 5-24: Plates connected by longitudinal fillet welds.

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In general the forces and moments due to all eccentricities should be taken into account when
calculating the stresses in the weld. In the case of equal angles it is common European practice
to neglect the eccentricity in the design of welds. If the unequal angles are connected to a fin
plate the eccentricity is taken into account by member design as well as by weld design. The
following example shows how the forces in the weld can be calculated.

Figure 5-25: Angles connected to a gusset plate

The weld on the lower side, marked as weld ①, is loaded by the force 𝑁1,𝐸𝑑 equal to
𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 𝑒
𝑁1,𝐸𝑑 =
2 𝑏
which causes shear stresses parallel to the axis of the weld τ1,//.
𝑁1,𝐸𝑑
𝜏1,∥ =
𝐿1 𝑎1
This is the only stress in this weld ( 𝜎⊥ = 𝜏⊥ = 0). The resistance of the weld can be checked
using Directional method, which can be simplified to
𝑓𝑢
𝜏1,∥ 2 ≤
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
The force on the upper weld, (weld ②), is equal to

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 (𝑏 − 𝑒)
𝑁2,𝐸𝑑 =
2 𝑏
which causes shear stresses parallel to the axis of the weld τ2,//.
𝑁2,𝐸𝑑
𝜏2,∥ =
𝐿2 𝑎2
This is the only stress in this weld ( 𝜎⊥ = 𝜏⊥ = 0). The resistance of the weld can be checked
using Directional method, which can be simplified to
𝑓𝑢
𝜏2,∥ 2 ≤
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
Transverse fillet welds: With reference to Figure 5-26, if the (two) fillets are perpendicular to
the force, in order to calculate stresses directly on the effective throat area, inclined by 450 with
respect to the horizontal (x–z plane), the resulting stress components are:

𝐹 √2
𝜎⊥ = ×
2𝐿𝑎 2
𝐹 √2
𝜏⊥ = ×
2𝐿𝑎 2
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𝜏∕∕ = 0

Figure 5-26: Plates connected with transverse fillet welds.

In order to simplify the calculation of stresses, the effective throat area can be rotated onto the
vertical plane (y–z plane) or onto the horizontal plane (x–z plane). In the former case, the
stresses that develop are perpendicular to the y axis (σ⊥) given by:
𝐹
𝜎⊥ =
2𝐿𝑎
In the latter case, by rotating the effective throat area onto the x–z plane, stresses parallel to the
x–axis will develop (τ⊥):
𝐹
𝜏⊥ =
2𝐿𝑎
Inclined fillet welds: In the case of two fillets placed obliquely with respect to the direction of
the force, in the effective throat area there will be two components of the force; one tangential
to the longitudinal axis of the weld (V = F cosθ) and one perpendicular to it (N = Fsinθ), thus
creating a state of stress that is more complicated with respect to the two previous cases.

Figure 5-27: Welded connection with inclined fillets.

With reference to Figure 5-27, by rotating the effective throat area onto the horizontal plane,
all associated stresses are contained within that plane. In particular, we have:
𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜏⊥ =
2𝐿𝑎
𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝜏∕∕ =
2𝐿𝑎
If the effective throat area is rotated onto the vertical plane, the state of stress instead becomes:

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𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜎⊥ =
2𝐿𝑎
𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝜏∕∕ =
2𝐿𝑎
ii. Simplified method
Alternatively to Directional method the design resistance of a fillet weld may be assumed to be
adequate if, at every point along its length, the resultant of all the forces per unit transmitted
by the weld satisfy the fol1owing criterion:
𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ;
𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
Independent of the orientation of the weld throat plane to the applied force, the design
resistance per unit length 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 should be determined from:

𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠;

𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑.

The design shear strength 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 of the weld should be determined from:
𝑓𝑢
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 =
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
Where: 𝑓𝑢 and 𝛽𝑤 are defined in Directional method.

d) Long joints
In lap joints the resistance of a fillet weld should be reduced by multiplying it by a reduction
factor βLW to allow for the effects of non-uniform distribution of stress along its length. This
provisions do not apply when the stress distribution along the weld corresponds to the stress
distribution in the adjacent base metal, as, for example, in the case of a weld connecting the
flange and the web of a plate girder.
In lap joints longer than 150a the reduction factor βLW should be taken as βLW.1 given by:
0.2𝐿𝑗
𝛽𝐿𝑊.1 = 1.2 − ≤ 1.0
150𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟.
For fillet welds longer than 1.7metres connecting transverse stiffeners in plated members, the
reduction factor βLW may be taken as βLW.2 given by:
𝐿𝑤
𝛽𝐿𝑊.2 = 1.1 − 𝑏𝑢𝑡 0.6 ≤ 𝛽𝐿𝑊.2 ≤ 1.0
17
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑( 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠)

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5.2.2.2 Design resistance of fillet welds all round

The design resistance of a fillet weld all round should be determined using the same expressions
of a fillet weld (see, section 5.2.2.1).
5.2.2.3 Design resistance of butt welds

a) Full penetration butt welds

The design resistance of a full penetration butt weld should be taken as equal to the design
resistance of the weaker of the parts connected, provided that the weld is made with a suitable
consumable which will produce all-weld tensile specimens having both a minimum yield
strength and a minimum tensile strength not less than those specified for the parent metal.
b) Partial penetration butt welds
The evaluation of the design resistance of a partial penetration butt weld, see Figure 5-28, is
similar to the one prescribed for a deep penetration fillet weld. The throat thickness of a partial
penetration butt weld should not be greater than the depth of penetration that can be consistently
achieved.

Figure 5-28: Butt weld with partial penetration

c) T-butt joints
The design resistance of a T-butt joint, consisting of a pair of partial penetration butt welds
reinforced by superimposed fillet welds, may be determined as for a full penetration butt weld
if the total nominal throat thickness, exclusive of the unwelded gap, is not less than the
thickness t of the part forming the stem of the tee joint, provided that the unwe1ded gap is not
more than (t / 5) or 3mm, whichever is less, see Figure 5-29. If it is not the case, the resistance
should be determined using the method for a fillet weld or a deep penetration fillet weld,
depending on the amount of penetration. The throat thickness should be determined in
conformity with the provisions for fillet welds or partial penetration butt welds, as relevant.

Figure 5-29: Effective full penetration of T -butt welds

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5.2.2.4 Design resistance of plug welds

The design resistance Fw,Rd of a plug weld should be taken as:
𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝐴𝑤

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐴𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒;
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 .

The design shear strength 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 of the weld should be determined from:
𝑓𝑢
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 =
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
Where: 𝑓𝑢 and 𝛽𝑤 are defined in Directional method.
Example 5.5: An angle L120 × 80 × 12, S275 brace in tension connected to a gusset plate 250
× 300 × 15, S275. Design axial tensile force applied by the angle brace to the gusset plate, NEd
is 250kN. The gusset plate is welded to the column web and to the base plate using double fillet
welds. Design the weld between the gusset plate and the base plate.

Solution:
1) Determine the throat thickness, a
The procedure to determine the throat thickness of the double fillet welds is the same for the
gusset plate/column web connection and for the gusset plate/base plate connection.
It is possible to provide full strength double fillet welds following simplified recommendations,
however that approach is too conservative for this example. The recommended procedure to
follow is to propose a size of the weld throat and to check whether it complies with the
requirement of resistance: Here, propose
𝐺𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑏: 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑎 = 4 𝑚𝑚 > 3𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘
𝐺𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒: 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑎 = 4 𝑚𝑚 > 3𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘
The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3mm.

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2) Check the design resistance

Design resistance for the double weld, according to the simplified method is:
𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 2𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙

𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎
𝑓𝑢
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 =
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
𝛽𝑤 = 0.85 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆275 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)
430
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 = = 233.66 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
√3 × 0.85 × 1.25
𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎 = 233.66 × 4 = 934.64 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚
250𝑚𝑚 → 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒: 𝑙 = {
300𝑚𝑚 → ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 2𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙 = 2 × 934.64 × 250 × 10−3 = 467.32𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 2𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙 = 2 × 934.64 × 300 × 10−3 = 560.78𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑,ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 250 sin 400 = 161𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 = 250𝑘 ⟹ {
𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 250 cos 400 = 191.51𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑,ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 161𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 467.32𝑘𝑁 − − − − − −𝑜𝑘!

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 191.51𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 560.78𝑘𝑁 − − − − − 𝑜𝑘!

Therefore the weld is OK.
Example 5.6: Verify in accordance with EN1993-1-8, the welded connection in Figure 5-30
between a plate 250 × 20 mm in tension and a column flange, realized by one fillet weld
orthogonal to the force axes.

Figure 5-30
Applied tension force: N= 900kN
Steel: S275 fu=430N/mm2 →ßw=0.85
Fillet length: l= 250mm
Fillet side: d =20mm
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Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

1) Determine the throat thickness, a

The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3mm.
𝑑 20
𝑎= = = 14𝑚𝑚 ≥ 3𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘
√2 √2
2) Check the design resistance
Design resistance for the weld, according to the Directional method is:
The design resistance of the fillet weld will be sufficient if the following are both satisfied:
𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑢
√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) ≤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎⊥ ≤ 0.9
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀2
𝛽𝑤 = 0.85 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆275 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)
Transverse fillet welds: The stress is resolved into stress perpendicular and parallel to axes of
weld throat calculated as follows:

𝐹 √2 900 × 103 √2
𝜏⊥ = 𝜎⊥ = × = × = 181.83𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐿𝑎 2 250 × 14 2
𝑓𝑢 430
𝜎⊥ = 181.83𝑀𝑝𝑎 ≤ 0.9 = 0.9 × = 309.6𝑀𝑝𝑎 − − − −𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
𝜏∥ = 0

√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) = √181.832 + 3(181.832 + 02 ) = 363.66𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝑓𝑢 430
= = 404.71𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 0.85 × 1.25
363.66𝑀𝑝𝑎 ≤ 404.71𝑀𝑝𝑎 − − − − − 𝑜𝑘!
Design resistance for the weld, according to the simplified method is:
𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙

𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎
𝑓𝑢
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 =
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
𝛽𝑤 = 0.85 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆275 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)
430
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 = = 233.66 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
√3 × 0.85 × 1.25
𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎 = 233.66 × 14 = 3,271.24 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚

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Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑, = 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙 = 3,271.24 × 250 × 10−3 = 817.81𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 = 900𝑘𝑁 ≰ 𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,ℎ = 817.81𝑘𝑁 − − − − − −𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒!

As can be noted, in this case the EN 1993-1-8 simplified method is more conservative than the
directional method and the weld results are verified with the first method but not with the
second one.
Example 5.7: Verify in accordance with the EN 1993-1-8 provisions, the welded connection
between a UPN 240 profile in bending, connected to a gusset plate by two fillet welds of same
length (Figure 5-31). Use two fillet welds of side length of 10mm and length of 200mm each.

Figure 5-31
Applied load: T= 90kN
Steel: S275 fu=430N/mm2 →ßw=0.85
Load eccentricity: e = 600 mm
1) Calculate the forces acting on each fillet
a) Force parallel to fillet axes (h is profile depth):
𝑇𝑒 90 × 600
𝑇1 = = = 225𝑘𝑁
ℎ 240
b) Force orthogonal to fillet axes:
𝑇 90
𝑇2 = = = 45𝑘𝑁
2 2
2) Determine the throat thickness, a
The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3mm.
𝑑 10
𝑎= = = 7𝑚𝑚 ≥ 3𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘
√2 √2
3) Check the design resistance
Design resistance for the weld, according to the Directional method is:
The design resistance of the fillet weld will be sufficient if the following are both satisfied:
𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑢
√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) ≤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎⊥ ≤ 0.9
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀2
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Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

𝛽𝑤 = 0.85 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆275 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)

Transverse fillet welds: The stress is resolved into stress perpendicular and parallel to axes of
weld throat calculated as follows:

𝑇⁄2 √2 45 × 103 √2
𝜏⊥ = 𝜎⊥ = × = × = 22.73𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐿𝑎 2 200 × 7 2
𝑓𝑢 430
𝜎⊥ = 22.73𝑀𝑝𝑎 ≤ 0.9 = 0.9 × = 309.6𝑀𝑝𝑎 − − − −𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
𝑇1 225 × 103
𝜏∥ = = = 160.71𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑙𝑎 200 × 7

√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) = √22.732 + 3(22.732 + 160.71) = 282.05𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝑓𝑢 430
= = 404.71𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 0.85 × 1.25
282.05𝑀𝑝𝑎 ≤ 404.71𝑀𝑝𝑎 − − − − − 𝑜𝑘!
Design resistance for the weld, according to the simplified method is:
𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙

𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎
𝑓𝑢
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 =
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
𝛽𝑤 = 0.85 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆275 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)
430
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 = = 233.66 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
√3 × 0.85 × 1.25
𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎 = 233.66 × 7 = 1,635.62 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚

2 2
𝑇1 2 𝑇2 2 225 × 103 45 × 103
𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 √ √
= ( ) +( ) = ( ) +( ) = 1,147.28 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚
𝑙 𝑙 200 200

𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 = 1,147.28 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 ≤ 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 1,635.62 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘

or
𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑, = 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙 = 1,635.62 × 200 × 10−3 = 327.12𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑤,𝐸𝑑 = √𝑇1 2 + 𝑇2 2 = √(225)2 + (45)2 = 229.46𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑤,𝐸𝑑 = 229.46𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑, = 327.12𝑘𝑁 − − − −𝑜𝑘

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GIRUM MINDAYE 182
Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

5.3 Example of Bolt weld connection

(1). Design the short end plate connection of primary beam of cross-section IPE by bolts M16
Class 4.6, see Figure 5-32. The acting vertical shear force VEd = 48.8kN. The primary beam
is connected to column web of cross section HEB 260, steel S235.

Figure 5-32: Header plate connection

Solution
1) Steel grade for bolt and plate
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 8; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 4.6
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = 240 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 400 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆235 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)
𝑓𝑦 = 235 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 360 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
2) Positioning of holes for bolts according Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8
𝑑0 = 𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑀24, 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 ⟹ 𝑑0 = 16 + 2 = 18𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚
Distance(ei) and Minimum Maximum
spacing(pi)
End distance, e1 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 18 = 21.6𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 72𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 18 = 21.6𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 72𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 2.2𝑑0 = 2.2 × 18 = 39.6𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 112𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p2) 2.4𝑑0 = 2.4 × 18 = 43.2𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 112𝑚𝑚

Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Adopted

End distance, e1 35𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 25𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 60𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p2) 80𝑚𝑚

3) Bolt in Shear

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GIRUM MINDAYE 183
Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

If the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt, the design resistance of
bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 4.6

𝐴𝑠 = 157𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

2𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠 0.6 × 400 × 157
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 30.14𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25

If the shear plane passes through the shank (unthreaded portion) of the bolt, the design
resistance of bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

A = 201𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

0.6𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴 0.6 × 400 × 201
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 38.59𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
∴ 𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = 30.14𝑘𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

4) Bolt in bearing

The bearing action is decisive to column web of cross section HEB 260 since the 10mm thick
is thinner than the short end plate (8+8=16mm thick).

The design bearing resistance per bolt (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ) is determined as follows:

𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
a) Bearing of end bolt

𝑒2 25
2.8
− 1.7 = 2.8 × − 1.7 = 2.19
𝑑0 18
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 80 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.19
1.4 − 1.7 = 1.4 × − 1.7 = 4.52
𝑑0 18
{ 2.5
𝑒1 35
= = 0.65
3𝑑0 3 × 18
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 400 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.65
= = 1.11
𝑓𝑢 360
{ 1.0

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Steel and Timber Structures AASTU

k1 αb fu dt 2.19 × 0.65 × 360 × 16 × 10

Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 65.59𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

b) Bearing of inner bolt

𝑝2 80
1.4 − 1.7 = 1.4 × − 1.7 = 4.52
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑑0 18 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
2.5
𝑝1 1 60 1
− = − = 0.86
3𝑑0 4 3 × 18 4
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 400 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.86
= = 1.11
𝑓𝑢 360
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.86 × 360 × 16 × 10
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 99.07𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fb,Rd = 65.59𝑘𝑁

5) The design resistance of a group of bolts

The design resistance of a group of fasteners may be taken as the sum of the design bearing
resistances Fb,Rd of the individual fasteners provided that the shear resistance Fv,Rd of each
individual fastener is greater than or equal to the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd. Otherwise
the design resistance of a group of fasteners should be taken as the number of fasteners
multiplied by the smallest design resistance of any of the individual fasteners.

Fv,Rd = 30.14kN < Fb,Rd = 65.59𝑘𝑁

⟹ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, 𝑛)(𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fv,Rd )

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 𝑛(𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fv,Rd ) ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 48.8
𝑛≥ = = 1.62 ⟹ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑛 = 2 𝑏𝑢𝑡
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fv,Rd 30.14

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 4 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 4 × 30.14 = 120.56𝑘𝑁 ≥ 𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑 = 48.8𝑘𝑁 𝑜𝑘!

6) Determine the throat thickness, a

The recommended procedure to follow is to propose a size of the weld throat and to check
whether it complies with the requirement of resistance: Here, propose
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑃𝐸 240: 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑎 = 3 𝑚𝑚 ≥ 3𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘

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The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3mm.
7) Check the design resistance
Design resistance for the double weld, according to the simplified method is:
𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 2𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙

𝐹𝑤,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑

𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎
𝑓𝑢
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 =
√3𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
𝛽𝑤 = 0.8 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆235 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)
360
𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 = = 207.85 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
√3 × 0.8 × 1.25
𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑣𝑤,𝑑 𝑎 = 207.85 × 3 = 623.55 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚

𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒: 𝑙 = 130𝑚𝑚

𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 2𝐹𝑤,𝑅𝑑 𝑙 = 2 × 623.55 × 130 × 10−3 = 162.12𝑘𝑁

𝑁𝑡,𝐸𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 48.8𝑘𝑁 ≤ 𝑁𝑤,𝑅𝑑,𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 162.12𝑘𝑁 − − − − − 𝑜𝑘!

Overall, the connection design is satisfactory.
(2). Examine the secondary beam to column connection by fin plate, see Figure 5-33. The
connection transfers vertical shear force VEd = 30kN. Steel S235 and fully threaded
boltsM20 Class 5.6 are used for the design.

Figure 5-33: Fin plate connection

Solution:
4) Steel grade for bolt and plate
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 8; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 5.6
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = 300 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 500 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁1993 − 1 − 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 40𝑚𝑚 & 𝑆235 (𝐸𝑁 10025 − 2)

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𝑓𝑦 = 235 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
{
𝑓𝑢 = 360 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
5) Positioning of holes for bolts according Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8
𝑑0 = 𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀16 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑀24, 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 ⟹ 𝑑0 = 20 + 2 = 22𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ⟹ 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑚
Distance(ei) and Minimum Maximum
spacing(pi)
End distance, e1 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 80𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 1.2𝑑0 = 1.2 × 22 = 26.4𝑚𝑚 4𝑡 + 40 𝑚𝑚 = 80𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 2.2𝑑0 = 2.2 × 18 = 39.6𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑖𝑛. (14𝑡, 200 𝑚𝑚) = 140𝑚𝑚

Distance(ei) and spacing(pi) Adopted

End distance, e1 40𝑚𝑚
Edge distance, e2 40𝑚𝑚
Spacing (p1) 60𝑚𝑚

6) Bolt in Shear

The bolt is fully threaded. So, the design resistance of bolts in shear (Fv,Rd ) is
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2

𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 5.6

𝐴𝑠 = 245𝑚𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀20 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡

2𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠 0.6 × 500 × 245
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = × 10−3 = 58.8𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
7) Bolt in bearing

The bearing action is decisive to beam web of cross section IPE 200 since the 5.6mm thick is
thinner than the fin plate (10mm thick).

The design bearing resistance per bolt (𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 ) is determined as follows:

𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2
a) Bearing of end bolt

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𝑒2 40
2.8 − 1.7 = 2.8 × − 1.7 = 3.39
𝑑0 22
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑝2 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
1.4 − 1.7 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝2 = 0
𝑑0
{ 2.5
𝑒1 40
= = 0.61
3𝑑0 3 × 22
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 500 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.61
= = 1.39
𝑓𝑢 360
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.61 × 360 × 20 × 5.6
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 49.19𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

b) Bearing of inner bolt

𝑝2
1.4 − 1.7 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑏. 𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝2 = 0
𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑑0 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 2.5
2.5
𝑝1 1 60 1
− = − = 0.66
3𝑑0 4 3 × 22 4
𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑏 500 ⟹ 𝑘1 = 0.66
= = 1.39
𝑓𝑢 360
{ 1.0
k1 αb fu dt 2.5 × 0.66 × 360 × 20 × 5.6
Fb,Rd = = × 10−3 = 53.22𝑘𝑁
γM2 1.25

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 Fb,Rd = 49.19𝑘𝑁

8) The design resistance of a group of bolts

The design resistance of a group of fasteners may be taken as the sum of the design bearing
resistances Fb,Rd of the individual fasteners provided that the shear resistance Fv,Rd of each
individual fastener is greater than or equal to the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd. Otherwise
the design resistance of a group of fasteners should be taken as the number of fasteners
multiplied by the smallest design resistance of any of the individual fasteners.

Fv,Rd = 58.8kN > Fb,Rd = 49.19𝑘𝑁

𝑛

⟹ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = ∑ Fb,Rd ≥ 𝑉 𝐸𝑑

𝑖=1

Fb,Rd = 49.19𝑘𝑁 ≥ 𝑉 𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁

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One bolt is enough to resist the design shear force. But two bolts are provided here for proper
connection.
9) Design block shear tearing resistance of fine plate
For a bolt group subject to eccentric loading the design block shear tearing resistance is
Veff,2,Rd by:
0.5𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡 1 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓,2,𝑅𝑑 = +
𝛾𝑀2 √3 𝛾𝑀0
𝐴𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟.

22
𝐴𝑛𝑡 = 10 × (40 − ) = 290𝑚𝑚2
2
22
𝐴𝑛𝑣 = 10 × (40 + 60 − 22 − ) = 670𝑚𝑚2
2
0.5 × 360 × 290 235 × 670
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓,2,𝑅𝑑 = ( + ) × 10−3 = 132.66𝑘𝑁 ≥ 𝑉 𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁 → 𝑜𝑘!
1.25 √3 × 1.0
10) Design block shear tearing resistance of beam web
For the beam web, the design block shear resistance is evaluated in a similar way as for the
fin plate
0.5𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑡 1 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓,2,𝑅𝑑 = +
𝛾𝑀2 √3 𝛾𝑀0

22
𝐴𝑛𝑡 = 5.6 × (40 − ) = 162.4𝑚𝑚2
2
22
𝐴𝑛𝑣 = 5.6 × (25 + 40 + 60 − 22 − ) = 515.2𝑚𝑚2
2
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0.5 × 360 × 162.4 235 × 515.2

𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓,2,𝑅𝑑 = ( + ) × 10−3 = 93.29𝑘𝑁 ≥ 𝑉 𝐸𝑑 = 30𝑘𝑁 → 𝑜𝑘!
1.25 √3 × 1.0
11) Determine the throat thickness, a
The recommended procedure to follow is to propose a size of the weld throat and to check
whether it complies with the requirement of resistance: Here, propose
𝑓𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑃𝐸 200: 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑎 = 4 𝑚𝑚 ≥ 3𝑚𝑚 − − − 𝑜𝑘
The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3mm.
12) Check the design resistance
Design resistance for the double weld, according to the Directional method is:
The design resistance of the fillet weld will be sufficient if the following are both satisfied:
𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑢
√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) ≤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎⊥ ≤ 0.9
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀2
𝛽𝑤 = 0.8 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆235 𝐸𝑁 10025 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4.1 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑁 1993 − 1 − 8)
Eccentricity of acting shear force in bolts creates a bending moment in welds:
𝑒 = 10 + 40 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 𝑉𝐸𝑑 𝑒 = 30 × 0.05 = 1.5𝑘𝑁𝑚
The moments introduces stress 𝜎𝑤 is plane of the fin plate:
𝑀𝐸𝑑 1.5 × 106
𝜎𝑤 = = = 57.40𝑀𝑝𝑎
2𝑎𝑙 2⁄6 2 × 4 × 1402 ⁄6
This stress is resolved into stress perpendicular and parallel to axes of weld throat calculated
as follows:
𝜎𝑤 57.40
𝜏⊥ = 𝜎⊥ = = = 40.59𝑀𝑝𝑎
√2 √2
𝑓𝑢 360
𝜎⊥ = 40.59𝑀𝑝𝑎 ≤ 0.9 = 0.9 × = 259.2𝑀𝑝𝑎 − − − −𝑜𝑘!
𝛾𝑀2 1.25
𝑉 𝐸𝑑 30 × 103
𝜏∥ = = = 26.79𝑀𝑝𝑎
2𝑎𝑙 2 × 4 × 140

√𝜎⊥ 2 + 3(𝜏⊥ 2 + 𝜏∥ 2 ) = √40.592 + 3(40.592 + 26.792 ) = 93.51𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝑓𝑢 360
= = 360𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝛽𝑤 𝛾𝑀2 0.8 × 1.25
93.51𝑀𝑝𝑎 ≤ 360𝑀𝑝𝑎 − − − − − 𝑜𝑘!
Overall, the connection design is satisfactory.

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6 Introduction to timber structures

6.1 Timber Properties

6.2 EBCS EN1995-1 & 2 for design of timber

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