COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SPORT SCIENCE

Exit Exam Selected Sport Science Course
For Regular Student’s
Prepared Module Based
On
Blueprint Module for National Exit Examination

Program: Bachelor of Science Degree in sport science

Compiled By: Sport Science Staffs

June, 2023
Bonga University

Bonga

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 MODULE ONE

HISTORY AND CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

1. Definitions of Physical education & sports
Physical education-Physical education is an education which is given mainly through
physical activities to develop and maintain all aspects of personality as physical, mental and
social well-being. Generally, Physical education is an education which is mainly acquired
through physical activities.
Sport;-Is an organized, competitive form of play. It is difficult to think of sport outside the
concept of competition. Without competition, sport becomes simply a play or a recreational
activity with no clearly defined purpose in mind.

Play-Is an activity used for amusement (enjoyment, fun, relaxation or recreational). Play is
essentially an activity, in which an individual enjoyed alone, though it can involve others, who
perceive the play from their perspective and may not be in the mood for play.
Game-Is a structured playing, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an
educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which usually carried out for remuneration,
and from art, which is more often an expression of aesthetic or ideological elements.
Recreation-This is concerned with those activities performed by an individual outside working
hours. Recreation is frequently referred to as a leisure time or free time activity.

Health:-It is a quality of life that includes physical, mental, and social wellbeing. According to
the WHO (world health organization), It refers to such qualities as physical, mental, emotional,
and social health. It is not limited to the absence of diseases.
Dance,:-The movement of the body in a rhythmic way, usually to music and within a given
space, for the purpose of expressing an idea or emotion, releasing energy, or simply taking
delight in the movement itself.

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

2.1 Physical education in ancient time

Physical education is education for survival. Human education is as old as humanity, from the
age of the cave man, the way man has viewed and used his body and mind has had an impact
on society, General education was physical education in early society for the environment
made great demands on the physical condition of man.
No organized physical education program was found in primitive society or in the cultures of
ancient nations. Well-developed body’s and sound organic systems were common place
among primitive people. Their physical activities were hunting for searching food, erecting
shelters and protecting themselves from the hostile environment. Therefore, physical
education is education for survival in the ancient time
2.1.1 Physical Education in ancient Egypt

The Considerable settlement around the Nile River results the foundation of two Egypt. The
upper and and Lower Egypt. After their unification, their life was based on agriculture and
vocational engineering other than education.

• Their way of living needs more of physical strength; they were expected to be fit
enough to cope up their daily tasks.

• Hence Egyptians practiced various types of vigorous physical activities.

Egyptians made some advances in medicine and apparently saw some relationship betw
The peaceful, practical Egyptians were more interested in the vocational, recreational, and
religious objectives of physical education than in military or health objectives.

• The soldier, dancer, wrestler, and acrobat needed to acquire the skills of their
professions, observing other people perform was a popular form of recreation.

• In ancient Egypt, swimming was one of the popular sports, even among women. They
also pract ice wrestling and war dances.

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• From the paintings, reliefs, vases, mosaics, and writing, we learn that the Egyptians
enjoyed wrestling, dancing and gymnastic games.

• Tests of lifting, single stick fighting, jousting, dice, and other games of chance were
also popular.

• Men, women and children played ball games.

Ball playing seemed mainly to be a tossing or juggling game; sometimes it was the forfeit
game, whoever failed to catch a ball had to be the donkey and carry the other person on
his shoulder while the others continued playing.

• With regard to the method of physical education in Egypt, youngsters learned by

imitating the movement of their parents or tutors. Rather severe discipline and
considerable drilling were apparently part of the on-the-job training.

2.1.2 Physical Education in Ancient China.

Chinese education embraced physical training as well as the intellectual, moral and
aesthetic training. Some of the activities were recreation and some were promoted to
mold moral character and correct conduct. Football one of the modern sport has its origin
from China was first promoted as a military exercise, but later become a popular sport of
the people.

The spirit of the sport was accompanied by a spirit of a good sportsmanship which was
expressed in a poem. For instance a poem was written by Li Yu (50-130 AD): They used to
teach by synchronizing music with physical activities. Physical Education was not
important to the aims of general education in India due to the religious philosophy that
emphasizes the abnegation of life; there was also a cast system that elevated the status
of intellectual which degraded many forms of labor.

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2.1.3. Physical Education in Ancient India

Physical Education was not important to the aims of general education in India due to the
religious philosophy that emphasizes the abnegation of life; there was also a cast system
that elevated the status of intellectual which degraded many forms of labor. They were
integrated with the religious or vocational education some of the physical education
activities, however, were part of the daily religious practices and the periodic festivals and
ceremonies. The game of dice played separately and as a part of board game.

Betting on animal fights, Polo, and wrestling were also popular for Indians.

2.1.4. Physical education in Babylon and Assyria

These people were motivated partly by military goals and partly by sports. They did not
give sports and games as much emphasis as Egyptians. They practiced in a wide variety
of physical activities like equestrian ship and archery. They also practiced singing and
dance to both religion and amusement of common people. They hunted not only for food
but also as preparation for war.

They took swimming as a basic part of warrior.

2.1.5. Physical education in ancient Iran

The Persians were noted hunters expert, equestrians and brave worriers. Wrestling, feats
of strength, hunting and polo were the other types of sports of Persia. In the history of
ancient man, the highest level reached in physical training was the Persian training. It was
the nation of conquerors with the aim of military aggression.

They formulated a program of training, which aimed at physical and moral education of
youth. Persians were interested to teach their boys three main things. These include: -To
ride a horse. -To shoot with weapon. -To tell the truth their physical training started at the
age of six for boys with vigorous physical and military training. The exercises include
running, Singing, shooting the bow and throwing javelins.
2.1.6. Physical education in ancient Greek
Class 12stratification was the base for the Greek society. Greek was the birthplace of
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 civilization.
Moreover, the games played by the early Greeks grounded in mythology and religious
beliefs. They were held in conjunction with festivals involving a combination of prayer,
scarifies and religious service along with music, dancing and ritual feasts. In honor of
different gods, Numbers of sporting competitions were organized. For instance, the
Olympic Games were considered to be the most important competition because they were
held in honor of ‘Zeus‘‘the king of gods.. To understand the educational development more
specifically the importance and practice of physical education in Ancient Greek, It is
necessary to divide the Greek history in to three:-

1. The Homeric Greeks (before 776B.c.

The aim of physical education in Greek was to develop a ‗man of action’. Intermittent
warfare was the pattern of Homeric life. Every citizen was a soldier, and physical fitness
was a necessity. The early Greek exercises calculated to produce the qualities needed for
the conduct of war, namely strength, endurance, agility, and bravery. . During the Homeric
age, there were no formal educational institutions. The agencies of education were the
family or clan. The mother or nurse, father or the elders educated the children. Formal
athletic meeting performed in the Homeric age. Early Greek gymnastic events were simple
and informal. Frequently they were associated with a religious festival or a friendly
gathering of men honoring a deceased comrade. . Yet no gymnasiums, racecourses, nor
play areas were available. Any natural environment suitable to the sport selected for the
purpose. With regard to the types of sporting activities, which were held in Homeric age
was for the honor of Patroclus, a friend of.The chariot race, a sport reserved for noblemen,
was the first event of sporting competitions. After the chariot race, the boxing match
came. In addition, after the wrestling match held, a foot race followed. To honor
Patroclus javelin throw was the fifth contest held.

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2. The Spartan Greeks.

• The Spartans and Athenians were the first to have a type of physical education. The
Spartan system was similar to a dictatorship.

• At the age of seven, male children learn basic military skills while living in barracks.

• The goal of education in Sparta was to produce solder-citizens. Moreover, the Spartan
physical education designed to develop a man of action who possessed brute strength,
physical endurance, courage and military skill. In short, in ancient Sparta, the purpose
of education was to produce a well drilled, well-disciplined marching army.

• Every Spartan, male or female, was required to have a perfect body.

• When babies were born in ancient Sparta, Spartan soldiers would come by the house
and check the baby.

• If the baby did not appear healthy and strong, the infant was taken away to be trained
as a slave (a helot).

• Babies who passed this examination were assigned membership in a brotherhood or

sisterhood, usually the same one to which their boys.

3. The Athenian Greeks

• The physical education philosophy of the Athenians was the high point of physical
education for many years.

• Athenians differ sharply from Spartans. The Greek ideal became the Athenian ideal as
this city-state sought to provide on educational system that encourage boys to develop
their physical and mental abilities. Girls were remained at home under the care of their
mothers and receiving little or no education. Once married they lived secluded lives.

• From 20 years of age up to the end of their life, upper class Athenian men did not work
but instead spent their days at government furnished gymnasiums.

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• There they practiced athletics to maintain their readiness as warriors in case they
needed by the state.

• Intellectual discussions, governmental decisions and social interactions were equally

important occurrences at the gymnasium.

• Greek dancing provided one means of honouring the gods as part of religious
workshop and also enhanced physical conditioning and demonstrated the symmetry
and beauty adhered by Athenians.

2.1.7. Physical Education during the Dark Age

• The Roman era is a bit disturbing, but is nonetheless a cycle of physical education.

• Physical education for the Romans was about athletics, which was primarily about
entertainment, and forced to fight until death and fed to lions.

• During the dark ages, religion viewed physical education as a waste of time and a work
of the devil.

• The dark ages were a very sedentary time for human civilization.

• Bodies are mortal the soul is immortal.

• No school in the dark ages could physical education have found a place.

2.2. Physical education and sport in middle age

• During the middle ages, the Greek festivals and the roman spectacles were replaced by
local games and tournaments.

• The games played by the peasants emerged from the combined influence of local
customs and Roman Catholic Church.

• The tournaments of feudal aristocracy, however, emerged from the demands of

military training and the desire for entertainment among the nobles and those who
severed them.

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• Local peasants noticed the Roman Catholic Church accepted peasant ball games.

• In fact, local priests encouraged games by opening up church grounds on holyday and
Sundays afternoons to groups of participants. In this way the games, simply became a
part of village life. They were included with the music, dancing and religions services
held in conjunction with seasonal ceremonies and saints' days.

• These local ball games contained the roots for many contemporary games, such as
soccer field, hockey, football, rugby, bowing curling, baseball, and cricket the games
played in peasant villages had little strutted and few rules.

• The games of the upper classes were distinctively different from the games of the
peasants during the middle ages.

• Moreover, gender roles differentiated, and upper class women did little outside the
walls of the dwellings.

• However good parts of the medieval period, the most popular sporting events among
the upper classes were tournaments consisting of series of war games.

• These games and tournaments focuses on combats between queen knights, who
divided in to two teams and fought under conditions similar to war in the grand journey
or melee.

• Medieval tournaments and games had full of the characteristics of modern sports.

• Despite the fact, they contained the roots for many contemporary sport activities.

• They lacked the specialization and organization of modern sports.

• They never involved the measurement and recording of athletic achievements.

• Moreover, they were no commitment to equal and open competition among athletes
from diverse background.

• The church required a religious and intellectual education for its clergy.

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 • Since before the fall of the Roman Empire and during the chaos of the Dark and Middle
Ages church became a bulwark of strength.

• However this christens influences surpassed physical education and especially took a
strong stand against sports.

2.3.1 Physical Education and sport during the Renaissance

• Physical education during the renaissance period is quite similar to physical education
today. However, it was rebirth of the learning of classical Greece and Rome.

• The Renaissance considered the period between 1300 and 1600 A.D.

• The word renaissance by itself means rebirth, when applied to this period of history
means a revival of rebirth, and when applied to this period of history means a revival or
rebirth of the learning of classical Greece and Rome.

• However, it was rebirth of the learning of classical Greece and Rome.

• Throughout the Renaissance period, women had relatively few opportunities to be

involved in sport activities. Peasant women sometimes played physical games.

• Upper-class women sometimes participated in activates like, bowling, Croquet, archery

and tennis out since women‘s were seen as being ‘Natural Weak and passive,' their
involvement was limited.

2.3. Physical education and sport in modern time

• During the 1700's, there was a big change in physical education largely attributed to
three people: Rousseau, Johan Simon, and Guts Muths.

• Rousseau was the first person to promote education for the masses and he thought of
play as being educational.

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 • In 1712, Rousseau invented an activity that is still used by millions of children every day,
recess. Johan Simon was the first physical education teacher and believed physical
education taught along with reading and writing.

• Simon believed physical education should include a lot of physical labour.

• Guts Muths developed a series of gymnastic apparatuses and believed physical

education developed very important social skills.

3.1. Philosophical foundation of Olympic movement

The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of
humankind, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation
of human dignity. ”
 There have been two generations of Olympic Games:
The Ancient Olympics games
• The modern Olympic games
3.2. Ancient Olympic game.
• The first written records of the ancient Olympic Games date to 776 B.C., when a cook
named Coroebus won the only event–a 192-meter footrace called the stadion (the
origin of the modern “stadium”) to become the first Olympic champion.
According to some literary traditions, this was the only athletic event of the games for the
first 13 Olympic festivals or until 724 BC. From 776 BC, the Games were held in Olympia
every four years for almost 12 centuries. The Olympic Games were closely linked to the
religious festivals of the cult of Zeus, but were not an integral part of a rite.
• Indeed, they had a secular character and aimed to show the physical qualities and
evolution of the performances.
• The ancient Olympics were held every four years between August 6 and September 19
during a religious festival honoring Zeus.
• The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events
alongside ritual sacrifices honoring Zeus.
• A great statue of Zeus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world was
erected in Olympia to preside over the Games.

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Artistic expression was a major part of the Games. Sculptors, poets and other artisans
would come to the Games to display their works in what became an artistic competition.
• Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th
century BC to the 5th century AD.
• The Olympic Games were a series of athletic competitions held for representatives
of various city–states of ancient Greece held in honors of Zeus.
• According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and
established the custom of holding them every four years
• A legend persists that after Heracles completed his twelve labors, he built the Olympic
stadium as an honor to Zeus.
• Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of
Olympic truce ekecheiria but records indicate that the Olympic Games began in
776 BC in Olympia, in Greece.
• The ancient Greeks began to stage a sporting contest every four years, or Olympiad, in
the town of Olympia. Each competitor covered their body with olive oil to highlight
their physique, and then competed in the nude.
• The event was not only a celebration of sporting ability, but also a celebration of
the beauty of the human body. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations and
artistic competitions.
• The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events
alongside ritual sacrifices honouring Zeus.
• A great statue of Zeus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world was
erected in Olympia to preside over the Games.
• The prizes for the victors were olive wreaths or crowns.
3.1.1 Ancient Olympic Games events
• At first, the Olympic Games lasted only one day, but eventually grew to five days.
• The Olympic Games originally contained one event: the stadion (or stade) ") race,
a short sprint measuring between 180 and 240 meters (590 and 790 ft), or the
length of the stadium.
• The length of the race is uncertain, since tracks found at archeological sites, as well as
literary evidence, provide conflicting measurements.

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• Runners had to pass five stakes that divided the lanes: one stake at the start,
another at the finish, and three stakes in between.
• The diulos, or two-stade race introduced in 724 BC.
• The race was a single lap of the stadium, approximately 400 meters (1,300 ft), and
scholars debate whether or not the runners had individual "turning" posts for the
return leg of the race, or whether all the runners approached a common post,
turned, and then raced back to the starting line.
• A third foot race the dolichos, introduced in 720 BC. Accounts of the race present
conflicting evidence as to the length of the dolichos ; however, the length of the
race was 18–24 laps, or about three miles (5 km).
• The event was run similarly to modern marathons the runners would begin and
end their event in the stadium proper, but the race course would wind its way
through the Olympic grounds.
• The last running event added to the Olympic program was the hoplitodromos, or
"Hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the Olympic
Games.
• The runners would run either a single or double diaulos (approximately 400 or 800
yards) in full or partial amour, carrying a shield and additionally equipped either
with greaves or a helmet.
• Boxing became increasingly brutal over the centuries. Initially, soft leather covered
their fingers, but eventually, hard leather weighted with metal sometimes was
used.
• The fights had no rest periods and no rules against hitting a man while he was
down.
• Bouts continued until one man either surrendered or died- however, killing an
opponent wasn't a good thing, as the dead boxer was automatically declared the
winner. In the chariot racing event, it was not the rider, but the owner of the
chariot and team who was considered to be the competitor, so one owner could
win more than one of the top spots.
• The addition of events meant the festival grew from one day to five days, three
of which were used for competition.

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 • The other two days dedicated to religious rituals. On the final day, there was a
banquet for all the participants, consisting of 100 oxen that had been sacrificed
to Zeus on the first day.
• In the entire history of the ancient Olympic Games, almost 1200 years, there were only
23 events contested.
• They were divided into men's track and field events, equestrian events and boy’s events.
• The Olympiads, the years that they were introduced, and the events were the following:
The events were divided into the following categories:
• Men's track and field (8 events)
• Boy's track and field (5 events)
• Equestrian events for full grown horses (3 events)
• Equestrian events for mules and mares (2 events)
• Equestrian events for young male horses (3 events)
• Specialty events (heralds and trumpeters) (2 events)
3.1.2 Decline and Revival of the Olympic Tradition
• After the Roman Empire conquered Greece in the mid-2nd century B.C., the Games
continued, but their standards and quality declined.
• It would be another 1,500 years before the Games would rise again, largely thanks to
the efforts of Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) of France.
• Dedicated to the promotion of physical education, the young baron became inspired by
the idea of creating a modern Olympic Games after visiting the ancient Olympic site.
• In November 1892, at a meeting of the Union des Sports Athlétiques in Paris, Coubertin
proposed the idea of reviving the Olympics as an international athletic competition held
every four years. Two years later, he got the approval he needed to found the
International Olympic Committee (IOC), which would become the governing body of the
modern Olympic Games.
3.2. Modern Olympic game.
• The idea to revive the Olympic Games was suggested in the mid-nineteenth
century, and by 1894 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was formed.
• The modern revival of the Olympic games was an educational project.

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• It grew from one man`s campaign to have physical activity included in his
nation`s educational curriculum. The reformer was a determined, idealistic French
aristocrat Pierre de Coubertin. He founded the IOC and serve as a president.
• Baron Pierre Coubertin today referred as the ‘father of modern Olympic Games’ &
others founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the modern Olympic
cycle on June 23, 1894 – a meeting at Sorbonne in Paris
• Although the ancient Games were staged in Olympia, Greece, from 776 BC through 393
AD, it took 1503 years for the Olympics to return.
• The poor physical condition of his generation, and the fascinating ancient Greek
philosophy and life style become the key toward the rebirth of the Olympic
Games. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896.
• At a conference on international sport in Paris in June 1894, Coubertin again raised the
idea, and the 79 delegates from nine countries unanimously approved his proposal.
• All the competitors were men, and a few of the entrants were tourists who stumbled
upon the Games and were allowed to sign up.
• The track-and-field events were held at the Panathenaic Stadium, which was originally
built in 330 B.C. and restored for the 1896 Games.
• Americans won nine out of 12 of these events.
• The distance of the modern marathon was standardized as 26 miles 385 yards (42.195
km) in 1908 when the Olympic Games were held in London.
• A Greek, Spyridon Louis, won the first marathon at the 1896 Athens Games.
• In the opening ceremony of the first modern Olympics held in Athens, Greece in 1896,
King Georgios I and a crowd of 60,000 spectators welcomed 280 participants from 13
nations (all male), who would compete in 43 events, including track and field,
gymnastics, swimming, wrestling, cycling, tennis, weightlifting, shooting and fencing.
• All subsequent Olympiads have been numbered even when no Games take place (as in
1916, during World War I, and in 1940 & 1944, during World War II).
• There is no ancient basis for this modern symbol. The Olympic Ring is made of five
Primary colors (Blue, Grey, Black, Green, and Red) which represent five Continent’s of
the globe.
3.2.1. The summer and winter Olympic

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• The modern version of the games involves two competitions; the Summer
Olympics and the Winter Olympics.
• These are separate events, which take place in different years and in different locations.
A. Summer Olympics
• The Summer Olympics is a much bigger competition and includes events such as
athletics (or 'track and field'), swimming, diving, boxing, wrestling, cycling,
basketball, sailing, rowing, football, hockey, tennis, equestrian, shooting,
weightlifting, gymnastics, etc. It occurs every four years.

B. Winter Olympics
• The Winter Olympics were created to feature snow and ice sports that were
logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games.
• Figure skating (in1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as
Olympic events at the Summer Olympics.
• The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter
activities.
• At the 1921 Olympic congress, in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of
the Olympic Games.
• A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix,
France; this event became the first winter Olympic Games.
• The Winter Olympics includes events such as skiing, ski jumping, speed skating,
figure skating, ice hockey, etc.

A. Paralympics Games
• In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the rehabilitation of soldiers
after World War II, organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide
with the 1948 London Olympics.

• Guttmann's event, known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games, became an annual
sports festival. Over the next twelve years, Guttmann and others continued their
efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing.

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• For the 1960 Olympic Games, in Rome, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to
compete in the "Parallel Olympics", which became known as the first Paralympics.

• Since then, the Paralympics held in every Olympic year.

3.3. The Olympic Movement.

• 1. International Federations ( IFs ) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at
an international level.

 For example, the International Fe eration of Association Football (FIFA)

• 2.National Olympic committees ( NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic
Movement within each country.
 For example, the United States Olympic committee (USOC) is the NOC of the
United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC.
• 3.Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games ( OCOGs ) constitute the temporary
committees responsible for the organization of a specific celebration of the
Olympics. OCOGs dissolved after each Game, once the final report delivered to the IOC.
• French and English are the official languages of the Olympic movement. The
other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country.
3.3.1. The aim of the Olympic movement
• Promoting sport and competitions through the intermediary of national and
international sports institutions worldwide.
• Cooperation with public and private organizations to place sport at the service of
mankind.
• Assistance to develop ‘Sport for all’.
• Advancement of women in sport at all levels and in all structures, with a view to
achieving equality between men and women. Help in the development of sport for all.
• Opposition to all forms of commercial exploitation of sport and athletes.
• The fight against doping.
• Promoting sports ethics and fair play.
• Raising awareness of environmental problems.
• Financial and educational support for developing countries through the IOC institution
Olympic Solidarity.

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 3.3.2 The Olympic Symbol, Flag, Flame, Mascot, Motto & Creed
• The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic
Charter.
• The Olympic symbol, better known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined
rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (America, Africa, Asia,
Australasia, and Europe).
• The colored version of the rings blue, yellow, black, green, and red over a white field
forms the Olympic flag. Each of them represents every nation because they had at
least one of them on its national flag.
• The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 summer
Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has been used during each celebration of the Games.

The Olympic Flame.

• Months before each Game, the Olympic flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony
that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, ignites a
torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun's rays; she
then lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Olympic torch relay
that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium, where it plays an
important role in the opening.

• The idea of the Olympic torch or Olympic Flame was first inaugurated in the 1928
Olympic Games in Amsterdam. There was no torch relay in the ancient Olympic Games.
There were known, however, torch relays in other ancient Greek athletic festivals
including those held at Athens. The modern Olympic torch relay was first instituted at
the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin.
2. The Olympic mascot.
• The Olympic mascot an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage
of the host country was introduced in 1968.
• It has played an important part on the Games identity promotion since the 1980
summer Olympics, when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international
stadium.

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 • The mascots of the most recent Summer Olympics, in Beijing, were the Fuwa,
five creatures that represent the five fengshui elements important in Chinese
culture. Besides the Olympic symbol, the Olympic motto and the Olympic creed
entails what Olympic is all about.
3. The Olympic motto.
• The Olympic motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning "Faster,
Higher, and Stronger".
4. The Olympic creed
• The Olympic creed as expressed by Coubertin the most important thing in the Olympic
Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not
the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to
have fought well.
5. The Olympic Charter
• The Olympic Charter is the codification of the Fundamental Principles, Rules and Bye-
laws adopted by the IOC. It governs the organization and running of the Olympic
Movement and sets the conditions for the celebration of the Olympic Games.
• Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the
IOC as the global supervisors of those sports.

THE HISTORY OF ETHIOPIAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

PE begun to be taught in Ethiopia exactly with the introduction of modern education in

the first modern schools.

• One of the first modern school, that was founded in 1905, in Addis Ababa was Minelik
II. The schools principal and teachers were Canadians, Swedish, Egyptians and French.

• Along with other subjects, these foreign teachers were teaching their students physical
education.

• Most of the schools in this time were boarding. Physical education was taught equally
as any academic subjects.

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 • Foreigners, teaching PE in these schools, were using curriculum designed for the
schools of their country.

• The establishment of the first teachers training institute in Addis Ababa, on the road to
Gefersa, had great contribution to the development of the field. The institute was
training Ethiopian teachers not only in academic subjects but also physical education
was the training program component of the institute. Along with teaching the subject,
intramural programs began to be organized. Gradually, the intramural programs
progressed to extramural program. The prominent actor in establishing the
association and the outstanding contributor to the development of physical education
was the Swedish, Major Oni Niscanen. He had been the first PE teacher and Gymnastic
trainer of the Imperial Guard, and then he became head of the department for physical
education, sport and scout in Ministry of Education.

ETHIOPIA IN OLYMPIC GAME

In October 1948 the National Sports Confederation of Ethiopia (CNSE) was formed. This
organisation proposed a motion for recognition to the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
on 9 December 1953 which was granted on 15 May 1954 at the IOC session in Athens. An
independent Ethiopian Olympic Committee was created on 25 June 1968. Ethiopia made its
first Olympic appearance in 1956 Melbourne Olympic by 12 athletes. That year, they were not
able to get a single Olympic medal. Their highest ranking athlete was cyclist Zehaye Bahta
who managed a 9th place finish. But the very next Olympics, they were able to win our very
first Olympic medal and a gold one at that. Abebe Bikila, who was actually a last minute
replacement, delivered one of the most stunning wins in Olympic history when Four years later,
he won again in the same event at Tokyo, Japan in October 21, 1964. Abebe Bikila not only
made history, he also paved the way for Ethiopia in Olympic excellence. Ethiopian athletes
have consistently taken home Olympic medals in every Summer Games they participated in
since 1960. It has since missed the 1976, 1984, and 1988 Olympics, all due to political
boycotts, making Ethiopia one of only three nations with Egypt and the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea (North) to have boycotted three Olympic Games. Ethiopian Olympic team of
1968 Mexico Olympic Source: Edwardo Byrano

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PHYSICAL EDUCATION TODAY AND THE FUTURE

PE in Ethiopia The subject was taught to the secondary school students without a planned
and well thought sequence of formal and common instructional experience. Teachers of the
time particularly those who came from other nations like from Britain, France, Canada, India
etc… were teaching physical education without being guided by any curriculum Rather they
were using the contents from the curriculum of their education. Curriculum in our context is
referred to as mainly a syllabus which In late1960 E.C the formal PE curriculum for all grade
levels was designed and implemented for the first time. It was one step forward to the
development of PE in primary, and secondary levels. However, the instructional experiences
and activities in the curriculum were seemed to be directly adopted from the Eastern system.
Most of the curriculum objectives, contents and the suggested resources did not consider the
school realities of our country.

There was no distinction between coaching and teaching in the curriculum. Teachers’ guides
for all activity areas like football, basketball, volleyball, etc. were crowded with advanced skills
and complex training drills that were far from the abilities of the students. Most of the
teachers’ guides seemed to be developed for sport training purposes. Following the issuance
of the New Education and Training Policy, the total curriculum reformation was made. The
current PE curriculum is well integrated with other fields of studies. Let say concepts and
principles of human physiology are integrated with physical activities to show the responses
of the heart, muscles, and other systems.

Vertical Relationship, among grade levels, Continuity of learning experiences in each grade.
Horizontal Relationship: Integration and relationship with other disciplines.

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 MODULE TWO

INTRODUCTION TO ADAPTED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SPORTS

Basic Concept of Adapted Physical Exercises And Sports To understand the concepts of
adapted physical exercises and sports, it is important to know the basic terms. Particularly,
the meanings of impairment, disability and handicap and the relation between them are the
most important aspects.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined impairment, disability and handicap as
the following:
The following are major concepts in Adapted Physical Exercise and sports:
1. Impairment: refers to any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or
anatomical structure or function. It is an abnormality of body structure, appearance
or organ loss. It is usually applied to sensory problems.

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 An impairment is a disturbance affecting functions that can be mental (memory,
consciousness) or sensory, internal (heart, kidney), or external (the head, the trunk or the
limbs). E.g. Hearing loss, mental illness, near sightedness, loss of leg
 Points to be considered:

 Impairment is independent of its etiology and it can be due to a genetic

abnormality and disease and/or an accident.

 Although pathology has involved originally, impairment does not necessarily

indicate that a disease is always present.

2. Disability: is any restriction or lack of ability (resulting from impairment) to perform an

activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a person of the same
age, culture and education.

A restriction or inability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range

considered normal for a human being, mostly resulting from impairment
 It refers to a situation in which a person’s functioning is reduced as a result of
significant physical, learning or social problems.

 It is performance deficit with in the physical and social environments and that is
the result of impairment. E.g. Unable to read, see, hear, dress ones clothes…

 Points to consider:

 Every impairment does not result in a disability.

 The limitation or inability to perform activities expected of a person is usually in

areas of self-care, mobility, recreational, economic activities and inter-personal
communication.

 A disability may be temporary or permanent.

The language that is used to describe people with disabilities has an impact on impressions
and attitudes. The consensus is to always refer to the person first rather than the disability.
For example, ‘person with cerebral palsy’, ‘person with downs syndrome.’

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It is widely recognized that using words such as ‘tragic,’ ‘afflicted,’ ‘victim’ or ‘confined to a
wheelchair’ should be avoided. Words such as ‘uses a wheelchair’ are widely considered more
appropriate. It is important to use normal language and to recognize that some terms are
more accepted than others and the language of disability can differ between countries.
3. Handicap
This is the result of an impairment or disability that limits or prevents the fulfillment of
one or several roles regarded as normal, depending on age, sex, social and cultural
factors.
 It is a disadvantage for a given individual resulting from an impairment or disability that
limits or prevents the fulfillment of the role that is typical( depending on age, gender,
social, cultural, etc.) for that individual.
 It is the disadvantage which is reflected in interaction with and adaptation to the
surroundings.
 One may have an impairment which results in disability but the disability only becomes
a handicap in terms of architectural, legal, social and political barriers in the
environment.
 A handicap occurs when supports are not available to compensate for or support the
performance of the disabling condition.
 Important points to consider with a handicap:
 A handicap is characterized by a difference between what the individual appears,
able to do and the expectations of the particular group of which s/he is a member.
There are various factors that reinforce societal expectations that excuse or
prohibit a person with disabilities from performing activities of which the
individual is capable. These are:
-Misconceptions (underestimation)
-Refusal to accommodate to an impairment skill level
-Unwillingness to allow the person to continue to do those tasks which he still
can do.
 Factors that prohibit a person with disabilities from functioning in appropriate
social roles may include lack of job opportunities and unavailable social support
system.

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  The state of being handicapped is strongly influenced by existing social value and
institutional arrangements such as inaccessible public building, lack of wide door
rooms, lack of accessible public transportation, negative public attitudes towards
persons with disabilities, etc.
 In general, the three terms (impairment, disability and handicap) are not
interchangeable. Impairment may or may not result in disability and disability may
or may not cause a handicap (e.g. a blind man who became a sportsman is no
more a handicap).
Impairment --------> Disability --------> Handicap
Impairment can generate a disability, which in turn can lead to a handicap. A handicap will
often lead to further social and economic exclusion.
14 Categories of Disability under IDEA Law:
There are 13 different disability categories as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), under which 3- through 22-years-olds may be eligible for services. In
order to qualify for special education, the IEP Team must determine that a child has a
disability in one of the 13 categories and it must adversely affect their educational
performance:
1. Autism Spectrum Disorder 8 .Deaf-Blindness
2. Deafness 9. Emotional Disturbance
3. Hearing Impairment 10. Intellectual Disability
4. Multiple Disabilities 11 .Orthopedic Impairment
5. Other Health Impairment 12. Specific Learning Disability
6. Speech or Language Impairment 13. Traumatic Brain Injury
7. Visual Impairment, including Blindness 14. Physical disability
The federal definitions guide how states define who is eligible for a free appropriate public
education (FAPE) under special education law:
1. AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER:

It is a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication

and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance and also a neurodevelopmental disorder that impairs a child’s ability
to communicate and interact with others. It also includes restricted repetitive behaviors,

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interests and activities. .
These issues cause significant impairment in social, occupational and other areas of
functioning. It is defined as a single disorder that includes disorders that were previously
considered separate – autism, Asperger’s syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and
pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified.

Some symptoms and characteristics:

 Difficulty communicating, Difficulty with social interactions, Repetitive behaviours or

speech
 Poor eye contact, Obsessive or intense interests in limited number of things
 Impulsivity, Learning disability or speech delay in childhood, Unaware of others
emotions
 Sensitivity to sound, Anxiety

Considerations in physical activities

 Many autistic individuals can function successfully with well-organizedstructured
physical activity programs.

 Selected physical activities should be developmentally appropriate.

 Physical activities for those individuals emphasize cardiovascular endurance activities.

These activities may include aerobic walking, aerobic dance, jogging/running.

2. EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE:

A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time
and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
(a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; (b)
An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers; (c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; (d) A
general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; (e) A tendency to develop physical
symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes
schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is

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determined that they have an emotional disturbance. (Examples: Anxiety disorder,
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression)
Characteristics of children with social, emotional and behavioral difficulties:
 Generally behave unusually
 May respond in an extreme fashion to a variety of social, personal, emotional or physical
circumstances
 Have low self-image, anxiety, depression or withdrawal
 May show resentment, vindictiveness or defiance
 Can be silent or may threaten, interrupt, argue or swear
 Can act clingy or refuse contact
 May fail to attend classes, or be frequently absent from school
 May fail to observe rules or be disruptive, destructive, aggressive or violent
 Are often unable or unwilling to work without direct supervision
 Are restless and unable to concentrate
 Are often unable and/or unwilling to complete tasks and follow instructions
3. INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES:
Significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently [at the same
time] with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance. (Note: “Intellectual Disability” is a new
term in IDEA. Until October 2010, the law used the term “mental retardation.”) (Example:
Down Syndrome) Some symptoms and characteristics: Difficulty thinking and understanding,
Hyperactivity, Restlessness, Impulsivity

3.1. Mental retardation

Mental retardation refers to a substantial limitation in certain but not all personal capabilities
including cognitive, functional and social abilities.

Mild Mental Retardation- IQ scores from 50 to 75

Moderate Mental Retardation- IQ scores between 35 and 50
Severe Mental Retardation -IQ scores between 20 and 35
Profound Mental Retardation- IQ below 20, # Mental retardation manifests before age
18

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Characteristics of mental retardation

 Persons with severe mental retardation most likely have adverse performance in social,
cognitive, language and motor development.
 Persons who are mentally retarded may be clumsy and awkward and lack balance
which affects their ability to perform motor tasks efficiently.
 Many students who are severely mentally retarded have difficulty in their social
interaction.
 Motor delays are very common among persons who are severely mentally retarded.
 Delay in developing postural reflexes impact the ability to perform such basic talks as
grasping objects, holding the hand up, sitting, standing and walking.
 Many individuals who are mentally retarded have postural abnormalities that include
misalignment of the trunk or legs

Special considerations in physical activity programs

 Physical education programs should be based on the nature and needs of the learner.
 Select activities to meet the students’ interest levels. Consider individual difference
when selecting the activities.
 Select activities primarily on the basis of the development of motor skills.
 Provide a broad spectrum of activities that have recreational and social significance
for later life.
 Individuals with mildest form of mental retardations, have a problem of
comprehending complex playing rules and strategies. Therefore,

 Place the student in a less demanding position

 Over-teach and constantly reinforce cognitive aspects of each game.

 The improvement of coordination and control of the body should be one of the
purposes when performing a variety of activities

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  The motor development program should be designed to age appropriate sport and
recreation skills as well as physical fitness, sensory awareness and the sense of being
part of a group.

4. MULTIPLE DISABILITIES:

Concomitant (simultaneous) impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness,

intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such
severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program
solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness.

5. ORTHOPEDIC IMPAIRMENT:

Severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The
term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease
(e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes. (Examples:
Cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures), Orthopedic
conditions are deformities, diseases, and injuries of the bones and joints. Orthopedic disability
includes arthritis, arthrogryposis (curved joints), ontogenesis imperfect, and osteomyelitis.
1. Arthritis
The term arthritis is derived from two Greek roots, “Arthro” meaning joint, and “itis” meaning
inflammation. It is an inflammation of one or more joints. Major contributors of arthritis could
be infection, hereditary factors, environmental stress, dietary deficiencies, trauma and organic
or emotional disturbances.
Characteristics of arthritis
 In most cases arthritis results in general fatigue, weight loss and muscular stiffness.

 Joint impairment is symmetrical, and the small joint of the hands and feet are affected
in the earliest stages.

 Tenderness and pain may occur in tendon and muscle near the inflamed joints.

 If the inflammation is not arrested in its early stages, joints become unclosed and
muscle atrophy and contract, eventually causing a twisted and deformed limb.

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  The thickening of the synovial tissue in joints that are inflamed.

Considerations in physical activity

Physical activity is critical to reduce pain and increased function.
 Exercises to improve and maintain range of motion.

 Exercises that strengthen muscles that surround and support affected joints.

 Aerobic exercises to improve cardiovascular endurance.

 Maintaining normal joint range of movement is of a prime concern for establishing a

functional joint.

 Joints should be moved through pain free range of motion several times daily.

 Isometric exercises that strengthen muscles that support affected joint should be
practiced during the day when the pain and stiffness are at a minimum.

 Aerobic exercises that require a minimum of weight bearing should be used.

2. Arthrogryposis (curved joints)

Arthrogryposis is a condition of flexure or contracture of joints of the lower limbs more often
than joints of the upper limbs.
Characteristics of arthrogryposis (curved joints)
 The limbs may be fixed in any position. However, the usual forms are the shoulders
turned in, the elbows straightened and extended, the forearms turned with the palms
outward (pronated), and the wrists fixed and deviated upward with the fingers curled
into the palms.

 The hips may be bent in a flexed position and turned outward (externally rotated), and
the feet usually turned inward and downward.

 The spine often evidences scoliosis, the limbs are small in circumference, and the
joints appear large and have lost their range of motion.

 Independent walking but with an abnormal gait, or they may depend on a wheelchair.

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Considerations during physical activity
The awkwardness of joint positions and mechanics causes no pain; therefore, children with
arthrogryposis are free to engage in most type of activity.Muscle strengthening and range of
motion exercises prove to be very beneficial.
6. OTHER HEALTH IMPAIRMENT: Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a
heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to
the educational environment, that (a) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as
asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy,
a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell
anemia, and Tourette syndrome;and, (b) adversely affects a child’s educational performance
(Example: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). The following disorders are once that
affects participation in physical activities. Asthma, Diabetes, Peripheral Vascular disease
,Hypertension and Obesity

1. Asthma:- Asthma is a pulmonary disease characterized by reversible airway obstruction,

airway inflammation, and increased airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli.

Characteristics of Asthma

 The symptoms of asthma vary widely. Some asthmatics just wheeze and have a dry
cough.
 Others have tight chest, wheeze and cough frequently, and have increased difficulty
breathing following exposure to allergens, viral infections and exercise.
 Exercise induced asthma is an acute airway narrowing after strenuous exertion. The
symptoms include chest tightness, shortness of breath, coughing wheezing, fatigue,
and prolonged recovery time.

Special considerations during physical activities

 Individuals with asthma can participate in the regular physical activity program without
modification. However environmental controls, special instructions in breathing and

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 conscious relaxation and a carefully controlled progressive exercise program are
critical for those individuals.
 The person with asthma must be selective when and where to exercise.
 Exercising in cold and dry environments should be avoided.
 Individuals with asthma should be taught to breathe through the nose and be given in
training in abdominal breathing.
 Abdominal breathing exercise will increase the strength and endurance of the
respiratory muscles and will allow greater amount of air to be inhaled and to be mad
available for exercise.

1. Diabetes:-Diabetes is a general term referring to a variety of disorders. It’s divided into two.
The most common types of diabetes mellitus are: Type 1 diabetes mellitus [insulin dependent]
and Type 2 diabetes mellitus [non insulin dependent] Physical activity is an important
component of diabetes mellitus treatment. Exercise increases insulin sensitivity and can help
reduce body fatness, decrease insulin resistance, improve body’s ability to clear sugar from
blood.

Characteristics of Diabetes

 In diabetes mellitus the body is unable to burn up it’s intake of carbohydrates because of
lack of production of insulin by the pancreas.
 The lack of insulin in the blood prevents the storage of glucose in the cells of the liver.
Consequently, blood sugar accumulates in the blood stream in greater than usual amount
[hyperglycemia].
 Although insulin dependent mellitus can occur at any age it’s usually acquired before age
thirty. It’s the form that is most prevalent in school age children.
 Persons with type 1 diabetes may lower their need for insulin by exercising. However, they
must monitor their carbohydrate intake. Before exercise and their blood sugar before,
during and after exercise.

Special considerations during physical activity

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 Individuals with diabetes mellitus should be encouraged to exercise because regular, long
term exercise provides many benefits that contribute to control of the diseases.
 However, unless strict food and insulin guidelines are followed, a single exercise bout can
lead to negative reactions.
 Always it’s important to eat something 2 to 3 hours before and after exercise, to prevent
dehydration by drinking 02 cups of water 2 hours before exercise, 1 to 2 cups 30 minutes
before, ½ cup every 15 minutes during exercise.
 5 to 10 minutes should be spent for warming up before exercise and cooling down after
exercising with stretching and slow large muscle activities like walking, jogging, etc.
 The students reactions during and after exercise will dictate the intensity, duration and
frequency levels.
 In developing an exercise program, it’s desirable to provide activity that meets the
students’ interest and needs and still uses the large muscles of the body.
 Physical activities such as walking, jogging, cycling, swimming…are particularly desirable.

Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to

environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational
environment, that (a) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention
deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition,
hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and
Tourette syndrome;and, (b) adversely affects a child’s educational performance (Example:
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
6. SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY:

A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or

in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such
conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the
result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disability; of emotional
disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (Examples: Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia, Auditory processing disorder, and Nonverbal learning disability)

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Types of Learning Disabilities
 Dyslexia : A language and reading disability

 Dyscalculia : Problems with arithmetic and math concepts

 Dysgraphia: A writing disorder resulting in illegibility

 Dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder): Problems with motor coordination

 Central Auditory Processing Disorder: Difficulty processing and remembering

language-related tasks

 Non-Verbal Learning Disorders: Trouble with nonverbal cues, e.g., body language; poor
coordination, clumsy

 Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit: Reverses letters; cannot copy accurately;

 Language Disorders (Aphasia/Dysphasia): Trouble understanding spoken language;

poor reading comprehension

Characteristics of learning disability

Students who have learning disabilities may exhibit a wide range of traits, including:
 problems with reading comprehension, spoken language, writing, reasoning ability,
Hyperactivity, Inattention, perceptual coordination problems may also be associated with
learning disabilities, difficulty remembering today what was learned yesterday, but may
know it tomorrow, short attention span (restless, easily distracted) , letter and number
reversals (sees "b" for "d" or "p", "6" for "9", "pots" for "stop" or "post") , poor reading (below
age and grade level) , frequent confusion about directions and time (right-left, up-down,
yesterday-tomorrow)

7. SPEECH OR LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT:

Speech and language disabilities may result from hearing loss, cerebral palsy, learning
disabilities, and/or physical conditions. There may be a range of difficulties from problems
with articulation or voice strength to complete absence of voice. Included are difficulties in

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projection, fluency problems, such as stuttering and stammering, and in articulating particular
words or terms.

A communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a

voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
(Examples: Stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment or voice impairment)
8. RAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY:

Traumatic conditions are the result of damage to muscles, ligaments, tendons or the nervous system
as a result of a blow to the body. Major traumatic injuries are, head injury, spinal cord injuries,
amputations
An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial
functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in
impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning;
abstract thinking; judgment; problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities;
psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. The term
does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced
by birth trauma.
Characteristics of traumatic brain injuries
 Attention/ concentration, memory, executive functions, cognition and motor and
language functions are impaired to some extent.

 Damage to the temporal regions of the brain, result in problems with learning new
information. Gross motor impairments are more frequent than in fine motor
impairments.

 Balance as well as activities requiring coordination of the two sides of the body is
usually impacted the most.

 Difficulty processing and integrating information

Considerations during physical activities

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  Physical exercise has been shown to improve motor function, elevate mood, and
contribute to perceptions of better health.

 Less competitive games and exercise routines will provide the same level of benefit
without potential negative emotional and physical outcomes.

Sensory impairments:- Sensory impairment is the condition in which one of the senses, sight,
hearing, smell, touch and spatial awareness, is no longer normal. In this module, only visual
and hearing impairments are included.
10. Visual Impairment, Including Blindness: An impairment in vision that, even with correction,
adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and
blindness. (Examples: Partial sight and blindness)
Common Characteristics of visual impairments-In this part, it is included those characteristics
that have implications for physical activities.
 Limited vision restricts physical motor activity.
 Awkward, clumsy total body movements and poor motor skills, from lack of experience and
limited sensory information.

 Display poor levels of fitness, however, appropriate physical activity programs can develop
excellent levels of physical fitness.

Considerations during physical activities

What things should be taken into account while visually impaired individuals participate in physical
activities?
 The greatest disabilities of visually impaired is lack of mobility, inability to move.
 Most individuals with serious visual impairments lack motor skills and patterns essential for
successful participation in physical activities due to lack of experience.
 Through developmental exercises, individuals with visual impairments develop qualities such
as good posture, graceful body movement, good walking and sitting positions.

 In addition to physical benefits, the physical activity program contributes to social emotional
outcomes such as security and confidence and sighted peers’ acceptance.
11. Hearing Impairment: An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not included under the definition
of “deafness.” (* Being hard of hearing is not the same thing as having auditory processing

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 disorder)
12. Deaf-Blindness: Concomitant (simultaneous) hearing and visual impairments, the
combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and
educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely
for children with deafness or children with blindness.
13.Deafness: a hearing impairment so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic
information through hearing, with or without amplification, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.

Characteristics of deaf or hard of hearing

Deaf or hard of hearing students may:

 be skilled lip readers, but many are not; only 30 to 40 percent of spoken English is
distinguishable on the mouth and lips under the best of conditions
 also have difficulties with speech, reading and writing skills, given the close
relationship between language development and hearing
 use speech, lip reading, hearing aids and/or amplification systems to enhance oral
communication
 be members of a distinct linguistic and cultural group; as a cultural group, they may
have their own values, social norms and traditions
 use American Sign Language as their first language, with English as their second
language

14. Physical Disabilities;- There are three major types of disabilities:

I. Neurological impairments

II. Orthopedic impairments

III. Traumatic injuries

Neurological Impairment:-These are chronic debilitating conditions that results from impairments
of the central nervous system. The neurological conditions include:
1. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2. Cerebral palsy

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3. Epilepsy

4. Multiple sclerosis

5. Spinal bifida

6. Muscular dystrophy

7. Autism

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14.1. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS);-Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a
progressive neurological disorder of an unknown cause that results in degeneration of the
tracts to the voluntary muscular system.
Characteristics of the disease;- Atrophy and muscle wasting resulting in weakness in the
hands, arms, shoulders and legs and Cramps are common and muscular weakness may
cause problems with swallowing, talking and respiration.
Considerations in physical activity
 The major goals of physical activities are to maintain physical capacity as long as
possible.

 Walking and recumbent cycling daily is recommended to maintain endurance.

 Range of motion exercises with light weights and use of weight machines are
recommended for maintaining strength and The nature of the physical activities
depends on the physical capacities of individuals.

14.2. Cerebral palsy:- Cerebral palsy is a group of movement disorders that results from
damage to the brain. “Cerebral” refers to the brain. “Palsy” refers to paralysis which
accounts for the lack of muscle control associated with this disability. It is caused by
damage to the brain occurring before, during, or shortly after birth. A neurological disorder
characterized by motor problems, general physical weakness, lack of coordination,
and perceptual difficulties. Cerebral palsy can be mild; for example, a slight limp. It can
also be severe with the total inability to control body movements.
Most children with cerebral palsy exhibit the following characteristics:
 Disabilities in visual, auditory and perceptual development in speech.

 Lack of concentration, over excited and hyperactivity causing underachievement and

poor behavior and Poor coordination and lack of balance, resulting in awkward
movements and frequent falls.

 Tendency toward seizure.The lack of coordination associated with cerebral palsy

results in a delay in motor control. The child with cerebral palsy will benefit from the
breakdown of skills to basic components and sequential presentation of those
components.

Classifications
Topographical - based on body segments: -Monoplegia: any one body part involved
- Diplegia: major or minor involvement of both upper limbs
- Hemiplegia: one complete side of the body

39
- Paraplegia: both lower limbs only
-Triplegia: any three limbs (very rare)
-Quadriplegia: total body involvement.

Types of CP

 Spastic CP- stiff and difficult to move

 Athetoid CP- involuntary and uncontrolled movement.
 Ataxic CP- disturbed sense of balance and depth perception.
 Mixed CP- there is a combination of any of the above.

14.3. Muscular Dystrophy:- Muscular dystrophy is a group of inherited, progressive

muscle disorders that differ according to which are affected. All types result in the
deterioration of muscle strength, power, and endurance. It affects the voluntary muscles, for
example, legs and arms. The first to be affected are the muscles involved in walking and
standing. The child with muscular dystrophy will have difficulty maintaining posture, getting
up from a chair, or walking up stairs. The degenerative nature of the disease causes the
general deterioration of the muscle tissue and the replacement of muscle with fat.
Characteristics of muscular dystrophy
 A tendency to tire quickly, May be a tendency of losing fine manual dexterity.

 Emotional disturbance may exist because of the progressive nature of the illness and
the resulting restriction for socialization, Sometimes lack of motivation to learn
resulting isolation from the society, Progressive weakness tends to produce adverse
postural changes.

Considerations during physical activities

 Individualized physical activity program may significantly important to the quality of life
of an individual affected by muscular dystrophy.

 Exercises of the muscles involved in the daily activities to increase strength may permit
greater functional use of the body. Moreover, physical exercise may assist in reducing
excessive weight, Movement in warm water, aquatic therapy, aids in the maintenance of
muscle tonus and flexibility, and it encourages circulation and Physical activity should
include the development of walking patterns, posture control, muscle coordination, and
the stretching of contractures involved in disuse atrophy.

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14.4. Spinal Bifida;- Spinal bifida is the most common congenital condition in which the
body elements of the spine do not close properly during development. The condition
may result in: a cyst-like formation on the spinal column that contains part of the
spinal cord; a protruding seen containing covering tissue or; malformation with no
protrusion of spinal cord. In mild cases of spinal bifida, the only effects may be
resulting weak muscles and postural deviations. It is because of spinal bifida causes
paralysis in the legs and a loss of sensation in the lower limbs.

Characteristics of Spinal bifida

 The first one, is the vertebral arches fail to fuse, however, there is no distension of
the spinal cord lining (meanings);Spinal bifida produces varying degrees of
neurological impairment ranging from mild muscle imbalance and sensory loss in
the lower limbs to paralysis of one or both legs.

Considerations during physical activities

 Activities that put pressure on sensitive areas of the spine must be avoided, The
prevention of contractures and foot deformities through daily passive flexibility
exercises should be given more concern, The child with spinal bifida is often able to
participate in a regular physical activity effectively in a wheelchair than the use of
walker or crutches and braces.

14.5. Amputation:-Amputation is missing part or all of a limb. It is sometimes performed

to arrest a malignant condition caused by trauma, tumors, infection, vascular impairment,
diabetes, Amputation can be classified into two categories: acquired amputation, and
congenital amputation.
Considerations during physical activities
 The ultimate goal of a person with an amputation is to perform physical activity
safely.

 The muscles needed for prosthetic use must be strengthened and standing and
walking must be practiced until they become automatic, Training also enhances
ambulation, inhibits atrophy, and contractures improves or maintains mechanical
alignment of body parts, and develop general physical fitness

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 MODULE THREE

Introduction to Sport Psychology

Psychology
Psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships. The word psychology
was formed by combining the Greek
 psyche (meaning “Soul,”) with

 Logia (which comes from the Greek logos, meaning “Knowledge, Science”).

Psychology is the scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences
behavior, Or the influence of a particular person's character on their behavior.
Sports psychology means
 Applying psychological theories and

 Concepts to aspects of sports such as coaching and teaching.

Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences on

 sports,

 athletic performance,

 exercise, and

 Physical activity.

Sport psychology is proficiency

 that uses psychological knowledge and

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  skills to address optimal performance and

 well-being of athletes,

 developmental and social aspects of sports participation, and

 Systemic issues associated with sports settings and organizations.

Sports psychology is concerned with

 Analyzing human behavior in various types of sport settings.

 It is individual behavior acting individually and acting in a group.

The sport psychologist uses

 Psychological assessment techniques and

 Intervention strategies in an effort to help individuals to achieve their optimal

performance.

Sports psychology is
 an applied psychology with three major activities such as clinical, educational and
research.

According to M. L. Kamlesh sport psychology is

 the application of psychological principles to sport and

 Physical activities at all levels of skill development.

Sports psychology focuses on

 learning and performance, and

 Training and performance.

Sports psychology considers both the participants and the spectators.

 Emotional factors like tension,anxiety, stress and Motivation plays an important role in
sports psychology. Certain amount of tension and anxiety are necessary to put forth the
best performance. The various personality factors like extrovert, introvert, intelligence,
emotional stability, dominance reserved, Anxiety, etc affect the performance of
athletes.

Sports psychology helps to

 Make sport more attractive to prospective athletes.

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  Family and economic conditions to play an important part in sports psychology.

A sport is the only field where sportsmen's behavior is molded, modified and studied.
Every aspect of sports men's behavior becomes a subject under sports psychology.
Sports psychology helps to replace the earlier beliefs and Practices based on tradition
and conventional belief.
For example,
 Triple jump, rotation style in discus and Football was believed to harm the
women but now it has been proved by researchers that there is no harm in
doing these activities.

The main objective and scope of sports psychology is

 To help the individual and the coach to understand, explain and predict the
performance.

 To increases the efficiency of the physical education teacher and coach while
applying psychological theories in the field.

The scope of sports psychology is

 Very vast as it has no limit. It is still expanding. Awareness among the coaches and
physical educationists about sports psychology is increasing. Writing research
articles and books in sports psychology, conducting many research studies on
athletic personality, motivation, self-concept, anxiety, emotional arousal, extroversion,
introversion, neuroticism, will to win, ergogenic aids, reaction time, response time,
aggression, Locus of control, creativity and intelligence have increased the scope of
sports psychology.

Many questionnaires in personality, anxiety, creativity, motivation, self-concept, will to win,

Locus of control, aggression and achievement motivation were prepared by Indian Sports
psychologists. Many universities have included sports psychology as one of the teaching
subjects at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels for physical education course.
Conducting national and international conferences on sports psychology by the Sports
psychology Association of India (SPAI) provide the best opportunity for exchange of ideas
and research knowledge among participants, There are many branches of psychology which
are related to sports psychology. Each branch deals with different types of athletes in action.
Branches of Psychology
Social Psychology
The study of group dynamics, including the social behavior of sportsmen in play situations,
with group and society is one of the important parts of this discipline. This also deals with

44
the cooperation, attitude for competition, group formation, group maintenance, group
cohesion, sociometry, leadership, and management, social and cultural effects on the
performer.
Educational Psychology of Sports
This is connected with motivation and learning of the athletes such as retention,
reminiscence, transfers of coaching and teaching. Athletes must receive process and retain
information for subsequent use. The coach is responsible for creating an environment in
which information can be efficiently received. Developmental psychology this deals with the
growth of human beings from birth to death.
1) The heredity and environmental influence on the performer during competition
2) Optimal age for learning the skills of different types
3) The peak years of performance
4) The sex and age difference of the competitors and its influence on the performance level.
Clinical psychology
This deals with behavior and psychological disorders. This may be due to the following
various reasons,
1) Injuries received during training and competition
2) Inability to adopt a particular system of play
3) Due to phobia (fear) and disappointment
4) Due to defeatism (negativity).
Explain the Need and Importance of Sports Psychology
1. Sports psychology helps to predict the sportsmen's behavior and performance.
Varied behaviors may be due to psychological or biological factors.

2. It is easy to find out the problems of athletes and problem athletes.

3. It helps to formulate principles pertinent to understand the behavior under stress and
tension.

4. With the help of psychological inventories self-esteem, self- concept tension,

emotion, aggression and various other personality traits could be measured.

5. Helps to find out the different traits of athletes, non-athletes and various team
players by using inventory techniques.

6. By using projective techniques, able to project a person's inner self like fears, desires,
hopes and · difficulties without his knowledge.

7. Helps to find out the traits of teachers and coaches.

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 8. Per group relationship and inner group relationship could be found out by using
sociometry.

9. Psychological disorders could be assessed.

10. Exercise and sports help to release emotions through socially approved channels.
This gives confidence and self satisfaction.

11. Many researches on psychological parameters of sportsmen were conducted.

12. Many research materials were published.

13. Seminars of national and international levels conducted in different parts s of India.

14. Research Journals like Journal of Physical Education and Sports, NIS Scientific
Journal are published with sport psychology.

15. Sport psychology is introduced as one of the subject in physical educations courses.

16. A sport psychologist are sent along with the teams

17. Many researches are being done on personality, motivation, perception. Self concept,
anxiety, arousal, activation, aggression. Tension and will to win.

18. Many personality inventories were developed on Indian population to assess the
personality traits of sportsmen and sportswomen.

The Goals of Psychology

The four main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change the behavior
and mental processes of others
To Describe
Describing a behavior or cognition is the first goal of psychology. This can enable
researchers to develop general laws of human behavior. For example, through describing the
response of dogs to various stimuli, Ivan Pavlov helped develop laws of learning known as
classical conditioning theory.
To Explain
Once researchers have described general laws behavior, the next step is to explain how or
why this trend occurs. Psychologists will propose theories which can explain a behavior.
To Predict
Psychology aims to be able to predict future behavior from the findings of empirical
research. If a prediction is not confirmed, then the explanation it is based on might need to
be revised. For example, classical conditioning predicts that if a person associates a

46
negative outcome with stimuli they may develop a phobia or aversion of the stimuli.
To Change
Once psychology has described, explained and made predictions about behavior, changing
or controlling a behavior can be attempted. For example, interventions based on classical
conditioning, such as systematic desensitization, have been used to treat people with
anxiety disorders including phobias.
Personality Characteristics and Sporting behaviour
 Personality is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions
that characterize a person. -we learn the human character and personality
threat difference and how to build better personality -Some psychologists
believe success or failure on the sports pitch is determined by personality. -
Personality is inherent and is within the athletes genes, inherited from their
parents.

 Why personality is important in sport?

 Personality itself can influence many aspects of sport performance and

behaviour, some of which may well be out of the athlete's cognitive control. It
is important to understand personality if dealing with athletes to promote the
best coping strategies and goals to assist in improving their performance.
 This is the unique pattern of behaviour and characteristics a person/athlete
displays. Some psychologists believe success or failure on the sports pitch is
determined by personality.

 “Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s

character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique
adjustment to the environment”

Personality Vs characteristics

 Personality is outward reflection

 Personality: the outward reflection of your inner feelings, thoughts, attitudes,

and

 values. Experiences and projects in dealing with the demands of life.

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  Habits: A routine of behaviour that is repeated regularly and tends to occur
unconsciously.
 Character is our inner world that we are?
 Personality is masking our inner world.
 Character is our building block
2.3. EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY ON SPORTS PERFORMANCE
There is no direct link between personality type and successful sporting performance. Some
research has suggested that certain personality types may be more attracted to certain
sports, but little says that your personality will make you a better athlete.

2.5.1 Athletes versus non-athletes and individual versus team sports

Research implies that there is no such thing as a universal athletic personality. However,
there are some differences between athletes and non-athletes; as well as between athletes
in different types of sport. Compared with non-athletes, athletes who take part in team
sports are more extroverted. When compared to non-athletes, athletes in individual sports
tend to be more introverted. This suggests that in order to study the differences between
athletes and non-athletes, you need to consider the sports the athletes play before reaching
meaningful conclusions.

Numerous attempts have been made to find out whether there is a fundamental difference
between the personalities of athletes and non- athletes. Eysenck (1982) proposed that
people scoring high on the extroversion and psychoticism scales of the EPQ are more likely
to take up sport. Some though by no means all research has supported this hypothesis.
Schurr et al (1977) tested 1500 American students with the 16PF, relating this to
participation in sport, choice of sport and level of success. They found that athletes (defined
as those in university teams) differed from non-athletes on three scales of the 16PF, being
more independent and objective, and less anxious than the non-athletes.
2.5.2 Elite versus non-elite athletes
Psychologists thought that successful athletes display lower levels of depression, fatigue,
confusion and anger, but higher levels of vigour. However, evidence which was used to draw
these conclusions was insufficient because it was based on small numbers of athletes.
More recent research shows that personality accounts for less than 1 per cent of the
performance variation.
2.5.3 Type A versus type B
In sport, type A personalities are more likely than type B personalities to continue

48
participating in a sport when the situation becomes unfavorable or when they are not
motivated to take part.
2.5.4 distinguishing successful from unsuccessful athletes
An early attempt to use the idea of personality traits to identify successful athletes was
that by Tutko and Ogilvie (1966). They proposed that successful people score highly on 11
personality traits: aggression, Coachability, conscientiousness, determination, drive,
emotional control, guilt proneness, leadership, mental toughness, self-confidence and trust.
Tutko& Ogilvie produced a personality test called the Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI) to
measure these traits. Most sport psychologists agree that the AMI was seriously flawed,
and contemporary research does not support the idea that the AMI can distinguish
between successful and unsuccessful athletes. Studies using superior personality tests
have found some evidence that aspects of personality are associated with athletic success.
Garland & Barry (1990) placed American college athletes in categories representing their
level of skill. They were then tested with the 16PF. The statistical relationship between their
athletic success and the personality factors measured by the 16PF was calculated. It
emerged that tough-mindedness, extroversion, group dependence and emotional stability
accounted for 29% of the variance in skill.
This shows that although personality may have been one important factor in success, there
were other, probably more important factors.
Although the five-factor model of personality has been underutilized in sport psychology, one
influential study using the NEO-PI has helped illuminate the relationship between success
and personality. Piedmont et al (1999) administered the NEO-PI to 79 female footballers.
The skill of the players was assessed by coaches and by game statistics (goals scored,
possession, tackles won, etc.). Interestingly, extraversion and neuroticism were strongly
correlated with coaches’ ratings, but not with performance as judged objectively by game
statistics. This suggests that either coaches’ ratings or game statistics were invalid
measures of performance. The only trait associated with objective performance was
conscientiousness, high levels being associated with good performance.
MOTIVATION AND SPORT
One of the fundamental questions about human nature that psychologists need to answer is,
‘Why do we do things?’ We could simply answer, ‘because I want to’, ‘because I need to’, or
even ‘because I just do’. However, although all these statements are useful starting points,
psychologists are not satisfied with these answers, and seek to uncover the reasons
underlying our experiences of wanting to, needing to or ‘just doing’ things. In this chapter,
we can examine some basic types of human motivation, theories about specific
motivators and research findings concerning what motivates us to participate and succeed
in sport.

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A useful starting point is to examine intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Most definitions of
motivation refer to having a drive to take part and to persist in an activity. A sport-specific
definition is the tendency of an individual or team to begin and then carry on with the
activities relating to their sport. Role of the motivation/importance of motivation in sports
Motivation Enhances Sports Performance
Motivation is the fuel for an athlete‘s performance.
Motivation is internal state which tends to direct a person‘s behavior towards a goal.
Motivation can influence decisions, learning and performance in sport.
If a performer is not in a positive psychological state, mistakes will be made in the
Performance and they will not perform at their level best.
Motivation has varying levels of intensity and efficiency.
Performance is directly related to the intensity of motivation.
Levels of motivation differ among athletes.
Motivation is important for the learning process.
It plays an important role in coaching.
Success of a sport program depends on coaches‘ ability to motivate the athletes.
Motivation can be defined simply as the direction and intensity of one‘s effort (sage1977).
There are two main types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic.
3.1. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
An important distinction in types of human motives is that between extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation. Extrinsic motivation results from external rewards. Intrinsic motivation comes
from within the person. Both extrinsic and intrinsic motives are important in sport, and sport
psychologists can work with both extrinsic and intrinsic motives to improve the
performance of the individual. Intrinsic motives for taking part in sport include excitement,
fun, love of action and the chance to demonstrate and improve our skills – in short, all the
reasons that we enjoy sport. Later in this chapter, we will discuss some techniques designed
to increase intrinsic motivation. The reason these can be used so effectively to motivate
athletes is that they directly affect our intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motives can come in
the form of trophies, prizes and less tan gible rewards such as praise and status.
Although there has been an enormous amount of research into how motivation can be
improved in those already participating in sport, rather fewer studies have examined what
motivates people to choose to take up sport. Ashford et al (1993) interviewed 336 adults at
a community sports center in Leicester about why they participated in sport, and what they
enjoyed about it. Four main motivations emerged, physical well-being, psychological well-
being, improvement of performance and assertive achievement, the last meaning to
accomplish personal challenges and to gain status.
Age and gender significantly affected motivation.

50
Older people were more motivated by psychological well-being than younger people.
Men were more motivated by assertive achievement than women.
These motives are all intrinsic rather than extrinsic, lending support to the idea that most
people come to sport for reasons of intrinsic motivation.
Of course, children’s motives for taking part in sport may be different from those of adults.
Daley and O’Gara (1998) investigated the motives of 145 children in a British secondary
school for taking part in non-compulsory sport, using a questionnaire called the
Participation Motivation Inventory (PMI). As in the Ashford et al study, the motives for
sport participation differed according to gender and age. Between 11 and 15 years, intrinsic
factors were more important and extrinsic factors less so. Girls emerged as more
motivated by team affiliation and achievement than boys. Given that intrinsic motivation is
so important, a key aim of research has been to identify influences on intrinsic motivation.
One recent study by Ambrose & Horn (2001) assessed 72 American athletes on their
intrinsic motivation at the beginning and end of their first year of college-level participation.
They were asked about how much time they spent on training, the nature of their coaching
and whether they had sport scholarships. The behavior of coaches had the strongest effect
on intrinsic motivation. Students whose coaches spent more time on technical instruction
tended to display significantly increases in their intrinsic motivation during the year. By
contrast, those whose coaches threw their weight about experienced a decline in intrinsic
motivation.
Intrinsic motivation: Motivation to perform an activity for its own sake.
This type of motivation comes directly from the performer. They are factors such as
personal satisfaction or enjoyment. Biddell (1984) suggested those performers who are
intrinsically motivated are more likely to continue participating then those who aren’t. This
is because of personal ambition and the drive to have fun. An example of this could be an
individual wishing to play squash as a form of recreation, to develop their fitness levels, but
also to see if they can master the game.
Individual engages in an activity for the internal pleasure and satisfaction.
Sports person or athlete experiences pleasure and satisfaction while learning, exploring or
trying to understand acquiring knowledge about something.
The person feels pleasure and satisfaction whenever he accomplishes something in sports.

e.g.: mastering a difficult dive.

Person engages in an activity in order to experience pleasant sensations such as fun

excitement and pleasure.
e.g.: feeling pleasure of climbing a mountain
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation comes from a source outside of the performer.

51
Performing for a material reward is called extrinsic motivation.
e.g.:medals, trophies and money.
The behavior is completed by external sources such as rewards and constraints.
e.g.: trainer who spends lots of time in the training room simply to get raise salary.

These are things which can encourage the athlete to perform and fall into two
groups:

 Tangible rewards:

Physical rewards such as medals and money.

These should be used sparingly with young athletes to avoid a situation where
winning a prize is more important than competing well

 Intangible rewards:Praise,recognition and achievements. These should be

used on a regular basis to encourage the athlete to repeat the behavior which
earned the praise.
 Amotivaion:-
In this case individual are neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated.

Motivation, Arousal

Motivation, Arousal and Performance

Motivation is related to the intensity and direction of behavior. That is, the level of
arousal and the way in which we behave affect our motivation and hence
performance. There are currently two theories which try to explain this link:

Hull's Drive Theory: This demonstrates a

 linear relationship between performance and arousal.

52
  This means at low levels of arousal, performance is low and performance
increases in line with an increase in arousal. This is shown in the graph below.

 This theory also explains that novices to the sport often do not perform well
under pressure and their skill level decreases due to poor habits and ill-
learned techniques. Habits are described as the performance which is
dominant within each person.
 Experienced athletes tend to perform better under pressure due to their
superior skills and the use of stress management techniques.
 This theory can be expressed using the following equation:

Performance = habit x drive (arousal) Inverted U Law:

This law states that arousal improves performance up to an optimal point. Past this
point, performance begins to decrease. When drawn on a graph this appears as an
upside down U shape.

֍ There are three rules which surround this theory:

1. Activity: Some sports are better performed at low arousal, mainly those which require
small, precision movements and control, e.g. shooting

2. Skill level: Beginners to a sport require all of their attention to be focused on the task
in hand and so do not cope as well with over-arousal. Highly skilled individuals have the skill
well practiced and so do not require such high levels of concentration meaning they can deal

53
better with the arousal level.

3. Personality: Extroverts perform better in high-pressure, high arousal situations.

Introverts tend to do better in a state of low arousal.

3.6. Motivation and Personality; Some people are more naturally driven to achieve set goals
than others. These people like to push and challenge themselves. What is it within this type
of person that motivates them? And why do others not have this desire? It is thought that
when it comes to motivation, there are two personality types according to motivation

Need to Achieve (NACH); These are the people that thrive on a challenge. They are
usually determined,quick workerswho take risks and Enjoy being assessed. Most
sports people fall into this group.

Need to Avoid Failure (NAF); These people tend toavoid challenges they do not want
to risk failing.They are slow workerswho avoid responsibility,are easily dissuaded
from taking part anddo not like being assessed. Within those who compete in sports,
there are those who are ego oriented and those who are task oriented.

Ego oriented - measure their success on beating others and being the 'top'
competitor

Task oriented - Measure their success by their own achievements such as running a
ten km

3.7. Understand motivation for sport participation

What motivates you to participate in sport and physical activity? As you think about
what motivates you and others, remember these points:

People participate for more than one reason. Most people have multiple motives for
participation. For example, you may lift weights because you want to tone your body. Yet
lifting weights also makes you feel good, plus you enjoy the camaraderie of your lifting
partners. Thus, you lift for more than one reason.

 People have competing motives for involvement. At times people have competing
motives. For instance, a person may want to exercise at the club after work and also to

54
 be with his family. As a coach, teacher, or exercise leader, you should be aware of such
conflicting interests because they can affect participation.
 People have both shared and unique motives. Although it is possible to identify why
people usually participate in sport and exercise, motives for participation vary greatly and
can be unique to each individual. For example, Dwyer (1992) assessed college students’
motives for participation and obtained results similar to those for young athletes: The
most important motives for participation were fitness, fun, excitement and challenge,
and improving skills. However, the college students rated friendship, achievement status,
and team factors as less important—findings that vary from those in the youth sport
literature. Thus, many of us would cite physical fitness, fun, and friendship as major
motives for sport participation. However, some of us might have motives that are more
individual, such as parental pressure or needing something to do. Still others might have
highly idiosyncratic motives, such as the need to physically dominate others or the
experience of calmness they actually derive from competition. Hence, people have both
shared and unique motives for participation.
 Gender differences in motivation. Some gender differences exist in motivations for
involvement. For example, Sirard, Pfeiffer, and Pate (2006) studied motivational factors
associated with sport participation in over 1600 middle school children. Findings showed
that having fun was the highest-rated motive for all the children. When motives were
compared across genders, girls cited social and skill benefits, competition, and fitness
as major motives while boys emphasized competition, social benefits, and fitness most
often. The authors concluded that middle school boys have a greater attraction to the
competitive aspects of sports while girls have a greater attraction to the social aspects.
The conclusions of this study are restricted to the age group sampled; but they do
emphasize the importance of recognizing that while males and females may have many
common motives for sport and physical activity involvement, important differences may
be evident.
 Cultural emphasis affects motives. Although many motives for sport and physical
activity involvement are common across cultures, some are given more emphasis. Kim,
Williams, and Gill (2003), for example, found that U.S. and Korean middle school
students differed in their motivation, with U.S. youngsters being more intrinsically
motivated than their Korean counterparts. It was also suggested that participants from
Asian countries are more interdependence oriented whereas North Americans are more
independence oriented. In another recent study, Yan and Mc Cullagh (2004) found that
American, Chinese, and Chinese American youth differed in their motives for sport and
physical activity participation. Specifically, American youth were motivated primarily by
competition and the need to improve; Chinese youth were more involved for social

55
 affiliation and wellness; and Chinese American youth participated because of travel,
equipment use, and having fun. With most contemporary societies becoming much more
culturally diverse, coaches, exercise leaders, and physical educators must become
familiar with and recognize important cultural differences in participant motivation

2. The Relationship between Stress, Anxiety, Arousal and Sport performance

2.1. Definition of stress
Stress is a Physical pressure on an object or part of the body
2. A factor or combinations of factors in a person’s life that make him or her feel tired and
anxious
3. A condition in which an outside influence such as overwork or a mental or emotional state
such as anxiety changes the working of the body and can affect the hormone balance
Sports are beneficial and can lead to a well-balanced healthy lifestyle because they teach
 teamwork, dedication, responsibility, and many other qualities you will rely on later in
life.
2.1.1. Types of streets
1. Eustress and Distress
1. Eustress is defined as “
 A good type of stress that stems from the challenge of a pleasant activity…
 It pumps you up, providing a healthy spark for any task you undertake.”
2. Distress is defined as “
 a bad type of stress that arises when you must adapt to too many negative demands.”
EXAMPLE—Tiger Woods would often tense up on the golf course, which worried his father,
but Tiger explained that is just how he enjoys himself, “what seemed like distress to his
father was eustress to Tiger.” (TeensHealth).
DISTRESS
 I cannot do this
 I am not as good as the others
 I am hopeless
 I have let the team down
It is essential that athletes differentiate between the two types of stress: eustress and
distress, when deciding what is best for their health.
“If sports make you so nervous that you get headaches,
 become nauseated,
 or can’t concentrate on other things,
 you’re experiencing symptoms of unhealthy,

56
  potentially chronic (which means long-lasting and continuous) stress” (TeensHealth).
2.1.2. What are causes Athletes Stress?
1. Much emphasis on winning;
2. Burnout
3. Time management
One of the primary causes of stress is believed to be too much emphasis on winning; it is a
common-held belief that the “winning at all costs” attitude has been taken too far. “The
downside of the extensive participation in sports by American adolescents includes the
increased high expectations by parents and coaches to win at all costs. Researchers have
found that adolescents’ participation in competitive sports is linked with competition anxiety
and self centeredness” (Santrock). Adolescents become overworked and begin to see sports
as too demanding when pressured by parents and coaches. “Winning is certainly a goal of
competitive sports, but sometimes players feel more than just the thrill of the game. Being in
an environment that stresses winning at all costs can make you totally stressed
out”(TeensHealth).
Another huge stressor for student athletes is time management— balancing school and
sports is not an easy task, and can prove to be very stressful. Other stressful events can pile
on, eventually leading to what has come to be called burnout. “Negative consequences of
overwhelming stress many, including chronic fatigue (athletic burnout syndrome) depression
and rapid loss of previously learned skills. Burnout can also result from overtraining,
encouraged by overzealous parents, coaches, or the teenagers” (Greydanus). It is said that
the burnout “is spawned the moment the ‘costs’ of a sport outweigh its rewards, (that is if)
the costs are stress induced”.

2.1.3. Facts about Stress

*Stress is necessary for survival, Stress is necessary for human growth & development
*Stress is initially positive, but too much is unhealthy, Stress is additive
*Stress is time-limited and manageable, Stress is usually a normal reaction to an abnormal
situation
Stressors cluster into two main categories: physical and mental. Awareness of the different
types of stressors can lead to specific reduction strategies. For example, maintaining fluid
intake on long road trips can prevent dehydration or avoidance of excessive stimulant use
(i.e. caffeine, nicotine) or alcohol use (i.e. 3 or more drinks) can prevent insomnia or delayed
adjustment to jet lag.
2.1.4. Types of Stressors
1. Physical Stressors
a. Environmental  Physical Work,

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  Heat,  Noise,
 Cold,  Excitement,
 Wetness,  Crowds Travel,
 Bright Lights,  Infection,
 Darkness,  Toxic Agents
b. Physiological
 Sleep Debt,  over or Under Use of Muscles,
 Dehydration,  Fatigue,
 Poor Nutrition,  Substance Use (alcohol, tobacco,
 Poor Hygiene, etc)
 Illness or Injury,

2. Mental Stressors
a. Cognitive  Conflicting Demands (home
 Information (too much or too little), versus job),
 Sensory Overload versus  Interpersonal Feelings (rejection,
Deprivation, shame)
 Time Pressure versus Waiting,  Temptation Causing Loss of Faith
 Uncertainty,
 Unpredictability, 4. Relaxation Techniques that Help to

 Hard Choices versus No Choices Ease Pressure:

 Recognition of Impaired 1. Deep Breathing

Performance 2. Muscle Relaxation

b. Emotional 3. Visualization (thinking happy thoughts)

4. Mindfulness (watching out for and
 Fear/Anxiety from Threats of
disposing of negative thoughts)
Injury,,
Symptoms of stress
 Disease,
 Pain,
1. Psychological symptoms are evident in
 Loss, or Failure,
feelings and in thinking patterns of
 Grief from Important Losses,
 anxiety,
 Resentment,
 restlessness,
 Anger,
 worry,
 Rage Producing,
 fear,
 Frustration and Guilt,
 tension,
 Boredom Producing Inactivity,

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  irritability,  sadness,
 difficulty concentrating, and  loneliness,
problems in memory or  low motivation or energy,
understanding things, defensiveness,
 moodiness,  blaming others,
 depression,  obsessive (repetitive) thinking.
 fatigue
2. Physical symptoms run the whole gamut of body aches and pains:
 backache,  tightness of muscles of the
 headache, stomach or jaw,
 muscle aches,  dizziness,
 digestive problems,  skin rash,
 sleeping problems,  sexual dysfunction,
 palpitations, and
 illness.
3. Behavioral signs and symptoms are evident in daily personal activities:
 increased eating,
 smoking, or drinking; general restlessness with tapping of fingers or foot,
 grinding teeth, or nail biting;
 procrastination; diminished productivity or efficiency;
 being late;
 skipping work;
 being snappish;
 having accidents.
4. Interpersonal signals are evident in relationships with other people:
 difficulty maintaining good relationships, short temper,
 diminished patience and difficulty listening to other,
 withdrawal from others, avoidance of social activities,
 marital and family problems.
Concluding Thoughts; Stress is inevitable for everyone, regardless of what you are doing. In
sports it is important to keep things in perspective: “Sports are about enhancing self-esteem,
building social skills, and developing a sense of community. But remember above all, sports
are about having fun” (TeensHealth).

2.2. Arousal Control

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 Arousal is a general physiological and psychological activation, varying from deep
sleep to intense excitement (Weinberg & Gould, 2003).
 All athletes have an optimal level of arousal, a level where peak performance is
possible. Too little or too much arousal can negatively affect performance. Some
goaltenders may need to “psych” themselves up, while others may need to relax
in order to reach their peak performance level. Given that athletes require
different levels of arousal for optimal performance, it is important that athletes
learn to identify which mental and emotional states are necessary for success.
Once athletes have identified their optimal level of arousal, they can learn to
voluntarily program these responses.

 Arousal is your level of excitement and readiness to perform. Arousal can have
positive and negative effects on your performance. Your performance will be best
at an optimum level of arousal. After this level, performance gets worse as you
become anxious and nervous. Arousal noun (in performance theory) a
stimulation that causes a person to perform

2.2.1. The Effects of Arousal on Sports Performance

Arousal can help or hurt athletic performance. Arousal has multiple effects on athletic
performance during sports. Arousal enhances blood flow and oxygen in the brain, neural and
musculoskeletal systems. Arousal stimulates adrenaline and other stimulant hormone
production. Arousal that is excessively high or low hurts athletic performance. Some effects
of arousal on sports performance include muscular tension, decision-making speed,
concentration and focus, rhythm and coordination.

1. Muscular Tension

Arousal increases muscular tension by stimulating blood flow. People with low
arousal levels exhibit less tension than people with heightened arousal levels (see
Reference 1). Heightened blood flow and muscular tension is necessary for
performance during sports and athletic activities. But excessive muscular tension
hinders athletic performance because muscle tissue is too stiff to respond
appropriately. Stiff muscles may exhibit delayed reactions, early reactions, too much
force or too little force. Athletes with muscular tension that is too low exhibit delayed
reactions and too little force.

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 2. Decision-Making

Arousal affects decision making by stimulated blood flow and oxygen to the brain
and neuronal system. People with lower arousal levels exhibit slower decision-
making than people with heightened arousal levels. Quick decision-making is
necessary for performance during sports and athletic activities for calculating and
planning and bodily movements (see Reference 1). Excessively fast decision-making
hinders athletic performance because it leads to erratic decisions that do not
effectively evaluate situations. Low arousal and decision-making that is excessively
slow hinders athletic performance because these athletes do not have the capacity
to adequately calculate responses or response speeds.

3. Concentration

Arousal enhances focus and concentration by stimulating adrenaline and other

stimulating hormone secretion in the brain. People with low arousal levels may
exhibit low concentration and focus that is similar to someone that has just woken
from sleep. People with higher arousal levels exhibit heightened concentration and
focus. Concentration and focus is necessary for performance during sports and
athletic activities to establish competitive advantage against opponents, perform
efficiently or evaluate situations thoroughly (see Reference 1). Excessively
heightened concentration and focus hinders athletic performance, because it can
lead to hypersensitivity to irrelevant stimuli or blind athletes to other relevant
information. Likewise, low concentration and focus hurts athletic performance,
because these athletes do not the capacity to perceive and respond to relevant
sensory information.

4. Rhythm and Coordination

Arousal affects rhythm and coordination by stimulated blood flow and oxygen to the
brain, neural and musculoskeletal system. People with lower arousal levels exhibit
less rhythm and coordination than people with heightened arousal levels. Rhythm
and coordination is necessary for performance during sports and athletic activities
to complete precise and efficient muscular movements (see Reference 1). Excessive
arousal hinders athletic performance because it reduces rhythm and coordination.

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Low arousal and excessively low rhythm and coordination hinder athletic
performance, because these athletes do not have the capacity to perform precise
muscular movements.

5. Optimum arousal

While anxiety is predominately a psychological state, arousal refers to a physiological state.

Arousal can be described as the degree of energy release and the intensity of readiness of
the performer or as drive or excitation. There are levels of arousal that can produce optimal
performance depends on the sport and the individual. Arousal is a necessary ingredient in
sports performance, although its level can wither, facilitate or hinder the execution of
specific skills or task components. Arousal levels vary on a continuum from deep sleep to
high excitement.

Optimal arousal does not mean maximal arousal. Both over-arousal and under-arousal can
contribute to poor performance. An individual will perform a skill most successfully when the
level of arousal is optimal for that particular task. A poor performance may be due to low
level of arousal, perhaps resulting from distraction, disinterest or a depressed level of
motivation. The other end of the spectrum is a state of over-arousal, whereby the athlete is
unable to perform the required movement with precision because he/she is excessively
tense and unable to concentrate. Levels of arousal vary considerably between individuals
and they respond to different stimuli to raise or lower their levels of arousal. Arousal has
drive properties, meaning that the manipulation of factors that affect anxiety can increase or
decrease arousal. Generally, athletes who have a high disposition towards anxiety require
less arousal than those who have a low disposition towards anxiety.

2.2.2. How Arousal Affects Performance

Arousal is a major factor during pre-game warm ups and game time situations. Arousal can
be interchanged with such phrases as a person’s drive, readiness, or excitation. There are
two levels of arousal,
1. extremely high levels where it is hard for a player to concentrate and make effective
decisions,
2. extremely low levels of arousal such as sleeping. It is up to us as coaches to be able to
establish the correct amount of arousal for each of our players. As coaches we should use
the Inverted-U Hypothesis to establish an effective relationship between our player’s arousal
and their performance. If a player’s excitement is too high then they tend to make abnormal
decisions during game situations and their performance will drop dramatically. On the other

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hand if their excitement is not high enough, they will fail to be productive. Determining how
to control the level of your athlete’s arousal will be key in helping your team provide the
highest amount of energy while keeping focused on the game.
2.2.3. Special points of interest:
• Finding the optimal level of arousal for each player will enhance their performance.
• Raising and lowering the levels of arousal is a key aspect in being a coach.
• When working with youths you must prepare them for games by helping them deal with
stress and arousal, they might not know how to deal with it.
2.2.4. Signs of Arousal
When coaching youths that are brand new to organized sports,
 They may be very excited and hyper before games.
 They may have the tendency to run around and exert mass amounts of energy
before the game begins.
 They will most likely not be able to sit still and will be loud and sometimes quite
obnoxious. It is our duty as coaches to reduce this arousal and get them ready to
have fun without be authoritative or putting any kind of unnecessary stress and or
anxiety on them. Keep things positive and make sure to focus on fun with the new
youths.
2.2.5. How to reduce the level of Arousal
1. To prepare the Player differently for competition,
2. To promote them with task familiarity
3. build high self-confidence
There are several ways to reduce the amount of arousal in players. Here are a few strategies
to get you started. Because every player will prepare differently for competition, some are
vocal, some are quiet and get focused mentally, you as a coach must make sure that
everyone is preparing mentally for the contest in the way that they feel the most comfortable.
Another way to take some of the arousal off of players is to promote them with task
familiarity.
Let them know that all they need to do is play exactly the same way that they have played in
practice all week. Let them know if they focus on the skills learned in practice, that they will
be great. Also, build high self-confidence by focusing on strengths of the team and of
players, as well as focusing on the weaknesses of the other team. This will help your players
feel more relaxed and will calm them down because they know what they need to focus on
to achieve success.
By reducing arousal players are able to concentrate more on the skills that they are using
and the tasks that need to be completed to achieve success.

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4.2.6. How to raise the levels of Arousal
1. To increase the volume of your voice.
2. Be upbeat, not angry with your players
3. To set goals for the team and for players
In pre-game situations there may be certain situations where there is not enough arousal in
your players. When the kids are new to sports and they have never competed in games, they
may not be excited or ready. As a coach there are certain strategies that you can do to excite
your players, even if they are youths. One way to help increase intensity in your players is to
increase the volume of your voice. Be careful when dealing with youth players, they may take
your loud voice as a sign of anger. When raising your voice, keep in mind that you want your
players to focus on their skills that they have learned and make sure that they are focused
on having fun. Be upbeat, not angry with your players, when they are young they might not be
able to tell the difference.
If the arousal level is low you may also want to have your players engage in light physical
activity to get their blood flowing and to get them in the mind set of the game. One last thing
to help increase the arousal level of your players is to set goals for the team and for players.
When you do this the players are aware that they have a goal to achieve and they then begin
to create plans and strategies in their head about what they want to get done, and what they
have to get done. They tend to get very excited and aroused when they are given goals.
Athletes that are new to youth sports may have a hard time getting aroused for a game. It is
up to you to get them ready and set them up for success.

4.3. Anxiety

Anxiety is a normal part of everyday life. People commonly encounter situations in which
they experience one or more of the typical symptoms of anxiety, including those in
 the cognitive (e.g., worries), emotional (e.g., feelings of nervousness),
 behavioral (e.g., pacing), and physiological (e.g., muscle tension) domains. Most of
the anxiety experienced by athletes, even that which occurs prior to competition and
is of sufficient magnitude to have an adverse effect on sport performance, is
subclinical and can be dealt with through performance enhancement interventions.
The ability to deal with pressure is vital for success in sport. When a performer freezes or
‘chokes’ at the vital moment,
anxiety is usually the cause. the state of being very worried and afraid, a natural reaction to
threat in the environment , part of our preparation for flight or fight
Anxiety is said to have three dimensions:

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1. Cognitive –  increased perspiration,
 worry and negative feelings about  shortness of breath
your own performance 3. Behavioral –
2. Somatic –  experiencing tension,
 physiological symptoms such as  Agitation and restlessness.
 raised heart rate,
Sports performers can suffer from two types of anxiety linked to performance:
Types of anxiety
1. State anxiety; This is situation-specific and can be liked to a particular role (such as
penalty taking), place or level of competition.
2. Trait anxiety; This is a general and enduring feeling of apprehension (fear).
4.3.1. MAIN CAUSES OF ANXIETY
The main causes of anxiety include a general predisposition to this state. If a competitor has
an innate sense of anxiety, they naturally will be uneasy about competing in front of others,
or in a situation of pressure. A competitor may also suffer anxiety due to the perceived
importance of the situation – the more important a match, or the more that is at stake, then
the higher the level of anxiety. This is also referred to as competition-specific stress.
Some athletes may suffer anxiety through ascribing poor performance to their lack of ability
– athletes at the start of their career, or making their debut for an international or
professional team, may suffer from this type of anxiety. This may also be due to a fear of
failure.
4.3.2. EFFECTS ON TECHNIQUE
The concept of anxiety is closely linked to arousal the state of alertness. Arousal is usually
displayed on a continuum of low (sleeping) to high, intense excitement. In sport, the aim is
to be in a state of high arousal. Research suggests that arousal can have either a positive or
negative effect on sports performance. The type of effect depends on how the performer
perceives their arousal level. Jones and Swain (1992) state that most elite athletes view pre-
competition arousal as a positive feeling of alertness, rather than as anxiety, whereas novice
or less-experienced athletes have negative response to this rise in arousal. In the words of
Tiger Woods, the challenge is hitting good shots when you have to, when the nerves are
fluttering, the heart pounding and the palms sweating.
Catastrophe model; Hardy (1996) Suggests that arousal has different effects on sports
performance depending on cognitive anxiety. Arousal will increase performance when
cognitive anxiety is low, but may lead to a sudden catastrophic decline in performance when
cognitive anxiety is relatively high processing efficiency theory. Anxiety may affect
processing efficiency rather than task effectiveness. Anxious athletes have to work harder to
maintain the same level of performance they would display if they were not anxious

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4.3.3. CHOKING
Choking
 the inability to perform to an athlete’s optimum performance
 sudden impairment or failure of sports performance due to anxiety
Sometimes, the harder one tries, the worse the performance – this is often caused by
excessive self-consciousness and concern about the mechanics of skill execution. An
athlete’s potential for choking depends on both the athlete and the situation. Choking
usually occurs when an athlete is overly concerned about what others (teammates, coaches
or an audience) think about their performance.
4.3.4. STRATEGIES TO PREVENT ANXIETY AND CHOKING
The following strategies can be useful: set your own achievable goals
• use imagery before a competition to review strategy and technique and create a sense of
confidence
• use positive talk, both in preparation and in competition, practice relaxation exercises
• use music prior to a competition to help maintain focus by controlling negative thoughts.
One method of relaxation is centering. This is used by many elite performers to produce a
calming and controlling effect. Athletes may use centering when they feel they are
becoming overanxious, indicated by somatic signs. Centering involves the performer
focusing attention on the centre of their body.

Through your breathing, focus on an

Technique How to do it Practical example Mental rehearsal (cognitive) Going through the
competition in your mind, think about all the different situations that might occur and how
you will respond to them. Identify times when you may become aggressive or anxious, and
think about how you could control these feelings A 1500-m runner might think through their
tactics in a race and mentally rehearse how they will react and cope Coping skills
(behavioural)
Understand that the pressure is perception, not fact. Change your attitude so that a pressure
situation becomes enjoyable. Learn to interpret signs of arousal as positive cues A swimmer
may use the physical signs of arousal as cues in their short-term warm-up before a race
Somatic and cognitive techniques Use physical and mental relaxation methods Somatic
(physical) techniques include progressive muscular relaxation; cognitive (mental) techniques
include centering Performance monitoring review (behavioral) Keep a record of
performances; try to match internal states (thoughts, feelings) with external states
(successful
performance environmental factors) A sprinter recording their races will identify what they
feel like when they produce good performances Pre-performance routines (behavioral) Give
yourself specific, task-relevant instructions A long-jumper will undergo a pre-planned routine
in their preparation before a jump Simulation training (behavioral) Train to cope with anxiety
by practicing under conditions that mimic anticipated pressure situations a football team
might prepare for a penalty shoot-out by practicing in front of their home crowd at the end of
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a game.
THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT
The aforementioned chapters have focused upon the individual. Sport psychology, however,
involves more than the individuals. It also involves sociological factors that affect the
individual.
Sport sociology is a discipline that focuses up on social relations, group interaction and
sport-related social phenomena. Because groups are composed of individuals, it is often
difficult to determine where psychology ends and sociology begins; hence the need for an
area of study called social psychology.
5. AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE IN SPORT
5.1. Definition of Aggression
It is perhaps easiest to begin by saying what aggression is not.
 Aggression is not competitiveness, nor is it anger.
 Competitiveness is an attitude;
 anger is an emotion.
 Whilst anger and competitiveness may both contribute to aggression, aggression
itself is a behavior.
 Aggression, by definition, involves actively doing something unpleasant to someone.

 Aggressive behavior may come in many forms, ranging from verbal abuse –
designed to cause psychological harm – to physical violence.
 It is generally agreed that all aggression involves the intent to cause harm in some
form;
 thus, behavior which accidentally harms someone is not aggression. Putting these
factors together, a simple working definition of aggression would be something like
this: ‘Behavior of any kind that is carried out with the intention of harming another
person.’
5.2. Criteria for Aggression
Psychologists define aggression as ‘any form of behavior directed toward the goal of
harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment’ (Baron &
Richardson, 1994). The unwilling participation of the victim is often overlooked in In
examining this similar definition, four criteria of aggression emerge (Gill, 1986):
 It is a behavior.
 It involves harm or injury.
 It is directed toward a living organism.
 It involves intent.
Two factors must be presented in order for a behavior to be labeled aggression. First, the
behavior must be aimed at another human being with the goal of inflicting physical harm.
Second, there must be a reasonable expectation that the attempt to inflict bodily harm will
be successful. Consequently, the following behaviors are not really examples of aggression:
1. Doing destructive violence to an inanimate object such as a door or a water cooler.
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2. Unintentionally injuring another person during athletic competition.
3. Aggressive behavior in which there is no chance for the intended victim to be injured (e.g.,
aggressor and victim are separated by bars or by teammates)
Over the years, two basic kinds of aggression have been identified.
1. Hostile aggression.
For individuals engaged in hostile aggression,
 The primary goal is the injury of another human being.
 The intent is to make the victim suffer, and
 The reinforcement is the pain and suffering that is caused. This sort of aggression is
always accompanied by anger on the part of the aggressor.
 A good example of hostile aggression occurs when a cricket bowler throws a full-
toss at the batsman who has angered him.
2. Instrumental aggression.
For individuals engaged in instrumental aggression, The intent to harm another individual is
present, but the goal is to realize some external goal such as money, victory or Prestige. The
aggressor views the aggressive act as instrumental in obtaining the primary goal. A parallel
cricket example for instrumental aggression would be on in which the bowler has been
"ordered" by his coach to hit a batsman in retaliation for some earlier infraction. The bowler
is not necessarily angry at the batsman, but sees hitting the batsman as instrumental in
achieving the team goal of winning the game.
It must be emphasized that neither type of aggression is acceptable. The aggressor is guilty
of purposely inflicting harm with the intent to injure another person. This must be
discouraged at all levels of competition, especially the professional level, because young
athletes everywhere emulate the pros. A third category of behavior that is often confused
with aggression is assertiveness,
Assertive behavior. Generally, when coaches encourage their athletes to be more aggressive,
what they really want is that they be more assertive. Coaches want their athletes to assert
themselves and make their presence felt.
 Assertiveness involves the use of legitimate physical or verbal force to achieve one's
purpose.
 However, there is no intent to harm the opponent. Even if the opponent is harmed as
a result of a tackle in soccer,
 it is not necessarily aggression. It is merely assertive play, as long as it is within the
spirit of the agreed-on rules and the intent to harm is not present.
 Assertiveness requires the expenditure of unusual effort and energy, but if there is
no intent to harm, then any resultant harm is incidental to the game.
5.3. Theorie of Aggression
Theories of aggression fall into four main categories:
1. Instinct theory,
2. Social learning theory

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3. moral reasoning,
4. frustrate-aggression hypothesis.
1. Instinct Theory;- Instinct theory is based upon the writings of Sigmund Freud and
ethnologists such as Konrad Lorenz, Freud (1950) viewed aggression as an inborn drive
similar to hunger , thirst, and sexual desire. According to Freud, aggression is unavoidable
since it is innate, but as with any drive it can be regulated through discharge, or fulfillment.
Since human kind is innately aggressive, it benefits society to promote athletic sports and
games that provide a socially acceptable outlet for aggression.
2. Social Learning Theory;-Social learning theory posits that aggression is a function of
learning and that biological drive and frustration are inadequate explanations of the
phenomenon. Acts of aggression serve only to lay the foundation for more aggression, and
do not result in reduction or purging of the drive to be aggressive. Perhaps the leading
advocate of social learning theory, relative to aggression, is Bandura (1973). Bandura
proposes that aggression has a circular effect, i.e., one act of aggression leads to further
aggression. This pattern will continue until the circle is broken by some type of positive or
negative reinforcement.
3. Theory of Moral Reasoning ;-Theory of moral reasoning proposes that an individual's
willingness to engage in aggression is related to her stage of moral reasoning. Since human
aggression is viewed as unethical, this theory suggests that a relationship should exist
between the level of moral reasoning and overt acts of athletic aggression.
4. Frustration-Aggression Theory;- As originally presented by Dollard, Miller, Doob, Mourer,
and Sears (1939), frustration aggression theory proposes that aggression is a natural
response to frustration, and that the aggressive act provides a catharsis, or purging, of the
anger associated with the frustration. Frustrations caused by events that are believed to be
arbitrary or illegitimate are particularly galling to athletes.
5.4. The Catharsis Effect
 The catharsis effect represents a release of pent-up frustration that makes one feel
better.
 It is a purging of the anger and frustration associated with not being able to
accomplish a goal. Venting frustration upon a punching bag or some other inanimate
object may serve as a useful catharsis. Venting frustration upon another human
being, however, is unacceptable behavior that is likely to lead to more aggression.
Aggression is not cathartic in the sense that it leads to a reduction in the desire to
aggress. Aggression leads to an increase in aggression as tempers flare and as the
behavior becomes learned.
5.5. Fan Violence
Some of the worst examples of sports aggression and violence occur among the fans
watching an athletic contest. Every sports event is attended by individuals who may instigate
fan violence. These are individuals who score high in the personality disposition of anger
and physical aggression. These individuals are attracted to violence and fighting among fans,
and exhibit a false belief about the willingness of other fans to join in acts of violence.
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5.6. Effects of Aggression on Performance
Conventional wisdom argues that acts of aggression on the part of an athlete will constitute
a distraction and result in a decrement in performance. Not only are aggressive acts on the
part of an individual distracting to the individual, but they are likely to be distracting to the
team as a whole. Research shows, for example, that the lower a team is in the standings, the
more likely it will be to engage in aggression.
5.7. Situational Factors in a Sport Setting
Factors associated with the occurrence of aggression in sport-specific situations are as
follows:
a. Environmental temperature
Archival data suggest that higher temperatures lead major league pitchers to become more
aggressive in pitching to batters.
b. Perception of victim's intent
If athletes perceive that an opponent's intent is to inflict harm, they are more likely to
respond with aggression against the opponent. This means that perception of an opponent's
aggressive intentions may be more salient than such things as defeat and competition.
c. Fear of retaliation
To some degree, the fear of retaliation on the part of the individual who is the target of
aggression can inhabit another player from initiating that aggression. A basketball player is a
little less likely to elbow her opponent in the ribs if she fears similar treatment from the
opponent.
d. Structure of the game
Studies have shown that more aggressive penalties occur as the game score differential
increases. When teams are tied or the scores are close, aggression is at a minimum.
Research has also shown that the lower the team is in standings, the more its members
engage in aggression.
e. Rivalry, familiarity, and frequency of play.
As players become more familiar with one another due to frequency of play, and as the
rivalries become more intense due to geographical location, aggression becomes more
frequent.
f. Goal orientation
A respect for rules and officials declines as the ego orientation of the athlete increase.
Conversely, high task goal orientation is associated with higher level of sportsperson ship.
5.8. Reducing Aggression in Sport
Aggression in sport can be curtailed, or at least minimized, if all concerned are interested in
doing so. The sad part is that some of the most influential people actually promote rather
than discourage violence because they believe it sells tickets. Research shows that angry
feelings and angry behavior, the precursor to hostile aggression can be modified through
anger awareness training and role playing. Athletes can learn to control their feelings of
hostility anger. Role playing is particularly effective in reducing an athlete's anger feelings
and behavior.

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5.9. Curtailing Aggression and Violence by Athletes
a. Young athletes must be provided with models of nonaggressive but effective assertive
behavior.
b. Athletes who engage in aggressive acts must be severely penalized.
c. The penalty or punishment that an athlete receives for an act of aggression must be of
greater punitive value than the potential reinforcement received for committing the act.
d. In addition to receiving punishment for acts of aggression, athletes should receive
rewards and praise for showing restraint and patience in emotionally charged situations.
5.10. Curtailing Aggression and Violence by Fans
a. Potential troublemakers should be closely supervised. Fans with a history of violence and
fighting should be identified and denied admission.
b. The sale, distribution, and use of alcoholic beverages at sporting event should be limited
and controlled.
c. Athletic events should be promoted and encouraged as family affairs.
d. The media can promote responsible behavior on the part of the fans by not glamorizing
acts of aggression.
e. As with athletes and coaches, fan aggression must be swiftly and severely punished.

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 MODULE FOUR
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN SPORT
Specific Objective:
 Concepts of measurement and evaluation in sports.

 Compare and contrast test, measurement, assessment and evaluation.

 Apply statistical techniques in measurement & evaluation.

 Demonstrate the technique of performance measurement & physical fitness test.

1. Concepts of Test, Measurement and Evaluation

Basically Test, Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation are interrelated,

interdependent and follow a continuous process.
1. Test:
 Test is a method to determine a student's ability to complete certain tasks or
demonstrate mastery of a skill or knowledge of content. Test is instrument used to
measure components or tasks.

 Test is a tool to obtain information to determine the specific characteristics or

qualities of an individual regarding knowledge, physical abilities, skill abilities, etc.

 It is a short formal way of checking learner’s behavioral change. It should not be

expensive (it is less time consuming).

 Two broad types of Test: Teacher Made Test & Standardized Test (e.g. psychological
test, physical fitness test)

 For example; unit test (pre- & post-test), mid-exam, annual examinations, physical
fitness or body measurement (height, weight).

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 2. Measurement:
 Measurement is the process of gathering information about learning behavior. It is
quantitative description of learner’s behavior.
 It is a score or data in numerical/grading values, indicating the capacity or ability of an
individual, which is obtained on the basis of applied test.
 Students score in their test and examination either on the field or in the classroom is
called measurement.
For example: An athlete runs 100meter distance within 10 seconds.
 What is the height of Uche?
 What is the weight of the meat?
 What is the length of the classroom?
For coaches, the purpose of measurement is to produce quantitative data, such as; test
scores, numerical rating on assigned projects, height, weight, visual sharpness and
number of sit-ups completed in one minutes.
It should be quantitative in nature and it must be exact and accurate (instrument).
3. Evaluation:
 It is the process of interpreting the collected data to measure and make the
professional judgment of value or worth.
 After giving the test, everyone wants to know the feedback or effectiveness of the
measures, which can be gathered through evaluation.

 It is an important part of any sport program because it helps coaches to

measure athlete’s current levels of performance, progress, and their own
coaching effectiveness.

 Evaluation may be formative or summative evaluative process used three steps-

process of education: objectives, learning experiences and change of behavior.
 These steps are performed in sequence. Measurement and Evaluation program is very
useful for teachers, students and parents in the field of health and physical education,
either to check academics as well as the level of fitness.

 Test, Measurement and Evaluation process is useful for achievement, diagnosis,

prescription, improvement, classification, and grading, motivational purpose and also
helpful for the prediction of performance.

 It is the procedures used to determine whether the subject (i.e. student) qualifying
in accordance with a predetermined criteria.
 It is more comprehensive and includes either quantitative or qualitative
description of pupil’s behavior or both.

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  In addition, Evaluation always includes Value judgment concerning the desirability
of the results.
 Generally, Evaluation is Quantitative descriptions (measurement) and/or Qualitative
descriptions (non-measurement) Plus Value judgment.
 After measuring the components put the Conclusion or Grading, by means of pass &
fail, by means of excellent, good, poor & bad or by means of ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ & ‘D’ grade.

2. Importance of Measurement and Evaluation in Physical education and Sports

1. To measure Athletes learning progress: assessment is a way for coaches to

measure progress, strengths, weakness and areas of development.
• Many coaches assess their athletes using a pre-test, mid-term, and post-test to
determine athlete’s progress.
• This may take place throughout a unit or the entire training year.

2. To Improvement of coaching process:

• Coaches use assessment to determine what is effective in their coaching
practices,
• What is working and what needs improvement.
• A variety of assessment tools may be used in order to determine what types of
trainings are most beneficial in meeting the needs of athletes.
3. It is a means of Communication:
• Assessment should serve as a means of communication between coaches,
athletes, administrators, and parents.
• Parents and athletes often look at assessment to see what is being learned, how
progress is being measured, and the type of training being received.
• Educators and administrators use assessment to evaluate coaching practices
and
• To determine if there are gaps in the training program.
4. To evaluate the Training program:
• With any responsibility you assume as a coach, occasionally you will have to
justify the effectiveness of your coaching /teaching/instruction/program to your
employer.
5. To measure the Achievement of objective:
• The most common reason for measurement and assessment is to determine
the degree of achievement of program objectives and personal goals.
• Athletes certainly to know how far they have progressed in a given period of time,
and
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 • You need to know their achievement to better evaluate the effectiveness of your
instruction/ coaching.
6. To enhancing Motivation:
• Assessment shows progress or improvement,
• When improvement is shown athletes motivate about their coaching
environment.
• Improvement enhancing athletes’ motivation to perform to the best of their
ability.
• If assessment used correctly, measurement can highly motivate most
individuals.
For example; Skin fold measure might encourage over fat individuals in health
fitness program to lose body fat.
• Always try to keep your evaluation and assessment positive than negative.
• Finally everyone enjoys comparing past performances with current once.
•
7. Diagnosing (assessing) the weakness and strengths of the learners: - to give
feedback
• Through measurement you can assess the weakness (needs) and strengths of a
group or individuals.
• In certain settings, it may be possible that you are able to prescribe personal
exercise or programs to correct the diagnosed weakness.
• If some athletes are not progressing as you feel they should, testing may help
you determine why they are not.
8. To Classification/ Selection: when you should like to classify athletes in to similar
group for the training. Place the athlete in appropriate training group and In
addition individuals usually feel more comfortable when performing with others of
similar skill.
9. Prediction of performance: measurement to predict future performance in sport
has increased in popularity.

10. To Research work: Research is used to find meaningful solutions to problems and
as a means to expand a body of knowledge.

11. Talent identification of young athletes: the process of recognizing current

participants with the potential to become elite players (athletes).
• It entail to predicting performance over various periods of time by measuring
physical, physiological, psychological and sociological attributes as well as
technical abilities either alone or in.

12. For guidance and counseling services

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3. Characteristics of good Test/ Evaluation
1. Validity: does it measure what it intends/claims to measure?
→ Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
→ Validity is the degree to which the test measures what it intends to measure.
→ There are three types of validities:

1. Content validity is the test adequately represents the subject matter and the
instructional objectives. If a test does not represent the various contents is said
to be not valid content.

2. Construct validity is the test measures the concept, or construct, it intends to

measure. For instance, if we intend to measure aptitude, competence, ability,
skill, fitness and know-how we are sure we do, then our test has construct
validity.

3. Predictive validity the extent scores on a given test predicts scores on another
test. For instance, if scores on all semester exam result are highly correlated
with scores on university exit exam results, then one could say the exit exam
has high predictive validity.

What the assessment is designed to measure the performance, skill or behavior.

For example,
1. What type of test designed to measure cardiovascular endurance?
2. A teacher who decides to measure the intelligence of students. Some
measures, like physical strength, possess no natural connection to intelligence.
Thus, a test of physical strength, like how many push-ups a student could do,
would be an invalid test of intelligence.
→ It is important to remember that validity is specific to a particular use and group.
An assessment might be valid for one age group, but not valid for a different age
group.

3. Reliability: does it measure consistently? And whether the test used to collect
data produces accurate results.
→ It is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent
results.
A reliable assessment should obtain approximately the same results regardless of
the number of times it is given.
For example, an assessment given to a group of athletes on one day should yield
approximately the same results if it is given to the same group on another day.
 Reliability is the degree to which a test is consistent and stable results over time.

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 → There are various approaches to measure reliability of a test.
 Split-half method is used to measure internal consistency of a test.

 Test-retest method is used to Administration of the same test twice, measure

stability of a test over time.

 Either or both approaches could be used depending on the intended purpose. A

good test needs to demonstrate reasonably high reliability.

 Validity is necessary, while reliability is also necessary, it alone is not

sufficient.
 For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid.
i.e. All valid tests are Reliable, but all reliable tests are not valid.

3. Objectivity: does the measurement yield highly similar results when

administered by others. (It have only one result)
For example, an assessment has high objectivity, when two or more people can
administer the same assessment to the same group and obtain approximately
the same results.
4. Usability/Feasibility: – relevance, easiness to administer, interpretability,
easiness to scoring. It is the capacity of a system to provide a condition for its
users to perform the tasks easily, safely, effectively and efficiently.

 The following administrative considerations may help to determine the feasibility of an

assessment.

i. Cost: does the assessment require expensive equipment?

ii. Time: Does the assessment take too much instructional time?

iii. Ease of administration: Does it need assistance to administer the assessment?

Are the instructions easy to follow? Is the assessment reasonable in the
demands?

iv. Scoring: if another person is needed to help administer the assessment, will it
affect the objectivity of the scoring?

v. Usefulness– can the results be used for valid coaching purposes such as self-
appraisal, program planning, or reporting progress?
4. Type of Evaluation

There are various types of evaluation including pre-assessment, formative/

summative, formal/informal, and criterion/norm-referenced evaluation.

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 1. Pre-assessment
 This process helps to determine whether the students possess the prerequisite
knowledge and skills to enable them to proceed with new material. It is useful to
have this information at the beginning of a new course, or the beginning of a new
year in school. It is also useful for teachers new to a class who have not taught
before.

2. Formative Vs Summative Evaluation

• Formative assessment: (Process Evaluation): it referred to as “assessment for
learning.” Informal and formal tests carried out during the learning process or
throughout the training.
• Summative assessment: (Product Evaluation): Assessment is generally carried out at
the end of the training/an instructional unit.
3. Formal Vs Informal Evaluation
 Formal assessment: is given as a numerical score based on athletes performance.

 Informal assessment: It usually occurs in a more casual manner, Including

observation, participation, peer and self-evaluation and demonstration.

3. Criterion Vs Norm-referenced Evaluation

 Criterion referenced Assessment: Is the process of evaluating the athletes’
performance against a set of pre specified criteria.
 Norm referenced assessment: Generally norm referenced assessment tends to be
relative to the performance of others, while criterion referenced assessment is
based on performance against fixed criteria.
• Norm-referenced (interpretation is based on group score) and criterion-
referenced (interpretation is based on fixed score or criteria).
For example; Exit-exam can be grouped under standardized and
criterion–referenced test.
5. Analyzing the Test scores

 Basic Statistical concepts & terms for description of Test Scores:

 Data: There result of measurement is called data. Data usually means the numerical
result of measurements but can also mean verbal information.
 Variable: is a trait or characteristics of something that can assume more than one
value.
Examples of variables are cardiovascular endurance, present body fat, flexibility,
and muscular strength. Their values will vary from one person to another, and

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 they may not always be the same for one individual.
 Population: includes all subjects (members) within a defined group.

- It’s a larger group of people.

- All subjects of the group have some measurable or observable characteristics.

For example, if you wanted to determine the physical fitness of 12th grade students
in a particular high school, the population would be all students in the 12th grade.
 Sample: is a part or subgroup of the population form which the measurements are
actually obtained.

- It refers to a smaller & manageable group. It is a subset containing the

characteristics of a larger population.

 Random Sample: is one in which every subject in the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample. A sample could be formed by randomly
selecting a group to represent all population.

 Descriptive statistics: summarizes or describes the characteristics of a data set. (it

limits generalizations to the particular group of individuals observed)

 Descriptive statistics consists of two basic categories of measures: measures of

central tendency and measures of variability (or spread).
Example: put in the form of mean, standard deviation (SD), percentage (%), and
variance.
 Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics are often used to compare the
differences between the samples of subjects in the experiment to the treatment
groups and make generalizations about the larger population of subjects.

 Inferential statistics: conclusions and make predictions based on your data.

 When you have collected data from a sample, you can use inferential statistics to
understand the larger population from which the sample is taken.

 In quantitative research, after collecting data, the first step of statistical analysis
is to describe characteristics of the responses, such as the average of one
variable (e.g., age), or the relation between two variables (e.g., age and creativity).

 The next step is inferential statistics, which help you decide whether your data
confirms or disproves your hypothesis and whether it is generalizable to a larger
population.

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For example, if you wanted to estimate the physical fitness of 300 female adults in
the program. You could randomly select 30 of the females, Test them, and Through
the use of inferential statistics, estimate the physical fitness of the 300 females.
 Measure of Central Tendency: It is the technique of analysis that uses to represent
scores in a distribution with a typical (representative) score.
- Measures of central tendency describe the center of a data set.
 There are three kinds of measures of central tendencies. These are the Mean,
Median and Mode.

a) The mean: with any test the first question usually asked by the students upon
knowing their individual scores is, “What is the class average?” the mean,
 The most generally used measure of central tendency, is the arithmetic average of
a distribution of scores.
 It is calculated by summing all the scores and dividing by the total number of
scores.
Mean = Sum of scores X = Σxi
N N
Where;
Σxi = sum of score N = number of scores

b) The median: is the score that represents the exact middle in the distribution.
th
 It is the 50 percentile, the score that 50% of the score are above and 50% of the
scores are below.

c) The mode: the mode is the score that occurs most frequently.
 In a normal distribution, the mode is representative of the middle score.
 If a distribution has two modes (bimodal), and it is possible for a distribution to be
multimodal or have no mode at all.
 It is the least used measure of central tendency.

 Measure of variability/Dispersion
a) The range: is determined by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score.
 It is the easiest measure of variability to computer, but since it represents only
the extreme score and provides no distribution information,
 It is also the least useful.
→ Range= High Score – Low score
b) Variance: The average of the squared differences from the Mean.
 Measures of variability or spread describe the dispersion of data within the set.

V2 = Σx2

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 N
c) Standard Deviation: is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a
set of values.
 Standard deviation is the spread of raw data about the mean.

Where:
f = frequency
Σx = sum of score
N = number of scores
Practical Test Administration
Test administration guidelines are a set of policies and procedures that outline how
standardized assessments should be distributed and administered.
These guidelines exist in order to increase consistency, ensure test security, and
safeguard the fair and reliable results of exam scores.
Test administration includes:
 Carefully following of standard procedures of the test, so that the test is used in the
method specified by the test developers. The test administrator should ensure that
test takers work within conditions that maximize opportunity for optimum
performance.

 As appropriate test administration; test takers, parents, and organizations should be

involved in the various aspects of the testing process before, during and after
testing.

 Assessment Guidelines Before, During, and After Testing

1. Duties BEFORE administrating test

Test administrators should give basic information about the test.

Test takers should be informed about;
o Know the Test;

o Develop Testing Procedures; (the most effective method of testing)

o Develop Purposes & Instruction of the test;

o Prepare participants Psychologically & Physiologically for testing

o The method of administration; (plan the warm-up & test trials, and secure the
equipment and prepare the testing facility)

o Method of Scoring and Reporting; make scoring sheets & estimate the time needed.

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 o Have sufficient time to practice experiences prior to the test.

o Review test materials, administration sites and procedures prior to testing.

o Arrange appropriate modifications of testing materials and procedures in order to

accommodate individual with special needs, and

o Have a clear understanding of their rights and responsibilities.

2. Duties DURING testing

 The testing environment (like seating, work surfaces, lighting, room temperature,
freedom from distractions and psychological climate are favorable to the best
possible performance of the examinees.

 Maintain uniform conditions & observe the conduct of test takers when large
groups of individuals are tested

Test administrators follow;

1. Preparation:
- Warm-up or Practice, Explain the purpose, test instructions and procedures.
- Demonstrate the test, A practice trial of the test.
- Follow exact sequence & timing (time interval b/n testes), Use materials that are
identical for all test takers.
2. Motivation:
- Give all participants the same degree of motivation and encouragement.
3. Safety:
- Watch closely for any safety problems or potential injuries.
- Observing and recording: Environmental, Health, & Emotional factors.
- Variations from prescribed test administration procedures, including information on test
accommodations for individuals with special needs, are recorded;

- The security of test materials is protected.

- Some situations may add steps or modify some of these to provide the best testing
environment possible.

3. Responsibilities AFTER administration

 Collect and Register all Data, test materials & necessary information including;
Explanations on any problems, Irregularities (wrongdoing), and Accommodations
in the test records.

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  Analyze the Test Scores: Complete statistical analysis, Interpret statistical
analysis & Report test results to the people tested in a confidential and
motivating manner.
 Record Keeping: Keep scoring sheets and data analysis documents in a secure
and confidential.

6. Assessments of Sports Skill Tests:

Criteria for Grouping of Sports Skill Tests:-

 Accuracy based tests: Throwing, Serving, and Striking/Kicking an object toward a

target for accuracy.

Example: throwing a baseball, kicking football, shooting a basketball, serving

tennis ball.

 Repetitive-performance test (wall volley test): continuous performance of an

activity for a specified time it required to pass, throw or kick an object at a wall.

Example: basketball passes, volleyball volleys, soccer kick & racket sport strokes.

 Total body movement test (Speed test): test performer moves the whole body in
a restricted designated area as quickly as possible.

Example: basketball & soccer dribbling.

 Distance or Power performance test: test performer throws kicks or strikes an

object for maximum force or displacement.

Example: soccer kicks/punts, medicine ball throws.

 Guide lines for Sport Skills and Motor Performance Tests

 Acceptable reliability and  Encourage correct form
validity
 Involve only one participant at a
 Simple to administer and take time

 Easy to understand instruction  Interesting and meaningful

 Suitable difficulty  Exclude unnecessary variables

 Not expensive nor require  Provide for accurate scoring

extensive equipment
 Provide target scoring
 Reasonable time for preparation guidelines (if appropriate)
and administration
 Sufficient trials
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 Yield diagnostic scores

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 Effective Testing Procedure

1. Test Preparation: For any fitness assessment, it is recommended that your body is
prepared physically to perform your maximum potential.

 Maximum performance is more likely to nutritional and physical health.

For Example; - avoid heavy strenuous exercise for the 24 hours prior to testing, wear
appropriate clothing for the conditions, any injury or illness that is unlikely to
perform good &be sure to warm-up.

2. Test Sequence: The order in which the fitness tests are performed can affect
performance in subsequent tests.
a. Health Checks: Blood pressure & Resting heart rate should always be tested first.
b. Anthropometry: the measurement of the human body in terms of the dimensions of
bone, muscle, and adipose (fat) tissue. No physical activity prior to the
measurements of body composition.
c. Flexibility tests: scheduled early in the session prior to any activity, or after warm up.
d. Speed/Power tests: Power tests are usually performed first, followed by speed, agility,
strength, muscle endurance and, finally, cardiorespiratory or repeat sprint tests.
e. Muscle Strength tests: completed prior to muscle endurance tests, but after the speed
and power tests.
f. Muscular Endurance tests: A minimum break of five minutes is recommended
between muscle strength and muscle endurance tests.
- If there are several muscular strength & endurance tests in one session, you must
allow plenty of time for recovery between tests.
g. Aerobic Fitness tests: Many of the submaximal aerobic tests are based on a heart rate
response may be affected by previous tests and by the mental state of the athlete, and
should be scheduled accordingly.
3. Scheduling: Testing should be done performed at particular times that correspond to
the aims of the tests.

- For example, testing at the beginning and ends of certain phases of training, or at
regular intervals to monitor progress.

4. Safety checks: It should be done prior to any testing session, such as checking for
the proper working of equipment, and adequate supply of safety equipment such as
mats, water bottles and first aid kits.

 During the sessions, give adequate warm-up.

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5. Recording Sheets: well-designed scoring sheets make recording scores more
efficient and avoid errors.

 In addition to the test results, the following should also be recorded with every
testing session:

 Date & Time of testing, Personal details (name, age, contact details).
 Current states (fitness level, any injuries, health status, fatigue level, sleep).
 Activity details (sport involved in, event), Basic physiological data (weight, resting heart
rate).
 Current training phase (e.g. speed, speed endurance, strength, and technique).
 Current training load (the number of miles run, the number of sets & repetitions, & the
number of attempts), Current training intensity (Kilograms, % of VO2 max).
 Environmental & surface conditions (wind, temperature, humidity, indoors).
 Name of evaluators.

6. Test Assistants: All test assistants should be adequately trained prior to testing, to
ensure correct administration of the tests, and reduce error between testers.

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 MODULE FIVE

INTRODUCTION TO VOLLEYBALL

1.1. Historical background of volleyball

Volleyball history began in a town called Holyoke, Massachusetts in 1895. William
Morgan invented volleyball in 1895 at the Holyoke, Massachusetts, YMCA (Young
Men's and women Christian Association) where he served as Director of Physical
Education After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game
at its first exhibition match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School
(now called Springfield College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was
originally spelled as two words: "volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by
the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to
various YMCAs. Mintonnete was an indoor sport meant to be gentler than basketball
and incorporate some of the characteristics of tennis, badminton, and handball. The
net, originally a standard tennis net, stood at 6’6’’ and an unlimited number of players
could be on each side of the court at any given time. Similar to baseball, a match was
made up of nine innings, with each team serving three times in an inning with
unlimited contacts.

1. RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE VOLLEYBALL

2.1. Equipment, court, players, the ball and function of the Rules,

2.1.1 Equipment

Net: The net is a mesh 1 meter wide and 9.50meter long vertically placed over the
center line to divide the playing space in to two parts. The net shall be made of 10 cm
square dark stitches mesh, with two- folds of white canvas 10 cm wide ;each 5 cm
fold sewn along the full length of the top of the net and a flexible cable stretched
through the bottom of the net is tied to the poles to tense the net.
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Side Bands: Two tapes of white material 5 cm wide and 1meter long shall be fasted
on each side of the end of the net.

Antennas: The antennas are two flexible rods made of fiber glass or similar material 1.
80 meter long and 10 mm in diameter. The antennas shall be marked with 10 cm
bands of contrasting colors, preferably red and white. Each is fastened on outer edge
of each vertical side of the net. It is side limits of the net

Referee Stand: The referee stand to be a stable platform that elevates the Volley ball
referees head to about 75cm above the top of the net. The platform should be 45.5cm
long and 30 cm wide.

The poles: Two poles, with a height of 2.55m, support the net, at each end. They must
be fixed to the playing surface at a distance between 0.50 cm from each sideline.

The Ball: The volleyball must be spherical with a lace of 12 or more pieces of genuine
smooth leather. The ball is about 65 to 67 cm in circumference. The ball should weigh
about 260-280g. The volleyball is made of leather or synthetic leather. It’s inside
pressure shall be 0.30–0.325 kg/cm2

Kneepads: Knee pads are to prevent severe knee impact on hard wood surfaces

Ankle Supports: Ankle supports prevent your player from ankle injuries.

Volleyball Shoes: Volleyball shoes are made with materials to provide non-slip
traction. The sole of a volleyball shoe made up of gum rubber soles which protect
tractions. Since volleyball requires a lot of starting, stopping and quick turns it is
necessary to have gum rubber soles.

The other important feature of volleyball shoes is that they are lightweight. Most
volleyball shoes today are a combination of synthetic leather and mesh uppers. This
provides for, more breathing, and faster drying.

Score sheet: volleyball game rules require a score sheet to be used to keep score. A
score sheet also provides space for lineups, individual scoring, team scoring, and
timeouts. There is a comments section for recording warnings, penalties, unsporting
conduct, and any other unusual events.

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2.1.2 The Court

Understanding volleyball court dimensions have big impact on how well you play the
game of volleyball. The volleyball court specifications require the court to be 18
meters long and 9 meters wide. The volleyball court has a centreline that divides each
team’s into a 9 by 9 meter area of court space.

The volleyball net is one meter wide and is placed in the centre of the court. For men’s
volleyball competition, the height of the net measures 2.43 meters from the court
ground at the centre. For women’s volleyball competition, the net is placed at the
height of 2.24 meters. The volleyball court can be divided into areas or zones. The
standard volleyball net pole stands a distance of 2.55 meters from the ground. The
minimum recommended depth of the pole is 50 cm. so; the total length is 3.05 meters.
This line is also referred to as the attack line. This attack line divides the court into
back row and front row areas. The main purpose of the attack line is to mark where
back row players can attack the ball. The following volleyball court diagram shows
volleyball court dimensions with the zones of the court. The three positions or areas
on the back row are

• Right back position (zone 1)

• Middle back position (zone 6)
• Left back position (zone 5)

The three positions or areas on the front row are

• Right front position (zone 2)

• Middle front position (zone 3)
• Left front position (zone 4)

2.1.3 The players and the game

FIVB, world and official competitions for seniors: up to 14 players is recorded on the
score sheet and play in a match including:-One coach, two assistant coaches and
Medical staff one team therapist& One medical doctor.

Game play: Each team consists of six players. To start the game a team is chosen to
serve by Coin toss. A game play starts by serving the ball over the net to land on the
opposing team's court. The opposing team must use a combination of three contacts
to return the ball to the opponent's side of the net These contacts usually consist first

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of the bump or dig pass aimed towards setter; the setter send that ball to attacker
then an attacker jumps and spikes over the net. The team with possession of the ball
that is trying to attack the ball described as offence. The team on defense side
attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into their court: players at the
net jump up and block the attacked ball. If the ball is hit through the block, the
defensive players arranged to control the ball with a dig. After a successful dig, the
team transfer to offence. The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth,
until an error is made.

Scoring: When the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or an error is
made, the team that did not make the error is awarded a point, whether they served
the ball or not. The team that won the point serves for the next point. The game
continues, with the first team to score 25 points awarded the set. Matches are best-of-
five sets and the fifth set is usually played to 15 points

2.2. Volleyball game, scoring a point and playing format

How the Game is played? one team serves the ball over the net to the other team with
the intention of placing the ball into the opponents’ court. The receiving team
attempts to return the ball back over the net to place it back in the serving teams’
court. The objective of the game is to win the match

Match: a match is won by the first team to win 3 out of 5 games. Depending on the
state, some high schools still play the best 2 out of 3. As soon as a team wins 3
games, the match is over.

Game: A game is played to 25 points, the first team to 25 wins. Games must be won
by at least 2 points ahead. So, if there is a 24-24 tie, the game shall be played until one
team has a two point lead. If the match goes to a 5th game, the game is played to 15
points.

Point: A point is scored by a team every time the opponent commits a fault. Or a point
is scored every time the ball lands in the opponents’ court.

What are the Common Strategies for Scoring Points?

A good strategy for scoring a point would be to serve the ball in such a way that it
would be difficult for the other team to return the ball back over the net. Each team is
allowed 3 hits before the ball has to be returned over the net. A good strategy would

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be to play the ball to your teammates in such a manner to make the 3rd hit difficult for
the opponent to play. Most teams try to utilize volleyball strategies to bump, set, then
spike the ball into the opponent’s courts. Each team consists of 3 front line players
and 3 back line players. The front line players may jump at the net and hit the ball. This
strategy is called attacking. The front line players may also reach above the net and try
blocking the ball coming from the other side.

2.3. Libero and recent rule changes

2.3.1 The Libero

In 1998 the libero player was introduced internationally. The libero is a player
specialized in defensive skills: the libero must wear a contrasting jersey color from his
or her teammates and cannot block or attack the ball when it is entirely above net
height.

When the ball is not in play, the libero can replace any back-row player, without prior
notice to the officials. This replacement does not count against the substitution. limit
each team is allowed per set, although the libero may be replaced only by the player
whom he or she replaced. The libero may function as a setter only under certain
restrictions. If she/he makes an overhand set, she/he must be standing behind (and
not stepping on) the 3-meter line; otherwise, the ball cannot be attacked above the net
in front of the 3-meter line.

An underhand pass is allowed from any part of the court. The libero is, generally, the
most skilled defensive player on the team. There is also a libero tracking sheet, where
the referees or officiating team must keep track of whom the libero subs in and out for.
There may only be one libero per set (game), although there may be a different libero
in the beginning of any new set (game). Furthermore, a libero is not allowed to serve,
according to international rules, with the exception of the NCAA women's volleyball
games, where a 2004 rule change allows the libero to serve, but only in a specific
rotation. That is, the libero can only serve for one person, not for all of the people for
whom she goes in. This rule change was also applied to high school and junior high
play soon after.

2.3.2 Recent rule changes

Other rule changes enacted in 2000 include allowing serves in which the ball touches
the net, as long as it goes over the net into the opponents' court. Also, the service area

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was expanded to allow players to serve from anywhere behind the end line but still
within the theoretical extension of the sidelines. Other changes were made to lighten
up calls on faults for carries and double-touches, such as allowing multiple contacts
by a single player ("double-hits") on a team's first contact provided that they are a part
of a single play on the ball. In 2008, the NCAA changed the minimum number of
points needed to win any of the first four sets from 30 to 25 for women's volleyball
(men's volleyball remained at 30.) If a fifth (deciding) set is reached, the minimum
required score remains at 15. In addition, the word "game" is now referred to as "set".
Changes in rules have been studied and announced by the FIVB in recent years, and
they have released the updated rules.

2. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF VOLLEYBALL GAME

Each skill (Serve, Pass, Set, Spike, Block and Dig) comprises a number of specific
techniques that have been introduced over the years and are now considered standard
practice in high-level volleyball.

3.1. without ball (Basic stance)

This posture is the best position from which to move quickly and efficiently in any
direction. For ward, back ward or sideways which depends on the direction of the
ball.Key characteristics

 Feet shoulder width apart

 Knees bent and inside the line of the toes.
 Weight for warded with the knees loaded.
 Spine straight, Hands in front of the body, ready to move

3.2. Service

The serve is the act of putting the ball into play by the right back player placed in the
service zone. Serving techniques are more important in the volley ball

Feet: Your feet should be shoulder width apart from each other. Right foot will be
slightly back from the left and the left foot will be in front. Before actually serving, your
body weight should be on your right foot.

Hands: The left hand/arm would be straight in front of you, with the right hand/arm by
your right ear. The ball will be resting in your left hand with your right hand pulled back

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by your right ear. This is the proper technique and position.Tossing the Ball: The left
hand is going to toss the ball in the air.

There are different types of serves.

Underhand Serve - underhand serve is a serve in which the ball is given a slight under-
hand toss from waist high and then struck with a closed fist by the opposite hand.
This is mostly done by beginners because it is easier to do and it does not require too
much power.
Overhand Serve - The overhand serve is done by tossing the ball up into the air then
striking it with the opposite hand above the shoulder. This is also known as spikes
serve and it is done by players with good strength and coordination.
Jump serve: The jump serve is a serve in which, you tosses the ball, takes an
approach and jumps to spike the tosses ball.
 It is important timing the toss.
 The jump serve is a high level serving technique.
 This is one of the most difficult serving techniques to master.

3.3 passing, & receiving

Also called reception is the attempt by a team to properly:-handle the opponent's
serve, or any form of attack. Handling includes not only preventing the ball from
touching the court, but also making it reaches the position where the setter is standing
quickly and precisely.
Position: The key point to good passing is proper positioning of the body and
movement of your legs. The end result is a sloppy pass and your setter will not love
you for it.
When receiving serve or ready to pass, your knees should be bent, you should be on
your toes, and ready to move to the ball.
Two fundamental techniques of passing: - both of them are acceptable in
professional and beach volleyball,
1. Underarm pass: Forearm pass the ball touches the inside part of the joined
forearms with follow through and
2. Overhand pass: Overhead pass it is handled with the fingertips, like a set, above
the head. The ball is played up overhead using a setting type motion.

3.4 Setting
The second contact that the team makes with the ball. The main goal of setting is to

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put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an attack into the
opponent's court. The setter coordinates the offensive movements of a team and is
the player who ultimately decides which player will attack the ball.
Hand Position for Setting Volleyball: - to find your volleyball setting position put your
hands above your head with your index fingers and your thumbs together. Bring your
hands together. Put your hands together with your fingertips touching. Open up your
hands, forming a triangle with your index fingers and thumbs. Bring your fingers apart
to a distance that would be perfect for placing a ball.This is the position you want to
get your hands in just before you contact the ball setting. You should be able to place
a ball into this hand position and let the ball just sit there comfortable
When setting volleyball, the ball should only be contacted by your fingers and never the
palms of your hands. The ball should contact your thumbs and first two fingers with
an equal amount of force, while your last two fingers on both hands contact the ball
with much less force.
Types of setting include
a) Short set

b) Medium set and

c) High set

3.5 Spiking (attacking)

Spike or Attack is the strategy to send the ball over the net to the opponent courts.
The spike hit the ball to land on the ground of your opponent's side of the court.
Tipping the ball with fingers can also possible. Its main objective is to handle the ball
so that it lands on the opponent's court and cannot be defended thus resulting in a
point.
The attack is one of the most frequent plays leading to a score in volleyball. The basic
classical spike is made by jumping off of both feet. A player makes a series of steps
(approach), jumps, and swings at the ball.
Steps of spiking
1. Two step attacking

2. Three step attacking &

3. Four step attacking

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3.6 Blocking
A block is deflecting the opponents attack before it cross the net and drop out on the
court. A block is a defensive playing action at the net. Blocking is a skill of timing,
coordination, and verticality. It is a defensive playing action at the net which is
performed by front row player jumping near the net in front of an opposing the
attacker. A block may be performed by one front row player or a combination of front
row players jumping near the net in front of an opposing attacker. The goal of block is
preventing the spike from a successful attack
Types of blocking
1. One man Block - A block that one player participate in a successful block at the
net
2. Double Block - A double block is when two players are working in union to
deflect an attacked ball at the net. It’s a good strategy to put up a double block
as often as possible to help prevent successful attacking.
3. Triple Block - A triple block is when three players jump up together at the net to
block
The key points for blocking techniques are:Identify the hitters and setters on the other
team, BALL, SETTER, HITTER, Penetrate over the net, Spread your fingers and Keep
the hands close together so you don't get hit in the face.

3.7 Digging
Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike,
particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. In many aspects, this skill is
similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish
between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms. Its difference
from passing is that it is much more reflex based skill, especially at the higher levels.
A player may sometimes perform a dive i.e. throw in the air with a forward movement
in an attempt to save the ball. Volleyball diggers must be able to move laterally,
forward, and backward explosively at full range of motion

Digging Technique
 Wait for and move to the ball.
 Get your forearms under the ball.
 Lean into the ball as you make contact.
 Dig the ball at the midline of your hands.

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 4. ADVANCED SKILLS IN VOLLEYBALL GAME

4.1 Defensive and Attacking techniques

4.1.1 Technical skills in volleyball

Technical skills are defined as “the specific procedures to move one's body to
perform the task that needs to be accomplished” (Martens, Successful Coaching, p.
169). The proper execution of the technical skills in volleyball is, obviously, crucial to
successful performance. Most coaches, even those with little experience, know what
the basic technical skills of volleyball are: serving, passing, setting, attacking, blocking,
and digging. But the ability to teach athletes how to perform those skills usually
develops only over a long period, as a coach gains knowledge and experience.

Defensive techniques
Defensive strategies are a reaction to offensive plays. These include:-
1. Blocking &
2. Digging.
Two things are critical for success at blocking.
1) Positioning
2) Timing

Few tactics for blocking include; Taking space down the line, Taking space cross
court and Communicating to your teammates before the serve on what you are going
to block. Volleyball defense is a reaction to offense. A team plays volleyball defense
from the moment their opponents contact or control the ball to the moment the ball
crosses the plane of the net and returns to their side. A team would also play defense
after a serve, attack. The most important aspect of defense is “reading” the
development of and the point of attack correctly. Defensive systems are the
formations used by the defense to protect against the ball being grounded into their
court by the opposing team. The system will outline which players are responsible for
which areas of the court depending on where the opposing team is attacking from.

There are also several different blocking schemes teams can employ to disrupt the
opposing teams’ offense

Attacking techniques;- Offensive systems are the formations used by the offense to
attempt to ground the ball into the opposing court. These include:-Serve, Pass, Set,
and Spike
The setter is the main contributor to the offense of the volleyball team. One of the

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requirements of the setter is having a delicate touch to set the ball perfectly for one of
the attacking players.

4.2 Tactics in volleyball

Tactical skills are defined as “the decisions and actions of players in the contest to
gain an advantage over the opposing team or players” (Martens, Successful Coaching,
p. 170). Basic volleyball resources might focus on the technical skills of the game and
may overlook the tactical aspects. Coaches even omit tactical considerations from
practice because they focus so intently on teaching technical skills. For volleyball
players to develop better as overall players, they need to learn techniques and tactics
together. One way you can approach tactical skills is by focusing on three critical
aspects, these tactical triangles are

1. Reading the play or situation

2. Acquiring the knowledge needed to make an appropriate tactical decision

3. Applying correct decision-making skills to the problems at the correct time

Tactical skills are strategic mental abilities that successful athletes use to win games
and competitions. Mastering these skills can help an athlete or team use their
techniques effectively
Examples of Tactical Skills:-

1. Reading the play or situation.

2. Acquiring the knowledge needed to make an appropriate tactical decision.

3. Applying correct decision-making skills to the problems at the correct time.

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 MODULE SIX

Football Introduction to Football

 No one really knows where and how football began but many writers have tried
to relate its history with their own countries by mentioning certain evidences.
 For thousands of years it had been played in different ways.

 It is said to be the oldest among sport activities.

 Evidence shows that even it was in existence before the birth of Christ.
 The origin of football is grounded in ancient times.

 The objective of the game is to score by getting the ball in to the opponent’s
goal.
 Some evidences show the origin of football can be traced to the ancient
Chinese game of Tsu-Chu, or kickball (2500 B.C). The Egyptians (2000 B.C),
Japanese (600 B.C), Ancient Greeks, and Romans have also been intimately
linked with the evolution and spread of the game.
 The first known ball game which also involved kicking took place in China in
the 3rd and 2nd century BC under the name of Tue-Chu (Cuju). Tue-Chu was
played with round ball (stitched leather with fur or feathers inside) on an area of
a square.

 A modified form of this game later spread to Japan and was by the name
of Kemari practiced under ceremonial forms.
 The modern form of soccer gained its renowned shape and identity in
October 1863, in London‟s, where the first Football Association (English
Football Association) was established and the laws of the game were
formulated. EFA organized knock –out competition in 1871 and 1872.
The laws served to separate association football (Soccer) and Rugby. The kick-in
was replaced by the throw-in (1863), Offside (1866), corner kick (1872), and referees
(1874) were added, as were the whistle (1878), the penalty kick (1891), and various
numbers of substitutions. At the beginning of the modern Olympic program in 1896 all
clubs of European nations and most countries of Latin America had football. Contemporary

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soccer is truly an international game, with the Federation International De Football
Association (FIFA), established in Paris on May 21, 1904, representing approximately 170
nations. Soccer was introduced to the Olympic Games in Paris in 1900, and the
inaugural world cup was played in 1930 in Montevideo, where the Uruguayan hosts
defeated Argentina. In the first half of 1950‟s, Union of European Football
Association (UEFA) and the African Federation were formed to provide International
competitions at regional level. The world Football cup held every four years
organized by FIFA is still the most organized competition that drew the attention of
all people old and young in the modern world.
1.1 The Historical background of Football game

 Football refers to a number of sports that involve, to changeable degrees,

kicking a ball with the foot to score a goal.
 The most popular of these sports worldwide is association football, more
commonly known as just "Football" or "Soccer".
 Football is much loved sport event for millions of people throughout
the world.
 These variations of football are known as football codes in the regional
context, including:- Association football, American football, Australian
rules football, Canadian football, Gaelic football (Irish team sport), Rugby
league, Rugby union and other related games.
 Modern codes of football can be traced back to the codification of these
games at English public schools in the 18th & 19th centuries.

 It is an exciting sport that provides many physical & mental challenges.

 Variety of skills have perform under the game-related pressures:- like,

Restricted space, Limited time, Physical & Mental fatigue & Opposing
players.
 Football game needs a high level of fitness for successful
performance.
 The world history of football has been like many games have
originated & developed.
 Peoples were doing this activity mainly was played for celebration of
emperor‟s birth day and religious festivals.
 Accordingly, Soccer is one of the oldest sports in the world.

 No one is quite sure when and where it started.

 But, China was the first country to actually write about a game that involving

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 kicking around object in to a goal and that game was played more than
4,000 years ago.
 The game was called Tue-Chu, and it was played for the Emperor‟s birthday.
 As we know in today, Football was shaped during the 1960s and increased
media coverage & TV broadcastings made the game far more popular than
it ever was.

Football in Ancient Civilization

 In ancient civilization like China, Japan, Greek, Egypt, Rome and Mexico, there
were people who used to play games like football.
 It is important to stress that the evolution of games (B. Gillet; “The history of
Sport”) is parallel to the history of civilization.
 The origin of ancient games in the Far East and to see them follow the
movement of great wars.
For example; the wars of Alexander the Great brought the civilization of the Far East
towards the Middle East, and later the war of Julius Caesar brought to
Europe.
 The Ancient Greeks & Romans are known to have played many ball games,
some of which involved the use of the feet.
 The Roman game Harpastum is believed to have been adapted from a Greek
team game known as "Episkyros” or "Phaininda”.
 The Roman civilization with its games, which as it happened, contained the root
of future football “Harpastum” which was transformed into “Soule” or “Choule”
according to the difference of pronunciation in the region.

The development of football in Modern History

 During the second part of 19th C in England, Rugby as well as most sports
experienced a massive improvement in popularity. This was mostly the effect
of the industrial revolution which draws people in cities and factories,
depriving them from outdoor activity.
 Recreation become common and people turned to sport on Sundays,
in addition to their religious activities.
 British traders, soldiers, sailors, and workers carried the sport all over the
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 world (and especially their colonies).
 It is true that, if one refers to football for which laws have been grown up,
then it is obvious that this modern football originated in England.
 It becomes even more evident when the dates are mentioned.

 In England, since football support (accepted) by King Charles II, it takes 350
years to develop in the country.
 In 1680, football in England wins royal support (accepted) from King
Charles II.
 In 1823, that football was finally establishing in its future form, in
distinguishing itself from rugby.

 At Cambridge University, where in 1848, rules of football game were formed

by William Webb Ellis (teacher) in England & it‟s the beginning of football
development in England.

 In 1863, the first Football Association (FA) was founded in Great Britain
(including; Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland).
 In 1883, the four British associations agree on a uniform code & form the
International Football Association Board (IFBA).
 The IFAB (International Football Association Board) is the universal
decision-making body for the Laws of the Game of association football.
 Its objectives are to safeguard, compile and amend the Laws of the game as
organized by FIFA,
 The IFAB was formed when two representatives from each of the football
associations of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland met on 2nd
June, 1886.
 FIFA joined the IFAB in 1913.

 Since 1913, Members of IFAB :-The England Football Association, The Scottish
Football Association, The Football Association of Wales, Irish Football
Association, Four members of FIFA, totally 8 members,Therefore, Football grew
quickly in England.
 Outside Britain, the game was spread by sailors, soldiers, merchants,
engineers and priests. Denmark was the second
country in Europe to have a national association.

 In 1801 had been the first intercollegiate match between Oxford and
Cambridge collages.
 In 23 of October 1855, the first football club “shiffield united” was founded
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 in England.
 Modern history of football was started in October 23.1863. This was the
period which 14 representatives of football clubs from England and
Scotland met to formally organize the game.
 The representatives did not agree on the use of hands and feet in the game.
 In this case, the two camps split. One founded Rugby Union the other
established Football Association (FA).
 FA quickly provides the first laws of football association in 1863

and the sport of modern football began.

 FA organized knock-out competition in 1872 “The Wonderers of London”

won the first FA cup by defeating “The Royal Engineers of London”.
 The first international football match was played in Glasgow, Scotland, on
30th of November, 1872 when an English all-star team met its Scottish
counterpart.
 England played in an individualistic manner using the 1-1-8 formation,
whereas the Scots focused on combination play.
 In 1885, the FA reluctantly (after four years of debate) recognized the
legitimacy of professional players.

 Early professional footballers were paid little more than the average workers
who would pay to watch them.
 In 1888, league system invested, professional footballers allowed & Referees
are given extensive power of control.
 In 1888, 12 clubs from England founded the Football League, the first
professional league competition.
 The foundation and competition of football games spread throughout
the world.
 In the years of 1860 and 1870 different football clubs established like:-
 In 1860 - Queens park (Glasgow-Scotland), - Buenos Aires (Argentina);

 In 1872 – Gaver (France);

 In 1876 - Copenhagen BK (Denmark), Lotas (Buenos Aires-Argentina), Noivand

University (Belfast- Ireland), St-Gele (Switzerland) etc…
 In South America, the first club was formed in Argentina (1860), when two
English brothers placed an advertisement in a Buenos Aires newspaper
asking for football voluntary.
 By 1884 soccer was on the curriculum of Buenos Aires high schools.

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 The first international match among the Latin American countries was
played between Argentina and Uruguay in 1905, beaten Uruguay 6-0.
 But the North American had a match as early as 1885, when the USA
played with Canada.
 India was the first Asian country to adopt the game and the first cup
competition was held in 1892.
 The New South Wales FA was formed in Australia in 1882 and the
Newzeland FA was established nine years later.
 In Africa, the first of the National Associations was established in the
country of South Africa, but Egypt was first on the international scene.

Football in Olympic Game

 When the first Olympic game in 1896 (Athens) conducted, all clubs of
European nations and most countries of Latin America had football.
 In the 1896, Olympic game did not include football as a medal sport, but
demonstration match was played.
 On this demonstration game Denmark beat Greek 9-0.

 Then in the 1900 Olympic, in Paris, football introduced as official game and
held a competition between three countries Belgium, Great Britain and
France, Great Britain won the Gold medal.

 In the 1904 Olympic, in St. Louis, the Canadian team won the Gold medal.
FIFA and Football

 The first an international conference was held in Paris on May 21,1904

 The representatives of France, Belgium, Netherland, Denmark, Sweden,
Switzerland and Spain took part and founded Federation International De
Football Association (FIFA), which joined the IFAB in 1913. At that time,
France had played its first international match only 20 days earlier, Spain and
Denmark had never organized an international team, and three of the seven
nations did not have international Football Association.
 By 1906 agreement was reached between the FA and FIFA remaining the law
making body and each country that made up Great Britain would be a separate
four members of FIFA, allowing each to compete individually in any tournament

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 organized by FIFA. These countries are England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland.
FIFA grow from strength to strength;

 In 1904 have been 7 members,  In 1974 141 countries,

 In 1914 14 countries,  In 1987 158 members,

 In 1924 46 members,  In 1994 179 countries,

 Then, in 1938 51 members,  In 1996 190 countries,

 In 1950 73 countries,  In 1998 198 countries,

 In 1962 102 countries,

 Then, in 2012 208 countries.

 And now, 209 countries are affiliated to FIFA, making it the largest and
most powerful sport body in the world.
 The first world cup competition organized by FIFA was held in

Uruguay in 1930 and Uruguay won the first world cup.

 The world cup held every four years organized by FIFA is still the most
organized competition that holds the attention of all peoples in the modern
world.
 FIFA based on Zurich, Switzerland has 280 employers from over 30
countries.
 FIFA organized seven major competitions; These are:-

 World Cup (men‟s, women‟s);

 Olympic Football Tournament (men‟s, women‟s); FIFA U-20 World Cup (men‟s,
women‟s);
 FIFA U-17 World Cup (men‟s, women‟s);

 FIFA confederation Cup;

 FIFA Futsal World Cup & FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup.
The Continental confederations

 The Confederation recognized by FIFA are:-

o The Confederation South American de Football (CONMEBOL)

formed in 1916,
o Union of European Football Association (UEFA) in 1954.

o The Asian football Confederation (AFC) in 1954,

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 o The Confederation African de Football (CAF) in 1957,

o The Confederation of North, Central and Caribbean Association

Football (CONCACAF) in 1961,
o The Oceania Confederation of Football (OCF), in 1966.

 In 1917, the South American Confederation was set up to organize a continental

competition- “The South American Champion”.

 These six continental football confederations and FIFA are working for the
development of football in the world.
National and International Competitions

 Played every four years, the FIFA world cup remains the supreme event that is
not to be missed in the world of football.
 The following Championships are organized by the confederations on the different
continents;

o African Cup of Nation- CAF – Africa;

o Asian Cup - AFC –Asia;

o Copa America – CONMEBOL – South America;

o EURO – UEFA – Europe;

o Gold Cup – CONCACAF – North, Central America and the Caribbean;

o Nations Cup – OCF – Oceania.

The African Football

 Football is the most popular sport in every African country.

 It first introduced to Africa in the late 19th C by Europeans. European

colonists from British, Belgium, France, Italy and Portuguese introduce
football in their colonies.
 The game was first played in Africa continent in 1862.

 Teams were being established in South Africa, Egypt and Algeria before
1900.
 According to historian Peter Alegi said that: Football is spread to Africa very
quickly:- through the mission school, through the military forces & through the
railways.

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 On 13th and 14th November 1953, Egypt participated in the Extra- Ordinary
General Assembly of FIFA held in Paris. The agenda of Assembly included the
amendment of the law, including the authorization of Africa and Asia to have
a seat each on the Executive Committee of FIFA for the first time.

 Egypt delegation contacted other delegations of friendly countries in order to

have their support for choosing an African person to occupy Africa‟s seat in the
Executive Committee of FIFA.
 In fact, some countries wanted these two seats to be left open for all countries.
 The General Assembly approved the rules and by-laws and laid down the
regulations of the first competition organized by CAF- the African Cup of Nation.
 Confederation of African Football (CAF) was founded in 1957.

 Sudan was the founder of African football by creating CAF with four member
nations: Egypt, Ethiopia, South Africa & Sudan.
 The 1st African cup of Nation was held on 10th February, 1957 organized by CAF.
Three teams were participating: Egypt, Ethiopian & Sudan.
 Egypt won the 1st African cup of Nation by defeating Ethiopia 4-0 in the final.
 South Africa withdrew from participating; because it could not raise a non-racial
team for the tournament.

Historical Development of Football in Ethiopia

 Football was among the newly acquired "Pastimes “or leisure time activity in
20th C in Ethiopia.

 Some documents indicate that football was being played locally by some
foreigners early as 1908. At that time, the more popular sport was horse
race, and it used to get wider media coverage.
 European diplomats and their dependents who introduced football into
Ethiopia.
 The first football game was held between these foreigners in Addis Ababa in
1924.
 There were indications that football clubs existed at the Teferi
Mekonnen School as early as 1927.
 The participants remained foreigners such as Armenians and Greeks, who had
been decided refugee status by Ethiopia.
 The first football team in Ethiopia was “Addis Ababa Select Team”,
established in 1935 (1927 E.C), by a group of Ethiopians and Armenians.

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 The "international" football games held in Addis Ababa in 1935, which is
between the Ethiopian team included Armenians Vs French Sailors team.
 Ethiopian team beat the French team (members of the French Navy from
Djibouti) by 3-1.
 (Yervant Abrahama (Armenian) scored all three goals). It played at “Jan
Meda” in its first match.

In December 1935, the first organized football club in Ethiopia “St. George Football Club”
was formed or established with Yidnekachew Tessema, as one of the founding members,
who is regarded as the Father of Ethiopian football.
 During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia (from 1936-1941), in agreement with
the Fascist Racial Policy, Ethiopians were banned from playing football with
Europeans.
 A separate sport office for the natives, "Sport Office for the Indigenous“, was
established and already established Ethiopian football clubs were renamed:-
o St. George became Littorio Wube,

o Qebana team became Villa Italia,

o Sidist Killo renamed Piazza Roma &

o Gulele named Consolata.

 A football match was held between all-Ethiopian team, expatriate (refugee)

teams and an Italian football team (Fortitudo), in Addis Ababa in 1942.
 The Ethiopian team St. George faced the Italians. The final was defeated at
the football field as well.
 During the Fascist Italian occupation established some football teams and
conducted competitions by Ethiopians include:-
 Entoto, (እንጦጦ)
 Ye Arada wotatoch,(የአራዳ ወጣቶች )
 Sedist Kilo Squadra, (ስድስት ኪሎ እስኳድራ)
 Gulele (ጉሌሌ) &
 Ye Eslamoch Esquadra (የእስላሞች እስኳድራ)

The Italian also encouraged youth football clubs in Addis Ababa. Some of
these clubs were: - Tigist, Mefaker, Tehtena, Tigat & Jimma.
(ትዕግስት፣መፋቀር፣ትህትና፣ትጋትና ጅማ)
 There were also football competition in some towns like Desse and Jimma.
 In 1943 (1935 E.C), in the presence of Emperor Haile Selase, for the first time
at a football match that held a game between five teams of St. George, British
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 Military mission (BMM),Greek, Armenia and Fortitude(Italian team ).
 In the result BMM, St. George & Fortitude finished first to third respectively.
The same year St. George played against the Italian team Fortitude and won 4-
1.
 The Ethiopian football Federation (EFF) was founded in 1943 (1935 E.C).
 The same year the federation organized the first Addis Ababa and Vicinity
(Awraja) cup.
 In the Second half of the 1930’s and early 1940’s several school
competition were held.
 In 1947, the Ethiopian national team defeated the Djibouti section 5-0 in the
first official international match in the country.
 In 1948, the organizational framework of the EFF was drafted in a meeting
held at „Jan Meda‟ with 4 clubs of representatives of St.George, Mechal,
Kibur Zebegna & Key Bahir clubs.

 In 1948, also the Ethiopian Championship began, with eight teams placed in
the first and second divisions each.
 The game were held at „Jan Meda‟ and later moved to Haile Selase I stadium
now Addis Ababa stadium.
 In 1950, „Nokoping‟ of Sweden become the first European side to play in Ethiopia.
The Sweden team defeats the Ethiopian National team 6-9.
 In 1952, Ismael Kessab of Egypt becomes the first international referee to
conduct a match in Ethiopia, when the national team played against „Panionis‟ of
Greece. Greece team beating by 3-0.
 This was the first time Ethiopian national team visited to Europe to the
first international match.
 In 1952, the Ethiopian Football Federation (EFF) becomes the member of
FIFA.
 In 1953, team of „Hararghe‟ and „Eritrea‟ were allowed to compete for the first
time, in both national championship and the Ethiopian cup of tournaments.
 Army (Addis Ababa) defeated „Hamassien‟ (Eritrea) 4-3 in the finals, to win the
first interprovincial national championship.
 In 1957, the Continental Football Confederation (CAF) was founded with
Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan at Khartoum.
 In 1957, Ethiopia took part in the first African Cup of Nation (CAF) and came
out 2nd.
 In the second tournament it lost to Egypt in the final.

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  And, in 1962, the third cup of nation it hosted and won the tournament, after
beating Egypt by 4-2 in the final.
 In the following tournaments, Ethiopia finished

 2nd in the 1st cup in... 1957,  1st In the 3rd cup…in 1962,

 3rd in the 2nd cup…in 1959,  4th in the 4th cup…in 1964,

1.2 Rules of Football Game

• Today there are 17 laws of the game.

• The laws of the game have two main objectives:-

 To control the game &  To protects of the players.

Laws of the Game

Requirement for the game

• Law 1: The Field of Play Standard situation
• Law 2: The Ball  Law 13: Free Kicks
• Law 3: The Players  Law 14: The Penalty Kick
• Law 4: The Players‟ Equipment  Law 15: The Throw-in
Guiding & controlling the game  Law 16: The Goal Kick
• Law 5: The Referee
 Law 17: The Corner Kick
• Law 6: The Other Match Officials
 Law 11: Offside
• Law 7: The Duration of the Match
 Law 12: Fouls and Misconduct
Critical game situation
Standard situation
• Law 8: The Start and Restart of Play
 Law 13: Free Kicks
• Law 9: The Ball In and Out of Play
 Law 14: The Penalty Kick
• Law 10: Determining the Outcome
of a Match  Law 15: The Throw-in

 Law 16: The Goal Kick

 Law 11: Offside
 Law 17: The Corner Kick
 Law 12: Fouls and Misconduct
 Law 1: The Field of Play

Field markings

 The two longer boundary lines are called touch lines.

 The two shorter lines are called goal lines.

 The field of play is divided into two halves by a halfway line, which joins
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 the midpoints of the two touch lines.
 The goal area: 5.5 m lines are drawn at right angles to the goal line,
 The penalty area: 16.5m lines are drawn at right angles to the goal line,
 Within each penalty area, a penalty mark is made 11m from the midpoint
b/n the goalposts.
 An arc of a circle with a radius of 9.15 m from the center of each penalty
mark is drawn outside the penalty area.
 The corner area: The corner area is defined by a quarter circles with a
radius of 1m (1yd).
 The Goal posts: The distance b/n the inside of the posts is 7.32m (8yds),
 The Cross bar: the distance from the lower edge of the crossbar to the ground
is 2.44m (8ft).
 Flag posts: A flag post, at least 1.5m (5ft) high, with a non-pointed top and a
flag must be placed at each corner. (It‟s compulsory).

 Flag posts may be placed at each end of the halfway line, at least 1m
outside the touchline. (It‟s optional)
 The goalposts and the crossbar must be white and have the same width
and depth, (not exceed 12cm).
 A center circle with a radius of 9.15 m (10yds).
 All lines must be of the same width, not more than 12cm (5 inch).

 Optional marks may be made of the field of play 9.15m from the corner arc at
right angles to the goal lines and the touchlines. Law 2: The Ball
 Made of suitable material:- leather or plastic

 A circumference b/n = 70cm & 68cm

 A weight between = 450gm & 410gm at the start of the match
 A pressure equal to 0.6 – 1.1 atmosphere (600 – 1,100g/cm2) at sea level.
Law 3: The Players Number of players
 Each teams, with a maximum of 11 players; one must be the
goalkeeper.
 A match may not start or continue if either team has fewer than 7
players.

Number of substitutions

 The maximum is five substitutes for the top division or senior A‟ international
teams,

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  Substitutes named/listed from five to a maximum of twelve.

Law 4: The Players’ Equipment

 The compulsory equipment of a player comprises the following separate

items:
1. A shirt with sleeves covered by the socks.
2. Shorts 5. Footwear
3. Socks
4. Shin-guards –it protected &
 All items of Jewellery (necklaces, rings, bracelets, earrings, leather
bands, rubber bands, etc.) are forbidden & must be removed.
 Other equipment: Non-dangerous protective equipment,

Law 5: The Referee

Referee’s equipment
 Compulsory equipment: Whistle(s), Watch(s), Red & yellow cards, Notebook &
Pen/Pencil: to keeping a record of the match.
Law 6: The Other Match Officials

 Other match officials:- Two assistant referees, Fourth officials, Two additional
assistant referees, & Reserve assistant referee (to replace an assistant referee or
fourth official who is unable to continue.) , Video Assistant Referee (VAR)
Law 7: The Duration of the Match

 A match lasts for two equal halves of 45 minutes.

 An interval at half-time, not exceeding 15 minutes (b/n 10 -15 min)

 Periods of play

1. Full time: Two 45 min. & half time 3. Additional time: After two half times.
interval
4. Forgotten time: if the referee forget
2. Extra time: Two 15 min. (after full from the full time of play)
time)

Law 8: The Start & Restart of Play

 The start of play:- (A kick-off ) both halves of a match, both halves of extra time,
& restarts play after a goal scored.

 Restart of Play:- Free kicks (direct or indirect), Penalty kicks, Throw-in, Goal kicks, &
Corner kicks

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 A dropped ball Law 9: The Ball in & out of Play
1. Ball out of play when:-

• It has wholly passed over the goal line or touchline on the ground or in the air
• Play has been stopped by the referee.

2. Ball in play when:- It rebounds off a match official, goalpost, crossbar or corner flag-
post.

Law 10: Determining the Outcome of a Match

A goal is scored when the whole of the ball passes over the goal line, between
the goalposts & under the crossbar,

Law 11: Offside

 It is not a fault to be in an offside position.
 A player is in an offside position if:

Any part of the head, body or feet is nearer to the opponents‟ goal line than both the ball and
the second-last opponent.
 A player is not in an offside position if:

He is in his own half of the field of play or He is level with the

second-last opponent or He is level with the last two
opponents
 The hands & arms of all players, including the goalkeepers, are not considered as
offside.

 No Offside, if a player receives the ball directly from:

- Goal kick, Throw-in & Corner kick

Law 12: Fouls & Misconduct

Direct free kick Indirect free kick

- Charges, Jumps, - Plays in a dangerous manner, (bicycle kick)
Pushes, Tackles, - Hinders an opponent (without
Discharge an
opponent any contact)
- Hinders an opponent with
Contact - Prevents the goalkeeper from releasing the ball from
the hands or kicks.
- Handles the ball deliberately
- A goalkeeper:
- Kicks or attempts to kick
- Controls the ball with the hands for more than 6
- Strikes or attempts to strike seconds before releasing it.

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 - Touches the ball with the hands after releasing it &
- Trips or attempts to trip
before it has touched another player.
- - Receiving it directly from a
throw-in taken by a team-mate.

Disciplinary action

- Yellow card communicates a caution

- Red card communicates a sending-off

Law 13: Free Kicks

 A throw-in is a method of restarting play.

 Direct and indirect free kicks are awarded to the opposing team of a player
guilty of an offence or infringement.

Law 14: The Penalty Kick

 A penalty kick is awarded against a team that commits one of the

ten offences for which a direct free kick is awarded, inside its own penalty
area and while the ball is in play.

 A penalty kick is awarded if a player commits a direct free kick offence

inside their penalty area or off the field as part of play.

Law 15: The Throw-in

 A throw-in is a method of restarting play.

 A throw-in is a method of restarting play.

 A throw-in is awarded to the opponents of the player who last touched

the ball when the whole of the ball passes over the touchline, on the
ground or in the air.
 A goal cannot be scored directly from a throw-in.

Law 16: The Goal Kick

 A throw-in is a method of restarting play.

 A goal kick is awarded when the whole of the ball passes over the goal
line, on the ground or in the air, having last touched a player of the
attacking team, and a goal is not scored.

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Law 17: The Corner Kick

 A throw-in is a method of restarting play.

A corner kick is awarded when the whole of the ball passes over the goal line, on the
ground or in the air, having last touched a player of the defending team, and a goal is
not scored.

Basic Techniques of Football game

Components of Football

 In modern football, there are 4 major components of football training,

namely – Technical, Tactical, Physical and Psychology/Mental.
The most important football skills that can help to reach full potential and achieve
success in football.
1. Technique – Ball control, Dribbling skills, Passing accuracy, Body control
2. Game intelligence/ Strategy – Spatial awareness, Tactical knowledge, Risk
assessment
3. Physical fitness – Endurance, Balance and coordination, Speed, Strength and
power
4. Proper mindset /Psychological preparation – Compassion, Composure and
mental strength, Coach-ability, Self-motivation
In the basic skills of football, an important term is “Technique”which is the physical
movement involved in basic football skills. Practicing the skills is called “Technical
training“.

The technical aspect of the game is essentially developing one's ability on the
ball.
Players practice technique is essential throughout their lives, (especially for
players age 6-12) while they are in developmental stages).
Technical training is the priority of Components for all stage of development.

Component U6 U8 U10 U12 U14 U16 U18

Techniques IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII
Tactic - - I II III IIII IIII
Psychology IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII
Fitness - - - I II III IIII

Priority: I = Low II = Medium

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 III = High IIII = Very High
 The coach of developing players should heavily emphasize technical
training while also having a basic understanding of correct technical
performance.
 This can be accomplished using a selection of conditioned games to teach
techniques in a manner that provides plenty of repetition.
 Techniques in football are the skill of being able to move with and with-
out the ball economically and with purpose.
 Football puts very complex technical demands on the player.
 The player has to:
 Control the ball, accurately, &
 Run with the ball,  Score goals by means of well-
 Pass the ball to another player placed shots.
 The player has to be able to carry out all these duties from a standing position,
on the run and often under hard pressure from his opponents.

Techniques of football without ball

 A player spends a large amount of their time without the ball,

 For example, the player who has to:Run (accelerated), Jump, Stop & Turn into
space to receive the ball has been executed. Techniques of football with ball

- Passing /Kicking, Receiving/Ball control, Dribbling, Heading, Shooting,

Juggling, Throw-in, Goal keeping and Tackling
1. Kicking /Passing:

 Football is a team game. Playing as a team requires each player to be able to

pass the ball well.
 Passing is one of the most fundamental skills in football, as it is how you
move the ball from yourself to another teammate.

 Through passing, a team can quickly counterattack from defense, maintain

possession in midfield, and set up opportunities to score.
 The key to good passing, once the technique is perfected & it need repetition.
 Good passing is absolutely essential to playing good Soccer.

 Approximately 80% of the game involves the giving and receiving of passes.
 No matter how talented the dribbler, it is nearly impossible to penetrate an
offense without good passing.
 Good passing builds team confidence and momentum.

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  Good passing is largely a matter of teamwork.
 Good communication and mobility help simplify passing.

 The art of passing is largely the art of doing simple things quickly and well.
Passing Techniques, Inside of the Foot, Outside of the Foot, Full instep, Chip Pass,
Bending Pass
2. Receiving/Ball control:

 The act of bringing the ball under complete control.

The first touch is the most important.

 During every game, a player will receive balls at different heights, speed
and angles.
 A player must be able to bring the ball under control quickly in order to pass,
shoot, or dribble.
 Good receiving skills allow a team to control the ball.

 The players should practice receiving by using different parts of their

bodies, like foot, thigh, chest & head,
 Receiving a ball on the ground and receiving a ball in the air.

 When receiving the ball on the ground, the following points should be
considered:-
Keep your eye on the ball.

 Choose which foot to receive the ball with (depend on the location of the defender).
 Receive the ball with one foot with the toe pointed up (ankle locked).
 Don‟t stop the ball. Instead, prepare it for the next action: shot, dribble, and pass or
to play away from pressure.
 Receiving the ball in the air is a skill that involves six major phases:-
 Keeping your eye on the ball.

 Reading the flight, speed and direction of the ball.

 Deciding which body part will control the ball (foot, thigh, chest or head).
 Getting the body in line with the direction of the ball. Preparing to receive the ball by
presenting the body part to the ball.
 Reduce the ball with the body part to slow it down and preparing for the next touch.
 Receiving the ball with the Feet & Legs

 Thigh, Instep, Sole of the Foot, Inside of the Foot, Outside of the Foot

 Controlling the Ball above the Waist

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  Chest, Head
 Shooting:

 Shooting uses the same technical elements as passing, with the important
difference being that the goal is to pass the ball beyond the goalkeeper.
 The aim of the game is simple: to score goals.

 To score goals, the players need to develop both good shooting technique
and a positive attitude toward taking shots whenever they have a good
opportunity.

 If you do not shoot, you will not score.

 The development of proper shooting technique: Proper body mechanics, Accuracy,

Power and Timing.

 There is also an important mental aspect to shooting.

 A player who shoots with confidence is more likely to be successful.

 Players need to relax and focus when shooting.

Steps to a Great Football Shot

1. Take a touch:- the golden rule is accuracy before power.
2. Look Up (optional):- this allows deciding where to shoot
3. Look at the Ball:
4. Place your foot:- (the non-shooting foot).
5. Swing your arms
6. Bring back your shooting leg:
7. Lock your ankle:- your ankle should be firm, and straight.
8. DON’T Lean over the ball:- slight lean either forward or back.
9. Strike it/Hitting the ball: - ball contact
10. low through:- continue through the ball
11. Follow it up:- sprint towards it.
12. Dribbling:
 Dribbling is the skill of running with the ball at your feet.

 The player is speeding forward through open space, maneuvering out of tight
situations and feinting to beat opponents.
 It is perhaps the most expressive and exciting part of the game.

 In order to maintain possession of the ball, a player must be able to move with the
ball until a shooting or passing opportunity appears. This is called dribbling.

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 • Dribbling is the primary method of moving the ball up the field.

• The goal of dribbling is to move the ball quickly while keeping the ball close to
your body, so that you can make a quick decision to pass, shoot or change
direction whenever needed.
 Dribble the ball with the different part of Feet

• Dribble with Instep, Inside of the Foot, Outside of the Foot

Heading:

 Heading is propelling the ball by striking it with the forehead.

 Players can use their heads to pass, shoot, and control or clear the ball.

 Heading is an important skill to master because, on the average,

30% of the game is played with the ball in the air.

 Proper technique and timing are crucial to successful heading.

 For example, a central defender must be able to make good head

clearances while having the capacity to move forward and score with a
header from a corner kick.
 Heading is an essential part of successful football play.

 Approximately 20 % of goals come from headed shots.

 A player must be able to pass, shoot, clear and even control the ball using
their head, from a standing, jumping or diving position.
 It is best to teach heading by using the following progression:

• From sitting ,From kneeling, From standing, & From jumping position
There are two types of Headers
1. Directional Header:

• The player wants to control the ball (i.e., pass, shoot or receive), which is
strike with the forehead, just below or at the hairline, where the player
can see the ball.

2. Clearing Header:

• The objective is just to send the ball as far as possible and is strike with the
forehead at the hairline or with the top of the head.
• The defender often jumps to get more power.

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6. Goal keeping:
 Goalkeeping is the skill of protecting your goal from the shots of opponents.
 It is perhaps the most important position on the field, A sound, confident
goalkeeper does more than just stop shots.

 The goalkeeper is the source of confidence for the entire team.

 Goalkeeping is not a position for everyone and takes good concentration

and confidence.
 Make sure that your goalkeeper wants to play in goal and has the strength of
character to be successful.
 Goalkeepers need at least 45-minutes of personal training at every practice.
 Shooting drills are not the best time to build a goalkeeper‟s confidence or
perfect goalkeeping techniques.
 Goalkeeping training consists:-Ball Catching / Handling (Air & Ground ball),
Balance, Concentration, Timing, Mobility (move with & without ball), Distribute
the ball

7. Juggling

 The act of bouncing the ball by using the feet, thighs and head
without using hands.
 The ball is moved from one point to the other while under control. This
teaches ball control and touch.
 The player should drop the ball onto her foot, thigh or head, and then
pop the ball back into the air.
 When the player is juggling the ball with her feet, thighs (just above
the knees), or head,

Major Types of Juggling

o On the foot o On the head
o On the thigh

Advanced skills in Football

I. Defensive and Attacking tactics

 Tactic in football refers individual or collective actions performed by a player or
group of players to take advantage of an opponent, group of opponents or a
team.
 Tactical performances are very dependent on the cognitive aspect and physical
resources during movements.
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  Tactical knowledge refers to a player’s knowledge of the nature & structure of
the game. The formation of a team highly influences the tactics they will use to
win.
 The player's position and use any of the corresponding terms

1. Defensive

Sweeper (Libero):- last line of defense, Stopper:- key central defender

,Wingbacks/Fullbacks:

2. Midfield

• Defensive Midfielder/Holding • Playmaker/Attacking Midfielder:

Midfielder: • Wingers:

• Central Midfielder:

3. Attacking

• Target Man: central forward, Goal Poachers, False Nine: similar to

attacking midfielder/playmaker role

Player’s position:
1. Defensive tactic :Basic defensive team tactics:-

i. Defending as a unit

ii. Marking: (Zonal- & Man-to-Man marking)

i. Defending as a unit:-

 A defense needs to become a coherent unit.

 Defenders also need to work together as a unit.

 Working together used to:- Regain possession of the ball, Holding a tight defensive
line, Maintain responsibility for marking attacking players, & Interrupt the opposing
side‟s organization as much as possible.

ii. Marking:-

 Marking is one of the defender‟s most important tasks.

 Marking is about preventing the ball being passed easily among the opposing team.
 If several defenders decide to mark one opponent at the same time, they will leave
other opponents dangerously unmarked.
 There two ways of defending: - Zonal Marking & Man-to-Man marking

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 A. Zonal Marking;- Players occupy an area of the field and do not directly mark an
opponent.

B. Man-to-Man Marking;- Each player has to mark a single opponent.

Attacking tactic

 Football is all about scoring goals and attacking strategy is all about
how to score them.
 Teams decide the best approach to go forward based on the players they
have.
Basic Attacking team tactics: -
i. Possession Football

ii. Counter-attacking Football

iii. Long-ball/Direct football

iv. Wide-play and alternating wingers

i. Possession Football: The aim in this strategy is, to hold onto the ball for as
long as possible, at all times. The objective of this style:

- If you control the ball the opposition will not be able to score.

- Also by keeping hold of the ball, the opponent‟s frustration will hopefully
draw out certain players from their starting positions,
- This style of play has been named the “Tiki-Taka” (Barcelona style of
football)
ii. Counter-attacking Football:

 It is Quick transition of defending to attacking, The aim of this style is to catch

the opponent on the "break".

 Counter-attacking football may involve leaving one or two strikers near the
half-way line in the hope that a through ball can be played to catch the
opponent off-guard.

ii. Long-ball/Direct football:

 Instead of spending time on the ball pass long-ball is distributed with in the air
most of the time, by using the wings, the long-ball is used as an opportunistic
method of attack.
 Defense or midfield kicking the ball actively from the defensive field to the

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 strikers (strikers should faster) any team using it needs to have a strong
target man.
iv. Wide-play & alternating wingers:

 Wingers have always been important in any attacking move and wide play
seeks to use the pace of wingers to attack from the sides.
 By spreading the ball wide, you allow a different angle of attack and offer
a number of opportunities for the winger;
 Take on the fullback, cut inside and drive forward at an angle, or whip in a
cross from deep for the strikers to attack.
 Systems of Play;- A system of play is the arrangement and organization of
your 10 field-players, each with a particular assignment and responsibility.
 A system is always numbered from the backfield forward.

For example:- 4-4-2 formation ( 4-defenders, 4-midfielders & 2- attackers.

1. 4-4-2:- Flat back four, flat midfield, zonal system

2. 4-5-1- Flat back four, flat midfield, zonal

3. 4-5-1 (4-2-3-1) system

4. 4-3-3 formation

5. 3-4-3 System

Football field is divided into three; The attacking third, The controlled/Midfield
third, & The defending third; The midfield line is used to start play by separating
both teams.

Practical program Conditioning Methods

 Football is a complex and multiple demanding games requiring

sophisticated training. i.e Football players must have:

 Physical ability (good Aerobic & Anaerobic fitness, Speed, Strength, Technical
ability Tactical knowledge, Basic football strategies &
 Psychological development
 Football is a game that requires endurance, speed, strength, skill and mobility.

 On the field of play, complex situations may arise that require quick
thinking and manoeuvring.
 The physical demands will vary for players in different playing positions. The
goal keeper has very specific fitness demands. Fitness training for the
goalkeeper should concentrate on explosive power & flexibility.
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  On average a player can cover as much as 8 miles (13km) during 90
minute competitive game.
 Covering that amount of distance, at any intensity, for an hour and half
requires good stamina or endurance.

For example: Strikers & defenders run an average of 8-10 km per game,

- Midfielders run up to an average of 14 km per game.

 Covering that amount of distance under football game

FITNESS TRAINING
Fitness training can be divided into four categories:
- General conditioning (Aerobic conditioning),
- Specific conditioning (Anaerobic conditioning),
- Speed training, and
- Strength & power training.

 Any good Football training program will incorporate these four types of training.
1. General Endurance/ Aerobic conditioning

General Endurance is established through aerobic exercise. Aerobic conditioning is

low intensity activity that raises the heart rate while still allowing the body to meet its
oxygen needs.
2. Specific Conditioning/ Anaerobic conditioning

Specific fitness is developed through training that imitates the combined aerobic and
anaerobic physical demands of competition. During anaerobic exercise, the body is
un-able to take in enough oxygen to meet its energy requirements. Specific
conditioning trains the athlete to perform in competition.
2. Speed

Speed can be defined several different ways. Several types of speed are
demonstrated in the game of Football. There are three different types of Football
speed: sprint speed, quickness and technical speed.
• Sprint speed (pure speed) is the ability to run fast over relatively short distances.
To a large extent sprint speed is genetically determined, but sprint training often
results in great improvements in speed.

• Quickness is the ability to take a fast first step, change directions, or be

explosive on or off the ball.
3. Technical speed is the combination of physical speed with Football skills. It is
the speed with which a player is able to control the ball, make decisions and
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 create offensive opportunities. Strength & Power

Strength and power often make the difference when it comes to winning tackles,
balls in the air, or scoring goals. More importantly, balanced muscular strength
optimizes performance and prevents injury. Strength and power can be developed
through weight training, calisthenics, plyometric exercises and running.
 The different physical abilities required for football

 Strength-Endurance,  Speed-Endurance,

 Good strength endurance is also vital for football players.

 Another important aspect of fitness for football is Flexibility & Agility.

 Explosive Power: Power is a product of both maximal strength & the speed of
contraction.
Aerobic:, Low power, Long duration - low intensity, Very high capacity Time
to peak power (~180sec), Peak power (~3 – 5min) , Power capacity
(extensive / hours)

Anaerobic:

High Power, Short duration - high intensity, Limited Capacity, Time to peak power
(~8sec) Peak power (~40 – 70sec), Power capacity (~90 – 120sec)

Agility or Nimbleness is an ability to change the body's position efficiently and

requires the integration of isolated movement skills using a combination of
balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, strength and

Balance – The ability to maintain equilibrium when stationary or moving (i.e. not to
fall over) through the coordinated actions of our sensory functions (eyes, ears and
the proprioceptive organs in our joints);
 Static balance – The ability to retain the center of mass above the base of

support in a stationary position;

 Dynamic balance – The ability to maintain balance with body movement;

 Speed - The ability to move all or part of the body quickly;

 Strength - The ability of a muscle or muscle group to overcome a resistance; and

lastly,
 Coordination – The ability to control the movement of the body in co-operation

with the body's sensory functions (e.g., in catching a ball ball, hand, and eye
coordination). ("Games teach hand–eye coordination, mental agility, and
alertness"

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 Methods of Training
 Different types of training are used when working on different
components of fitness
 Continuous Training, Fartlek Training, Interval Training, Circuit
Training, Weight Training
1. Continuous Training

 Exercising at a continuous, stable pace for a prolonged period of time.

 Continuous type training is less strenuous and useful for early pre- season
when players return from the off-season break.
2. Fartlek Training

 It is a combination of different intensities. i.e. 1 lap at 50% max, 1 lap walking, 1 lap
at 80%.

 Fartlek training is also referred to as „SPEED PLAY’

 This method of training improves both aerobic and anaerobic fitness due to the
varying intensities.
3. Interval Training

 This training involves periods of work followed by periods of rest.

i.e. Sprint for 20 meter + walk back to start.

 Lactic acid and oxygen debt builds up during interval training. The rest phase
allows for recovery of these levels.

4. Circuit training

 It is\ a series of exercises performed one after the other, with little or no rest
between each exercise.
 Circuit training typically involves a combination of 8 to 10 high-intensity
aerobic, anaerobic or resistance-training exercises.
 It is a very good way of developing strength, muscular endurance and
power.
5. Weight training

 It is a form of training that uses progressive resistance against a muscle group.

 The following are the benefit of weight training: Increase muscular strength,
Increase muscular endurance, Recover after injury.

Weight training can increase:

Muscular strength: High weight x low repetitions

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 Muscular endurance: Low weight x high repetitions

MODULE SEVEN
INTRODUCTION TO BASKETBALL
 Basketball is fast-faced game played on a rectangular court by two
five player teams
 Basketball was invented by James Naismith in Springfield,
Massachusetts, in 1891.
 By 1905, basketball was officially recognized as a permanent winter
sport.
 The first International men‘s Basketball competition was held in
November, 1917 in Paris.
 In 1932 International Amateur Basketball Federation was organized,
and in 1936, men‘s basketball becomes an Olympic sport.
How Basketball Was First Played?
 Basketball required very little equipment to play two peach
baskets hanging 10 feet above the ground, and a soccer ball.
 The objective of the game is to work as a team to throw or bat the
soccer ball into the opposing teams peach basket, while
defending a score in your peach basket from the opposition team.
The 13 Rules of Basketball published in January 15, 1892 by James Naismith.
 The first game of basketball ever played on the 21st of December,
1891, at the YMCA training school in Springfield, Massachusetts.
 The gym was incredibly small. Only 50 feet x 35 feet.
William R. Chase; the first person to score a goal during a game in basketball history.
Basketball in Africa
 Basketball was introduced in Africa by missionaries, possibly
Americans, In schools basketball was offered by Italian, French,
and British teachers, Egypt is one of those African countries to
introduce for the first time in Africa, Egypt was the first African
country to participate in international competition.
 In 1936 an Egyptian team took part in the Olympic Games in Berlin.
 In 1949 the first international basketball competition in Africa
was held in Egypt (Cairo), an Egyptian team was a champion.
 The African basketball federation was organized at a meeting in
Cairo which took place from June 11-14, 1961.
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Basketball in Ethiopia
 Basketball was first introduced in Ethiopia in the year 1946-47.
 It was first played in the Teferi Mekonen (Entoto comprehensive)
and Hailessilase (kokebe tsebah) secondary schools.
 It was introduced by physical education teachers who come from
Canada.
 Beginning from 1951 basketball becomes popular in most primary
and secondary schools of Addis Ababa.
 The Ethiopian basketball federation was established in the year
1954.
 Ethiopia becomes a member of modern Olympic Games for the
first time at Melbourne Olympiad in 1956.
 Ethiopia participated in the first African basketball competition in,
1962.
 Ethiopia becomes one of the founding members of African
basketball confederation.
1.2. Rules of the Game
1. Playing Court - The playing area is called court.
 flat, hard surface free from obstructions with 28m length and
15m width
 minimum dimensions of 26m in length by 14m in width.
 All lines shall be drawn in the same colors, 5cm in width and
clearly visible.
 Boundary line- not part of playing court., Center line - marked
parallel to the end lines from the mid points of the sidelines. have
radius of 1.80m measured to the outer edge of the circumference.
Free throw line- drawn parallel to each end line with 5.80m from the inner edge of the
end line. Restricted area – drawn parallel to each end line with 4.9m wide and 5.8m
long from inner edge of the end line. It is forbidden to stay more than 3 seconds in
this area with ball during a game.
Throw-in lines – The two (2) lines of 0.15 m in length shall be marked outside the
playing court at the sideline opposite the scorer‘s table, withmthe outer edge of the
lines 8.325 m from the inner edge of the nearest end line. Team bench areas –
marked outside the playing court limited by two (2) lines Any other persons shall be at
least two (2) m behind the team bench.
No-charge semi-circle areas – A semi-circle with the radius of 1.25 m measured

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Back board - originally used to prevent spectators from interfering with play. is 1.20 m
wide with 1.80 m length and is connected to cast-iron rims or baskets.

The basket – is an open net, suspended from the backboard on a metal ring 45cm in
diameter and 40 cm in length.
2. The ball- In men, 76.2 cm in circumference and 567 to 624 gm in weight.
 In women, 72.4 - 73.7cm in circumference & 510 to 567gm in
weight
3. Number of players
 Teams can be mixed, with boys and girls, or not.
 On a competition level, a team is made up of 5 players playing on
the court and
 5 to 7 players sitting on the bench that can be used for
substitution
4. Team - A team member is entitled to play when his name has been entered on the
score sheet before the start of the game and as long as he has neither been
disqualified nor committed five (5) fouls.
 Each team shall consist of: No more than 12 team members
entitled to play
 A substitute becomes a player and a player becomes a substitute
when:
 The official beckons the substitute to enter the playing court.
5. Players Equipment’s - consists of sneakers, socks, a tank-top shirt, and shorts.
 Each player's uniform has a number, for identification, that is
usually displayed on both sides of the shirt.
6. Officials, table officials and commissioner
 The officials shall be a referee and one (1) or two (2) umpire(s).
 They shall be assisted by the table officials and by a commissioner,
if present.
 table officials shall be a scorer, an assistant scorer, a timer & (24)
second clock
 The commissioner shall sit between the scorer and the timer.
 The officials and table officials shall be uniformly dressed.
7. Duration of the game
 Recreational and high school games last 32 minutes (four
quarters of 8 minutes )

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  college and international games last 40 minutes (two halves of 20
minutes each),
 women‘s professional games last 40 minutes (either two 20-
minute halves or)
 men‘s professional games last 48 minutes (four quarters of 12
minutes each).
8. Scoring; Scoring a basket increases the team‘s score by 3, 2 or 1 point.
2 point field goal- a shot made from anywhere during play inside
the 3 pt arc.
3 point field goal- a shot made from anywhere outside the 3 pt arc.
Free throw- 1 point is awarded to an unguarded shot taken from
behind the free throw line while the clock is stopped.
9. Violations and fouls: Any breaking of rules is either violation or foul.
 A violation occurs when the player breaks one of the rules of
Basketball.
 Some examples of violations are as follows: Traveling, Kicking the
ball with foot, Stepping out of bounds with the ball, The center player
leaving the circle before the ball is tipped in beginning play, Double
dribbling, and Failure to observe free throw regulations.
 If you commit violation, the ball will be given to the opponents out of
bounds near where the violation occurs.
Foul – an illegal action can be committed by a player against from the opposing team.
There are two types of fouls; personal foul and technical fouls.
The following are technical fouls; Delaying the game, taking too many time- outs,
leaving the court without permission, showing unsportsman like behavior, touching the
rim illegally, and failure to report the officials when entering the game as substitute
Personal fouls include; holding, pushing, charging, blocking, and illegal use of hands,
preventing the progress of player by extended arm or leg.
 If you commit a foul, a free throw will be given to the opponents.
There are two types of personal fouls.
1. Defensive fouls occur when the offensive player is being fouled by the defender.
2. Offensive fouls, a player commits a foul when charging into a stationary defender.
1. In sum when a foul is committed, the opponents may be given
either a free throw or the ball out of bounds.
2. After a team commits seven fouls in a half time play, an extra
free throw is given for opponents as penalty for common fouls.

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 3. A player is allowed four personal fouls; a fifth discharges the
player out of game for the reminder of the game.
11. Referee signals /Basketball Hand Signals
 A referee will cite rules infractions and stop play by blowing a
whistle.
 After play has stopped, referees signal what violation has
occurred by using hand signals and a verbal call.
 Most referees' decisions must be made very quickly.
12. Playing Rules
 The game involves two five-player teams that play both offense
and defense.
 At the completion of each game, the team that has scored the
most points wins.
 Every game begins with a jump ball at the center of the court.
 The time to shoot is measured by a shot clock
 An offensive player cannot run or walk with the ball without
dribbling
 There are two ways an offensive team can score points.
 The first way to score is to make a basket, which is worth 2 or 3
points
 The second way to score is a foul shot, also called a free throw.
 Each foul shot is taken from the free-throw line, 15 ft (4.6 m) from the basket.
 A good defense will often force the offense to miss a shot or to lose
possession
 A time-out, when the game is stopped for a certain amount of
time, allows coaches to instruct players or to develop a new game
strategy.
Basic techniques of Basketball game
 Basketball can be one of the fastest most dazzling of all team sports.
 It requires excellent team work with perfect coordination between players.
 The fundamental skills of Basketball include without ball (basic stance & foot
work), ball handling, dribbling, passing & catching, pivoting, shooting and
rebounding.
1. Without ball (basic stance & Foot work) what is a stance in
basketball?

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 Players should use a stance that is comfortable and that
prepares them
Footwork - Good footwork allows the player to get space for
their shot.
 Good footwork and agility enhances every aspect of a player's game and skills.
2. Ball handling - the first fundamental of winning basketball is skill in ball handing.
Ball handling means the position of your hands on the ball and action of your hands
when holding the ball whether you are preparing to dribble, pass or shoot.
3. Passing - is the act of throwing the ball either by one or two hand to another player.
 pass should be accurate, timed, quick & proper type for that situation.
 A team must be able to handle, control and move the ball quickly & accurately
 In playing basketball game, passing is a key to create scoring opportunities.
 There are 5 types of Passing in Basketball, these are chest pass,
bounce pass, overhead pass, baseball pass & jump pass.
Chest pass-
 A pass in basketball made with two hands directly from the chest
or upper torso, typically considered the safest and most direct
pass in basketball.
Bounce pass (one hand & two hand) –
 a ball passes a defensive player when other passes are difficult or blocked.
 A bounce pass can be performed with either one or two hands.
 should only be used for short passes.
Shoulder pass – The ball is thrown at a greater height, but it is not a looping pass.
Overhead pass- holds the ball over head with both hands and then toss to a teammate.
 commonly used when the player needs to make a strong and far pass. is
advantageous when the defensive player is short enough to reach the ball.
Baseball pass (long pass/ fast break pass) – is most effective for long passes.
*Receiving/ catching –
 When the ball is thrown to you, make your hands ready to receive
it.
 First spread your fingers & keep them relaxed.
 When the ball hits the fingers, let the arms give slightly toward the
body.
4. Dribbling - propelling the ball in any direction by bouncing it with the hands.
when Dr. James Naismith created basketball game, there was no dribbling is
bouncing the ball on the floor continuously with one hand at a time only legal way
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 that a player may maintain possession while walking or running, Dribbling is the only
manner in which a player may independently move the ball, High dribble is used for
speed in an open court area while low dribble is used for protection of the ball in
congested areas
 There are, in general, seven different main ways to dribble the ball:
 The basic dribbling technique, the crossover dribble, the spin dribble, or reverse
dribble, the "change-of-pace" dribble, the "behind the back" dribble, the "pull-
back" dribble, and lastly, the "through-the-legs, dribble.
I. Basic Dribbling Technique
 First you need, to simple bounce the ball, but only with the tips of your fingertips.
 If you bounce it with the palm of your hand, the ball will not bounce very well.
II. Crossover Dribble Technique - basically dribbling the ball from one hand to other.
is very useful when coming up against a player that is trying to defend you.
III. Spin Dribble Technique - Where you spin around to get past a defender.
 To do this dribble, first dribble, but when you reach the defender,
step forward with the opposite foot and pivot on that foot.
IV. Change-of-Pace Dribble Technique – good technique for tricking your opponent.
V. Behind the Back Dribble Technique - Most people cannot do this dribble very
successfully, without messing up to literally dribble, or pass the ball between your
hands, behind your back.
5. Pivoting - both the act of keeping one foot in place while moving the other and the
actual foot which remains on the ground.
 After stopping with the ball, pivoting allows you to change
direction and look for a pass or shot.
 There are two types of pivot, forward and reverse pivot.
 A forward pivot is performed by keeping one foot in place on the
ground and moving the other forward & across the foot in place.
 A reverse pivot is done by keeping one foot in place and moving
the other backward in a semicircle.
SHOOTING
Concepts of Shooting
 The skill of shooting is the back bone of basketball game and it is
the ability that determines the winning team.
 While playing the game, your outstanding passing and dribbling
skill will valueless without accurate shooting.

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  The shooting ability depends up on proper technique, coordination,
concentration, confidence and relaxation, The most well-known
shots are the jump shot, the layup, the slam dunk, the hook shot
and the alley hoop.
1. Jump Shot - is the most almost basic shot in basketball
2. Lay-up - where you are close to the basket and basically "lay" up the ball
 You can only score two-points on this type of shot in basketball.
3. Slam Dunk - is an extremely awesome move, you have to be quite tall, or
 need to be able to jump pretty high.
 It may seem easy, but it is never that easy to do.
4. Hook Shot - you shoot moving your hand in a hook motion.
 It was used to shoot over the defense men, being quite tall.
*Alley Hoop - is a well-known shot but not part of the four basic shots in basketball.
 The alley hoop ties in with the lay-up and the slam dunk. .
*Free throw shooting - Many basketball games are won by the free throw
 is usually made with a two hand under hand, or pull motion from
a position directly behind the foul line.
POSITIONS IN BASKETBALL.
 The five basketball positions normally employed by organized
basketball teams are the point guard (PG), the shooting guard
(SG), the small forward (SF), the power forward (PF), and the
center (C).
Centre – usually the team‘s tallest and strongest player
 and is positioned under the basket.
 required physically domineering with more physical strength and
athleticism.
 On the offensive play, most center‘s do not consistently score
beyond the arch, On the defense, the center is responsible for
keeping the opponent from shooting by blocking shots and
passes in the vital area.
Power Forward -
 usually the second tallest and the closest to the center in terms of
physical attributes and playing style but with more speed.
 often the most versatile player, being able to score in the paint
 as well as being able to shoot from midrange.

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  It will be more effective if they‘re able to land a three-point
consistently.
 Defensively, they are required to have the strength to guard bigger
players close to the basket.
Small Forward – the shorter of the two forwards but the most versatile role
 must have enough height and the ability to play on the inside
 as well as agility to play on the outside, similar to a shooting
guard.
 Small Forwards are usually the second or third best shooters on
the team
Shooting Guard – the shortest player on the team, the team’s best outside shooter.
 needs to be good at dribbling fast, passing and having court
vision
 also responsible for driving the ball down the court
5. Point Guard usually the shortest but the best ball handler on the team.
 known as the coach on the floor‘ or the floor general‘,
 is responsible for directing plays.
 He needs to have good court vision to create open shots for the
receivers
 Point Guards need to have an excellent long-distance shooting

TEAM OFFENSE AND DEFENSE

 The team with the ball is called the offense, and without the ball is
the defense.
 In a basketball game, teams constantly trade possession of the
ball.
 the offense is the team with the ball, and the defense is the team
without the ball
 When a member of the offensive team recovers the rebound, the
offensive team regains possession and the shot clock starts over.
 When the defensive team recovers the rebound, it then plays
offense.
 Strength, natural instinct, and good positioning and timing are
important to good rebounding.
4.1Offense - method to score baskets and get open shots against your
opponent.
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  It's common to have more than one offensive set
 the most prominent part of playing basketball
 Many of basketball's best players have exceptional talents on
offense.
 Basic offensive skills are passing, shooting, and rebounding.
 There are two basic types of offensive attacks:
 The slow deliberate attack and the fast break attack.
 Playing good offense requires strategic decisions.
 One style of offense is to use set patterns to get uncontested
shots.
 Slow-deliberate offense occurs when offensive players position
themselves in a way that impedes the defenders movement, A
fast-break offense- quick shots as the ball is either dribbled or
passé up
4.2Defense - Five players executing tough hard-nose defense and working as a team
can stop even the best players from scoring every time. There are two main types
of team defense: man-to-man and zone

Man to Man- each player is assigned a specific person to guard/play defense on.
 An important element of man-to-man defense is matching up
properly
 The defense thus ensures that the offense does not create
mismatches.
 Good defensive skills include quickness, balance, and tenacity.

Zone defense- each defender is responsible for guarding an area of the floor, or
"zone",
 defenders move their position on the floor in r/nship to where the
ball moves.
 Zone defenses are illegal in many professional leagues because
they tend to slow the pace of the game, which can make some
spectators lose interest.
 What is off the ball in basketball?
 A defense to be successful, a team must be able to guard the
players without the ball, too. This is known as off-the-ball defense.
Tactics

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  Tactics in basketball is understood as all organized measures to
attack and defend, which are used by players to reach a
premeditated conclusion.
 There are two types of tactics: defensive and offensive tactics.
 Tactical skills - the decisions and actions of players in the contest
to gain an advantage over the opposing team or players.
 Tactical awareness involves the ability to know your role and have
positional awareness on the field, and possessing the ability to
make good decisions.
 Shooting is the most important skill in basketball.
 A large part of shooting is mental attitude.
Offensive Strategies: The 5 Offensive Strategies that ALL Coaches Should Employ;
 Make spacing a priority, Best shooters shoot the most, Evaluate
your foul shooting, Less is more, and Use Screens to Create
Mismatches
Basketball Movement Tactics to Outsmart Your Opponent;
 The Importance of Movement on the Court.
 Playing and Moving on the Perimeter.
 Receiving Pass on the Perimeter.
 Attacking the Basket off the Pass.
The Fundamentals of Effective Screening.
 The Ball Screen, the Down Screen, the Back Screen, Defensive strategies
 The man-to-man defense is the most common basketball defense at all levels
 It's the best defense for development and preparing your players to defend against
anyone and in any competition.
Zone defense; 2-3 ZONE - is the most common zone layout.
Basics of team formation
 A formation - the way players on a team position themselves on the court.
 There are many types of formation that the offense/defense can use. 3-2, 2-3
etc.

Why is teamwork important in basketball?

 to create a team boasting with synergy.
 Generate new ideas- it fosters creativity among team members.
Summary of Basketball terminologies

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Air ball- a shot that completely misses the rim and the backboard , Assist- a pass
to a teammate who then scores a field goal., Baseline – the end line, Blocking-
impeding the progress of an opponent by extending one or both arms horizontally
or getting in the path of a moving player.
Boxing out- a player‘s position between an opposing player and the basket to
obtain a better rebounding position.
Carrying – In a carry, your hand makes contact with the bottom of the ball, then
flips the ball over in the act of dribbling.
Charging – personal contact against the body of an opponent by a player with the
ball.
Cut – a quick offensive move by a player trying to get free for a pass.
Defense- team trying to stop the other team from scoring
Denial Defense – aggressive individual defense where the defensive player works
hard to keep the offensive player from receiving a pass.
Double Dribble – when one person dribbles, stops and picks up the ball and starts
to dribble again or dribble with two hands simultaneously.
Dribbling- bouncing the ball with one hand using your fingertips instead of palm,
Drive – an aggressive move toward the basket by a player with the ball, Dunk- to
throw the ball down into the basket with the hand above the level of the rim
Fake (Feint) – using a deceptive move with the ball to pull the defensive player out
of position, Fast break – moving the ball quickly down the court in order to score
before the defense can set up.
Field Goal - a basket scored from the field, worth two points, unless outside the
three point line, Free throw – the privilege given a player to score one point by an
unhindered throw for a goal from within the free-throw circle and behind the free
throw line.
Fouls: results in one or more free throws awarded to the opposing team
Hacking- the player hits the arm or hand of the person holding the ball.
Holding- the player holds the person with or without the ball.
Lay-up – a shot where a player releases the ball close to the basket while
continuing to run off one foot.
Man-to-man- a defensive strategy where everyone guards an assigned player,
Offense- team trying to score
Passing- moving the ball by throwing, bouncing, handing, or rolling it to another
player , Pick – a special type of screen where a player stands so the defensive
player slides to make contact, freeing an offensive teammate for a shot, drive, or
pass.
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Pivoting- stepping once or more in any direction with the same foot while holding
the other foot at its initial point.
Press – a team’s attempt to take the ball away from their opponent before they
can set up their offense.
Rebounding- The recovering of a shot that bounces off the backboard or the rim,
Shooting- throwing the ball to make a basket
Team’s Back Court – the part of the court containing the opponent’s basket,
Team’s Front Court – the part of the court containing the team’s own basket,
telegraphing the Pass – indicating where you are going to pass by looking or
signaling.
Three seconds- an offensive player remains in the key (free throw lane- the area
under the basket) for more than 3 seconds
Throw-in – a method of putting the ball in play from out of bounds.
Turn over- any loss of the ball without a shot being taken
Violation – an infraction of the rules resulting in a throw-in from out of bounds for
the opponents.
Zone defense- a defensive strategy where everyone guards an area instead of a
player

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 MODULE EIGHT
HISTORY OF HANDBALL
Team handball was invented in Europe around the 1890’s. In parts of Europe, it was
played with 7 players per team on and indoor field.
International body The International Handball Federation (IHF) is the administrative
and controlling body for international handball. Handball is an Olympic sport played
during the Summer Olympics. The IHF organizes world championships, held in odd-
numbered years, with separate competitions for men and women. In 1936, field
handball (Feldhandball) debuted at the Olympic Games in Berlin. For simplicity, the
term handball (also known as Olympic handball or team handball) will be used for the
game with seven players on the court for each team. In 1946, the International
Handball Federation (IHF) was established, modernizing the game to be played on an
official court as it is today. Handball became an official Olympic sport for men at the
1972 Olympic Games in Munich, and for both genders at the 1976 Olympic Games in
Montreal. The objective handball is to score as many as possible by dribbling, passing
and throwing the ball at goal.
History of handball in Ethiopia
Handball in Ethiopia was started in 1968 by Tequame w/tsadik and other physical
education teachers of AAU. The EHF was established in 1970 and accepted as a
tentative member of international handball federation (IHF). In 1972 Ethiopia became
a full member of IHF at Nuremburg congress. From 1972-1975 the popularity of
handball in Ethiopia was increased and played by military groups and between States
best teams. Ethiopian national Handball team was played the first time in 1976 held at
Egypt.

Rule and Regulation of Handball

Playing Court

 The playing court is a 40 meter long and 20 meter wide rectangle, consisting of
two goal
areas and a playing area.

 The goals must be height of 2 meters and a width of 3 meters.

 The goal lines shall be 8cm wide between the goalposts, whereas all other lines
shall be 5cm wide.

In front of each goal there is a goal area

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 The goal area is defined by the goal-area line (6-meter line)

 The free throw line (9-meter line) is a broken line, drawn 3 meters outside the goal-
area line. line and the spaces between them measure 15cm

 The 7-meter line is a 1 meter long line, directly in front of the goal.

 The goalkeeper’s restraining line (the 4-meter line) is a 15cm long line, directly in
front of the goal.

 The center line connects the midpoints of the two side lines

 The substitution line 4.5 meters from the center line , Starting circle meseare from
3.5m 4m 4.5m diameter

Playing Time and Time-Out

Playing Time
 >16 and above 2x30 minutes with a 10 minute half-time

 12-16 age 2x25 minutes

 at ages 8-12 age 2x20 minutes

Overtime is played; following a 5-minute break the overtime period consists of 2

halves of 5 minutes, with a 1-minute half-time break.

Time out
A) time-out is obligatory when:
A) A 2-minute suspension or disqualification is given;
B) A team time-out is granted;
C) There is a whistle signal from the timekeeper or the delegate;
D) Consultations between the referees

A time-out is normally also given in certain other situations, depending on the

circumstances Penalty throws should trigger a timeout only for lengthy delays, such
as a change of the goalkeeper. Each team has total of three 1-minute team time-out
but they can’t use two of them within the last five minutes of the second half.

The Ball

 The ball is made of leather or a synthetic material. It must be spherical

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  The ball sizes, i.e. the circumference and weight

 58-60cm and 425-475g (IHF Size 3) for Men and for Male Youth

 54-56cm and 325-375g (IHF Size 2) for Women, Female Youth(over age 14), and
Male Youth (age 12 to 16)

 50-52cm and 290-330g (IHF Size 1) for Female Youth (age 8 to14) and Male Youth
(age 8 to 12).

The Team, Substitutions

The Team

 A team consists of up to 14 players.

 No more than 7 players may be present on the court at the same time. The
remaining players are substitutes.

 A player who is recognized as a goalkeeper may become a court player at any time.
Similarly, a court player may become a goalkeeper at any time.

 A team must have at least 5 players on the court at the start of the game.

 The game may continue even if a team is reduced to less than 5 players on the
court.

Player Substitutions

 Substitutes may enter the court, at any time and repeatedly without notifying the
timekeeper/scorekeeper, as long as the players they are replacing have already
left the court.

 The substitution rules also apply during a time-out (except during a team time-out).

 A faulty substitution shall be penalized with a 2-minute suspension for the guilty
Player
Goalkeeper

Only the goalkeeper is allowed to move freely within the goal perimeter, although he
may not cross the goal perimeter line while carrying or dribbling the ball. Within the
zone, he is allowed to touch the ball with all parts of his body including his feet. The
goalkeeper may participate in the normal play of his teammates

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TheGoalArea
Only the goalkeeper is allowed to enter the goal area. The goal area, which includes
the goal-area line, is considered entered when a court player touches it with any part of
the body.

When a court player enters the goal area, the decisions shall be as follows

 Goalkeeper-throw when a player of the team in possession enters the goal area

 Free-throw when a court player of the defending team enters the goal area

 7-meter throws destroys a clear chance of scoring.

Playing the Ball
It is permitted to:
 Throw, catch, stop, push or hit the ball, by using hands (open or closed), arms,
head,
torso, thighs, and knees;

 Hold the ball for a maximum of 3 seconds, also when it is lying on the floor;

 Take a maximum of 3 steps with the ball; one step is considered taken when:
a) Bounce the ball once and catch it again with one or both hands;
b) Bounce the ball repeatedly with one hand (dribble), and then catch it or pick it
up
again with one or both hands;

c) Roll the ball on the floor repeatedly with one hand, and then catch it or pick it
up
again with one or both hands.

Passive Play
 It is not allowed to delay repeatedly the execution of a throw-off, free-throw, throw
-in, or goalkeeper-throw for one’s own team. This is regarded as passive play,
which is to be penalized with a free-throw

Fouls and Unsportsmanlike Conduct

It is permitted to:
 Use arms and hands to block or gain possession of the ball;

 Use an open hand to play the ball away from the opponent from any direction;

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  Use the body to obstruct an opponent, even when the opponent is not in
possession of the ball;

 Make body contact with an opponent, when facing him and with bent arms, and
maintain this contact in order to monitor and follow the opponent.

It is not permitted to:

 Pull or hit the ball out of the hands of an opponent;

 Block or force away an opponent with arms, hands or legs;

 Restrain or hold (body or uniform), push, run or jump into an opponent;

 Endanger an opponent (with or without the ball)

Scoring
 A goal is scored when the entire ball has completely crossed the goal line

 The goal line referee confirms with two short whistle signals and hand signal
that a goal has been scored.

 A goal cannot be awarded if a referee or the timekeeper has interrupted the

game before the ball has completely crossed the goal line.

 A goal shall be awarded to the opponents if a player plays the ball into his own
goal, except in the situation where a goalkeeper is executing a goalkeeper-
throw.

The Throw-Off
 At the start of the game, the throw-off is taken by the team that wins the coin
toss and elects to start with the ball in its possession.

 The teams change ends for the second half of the game.

 After a goal has been scored play

 The player taking the throw-off must take up a position with at least one foot on
the center line, and the other foot on or behind the line, and remain in this
position until the ball has left his hand.

 The teammates of the thrower are not allowed to cross the center line prior to
the whistle signal.

 For the throw-off at the start of each half (incl. any period of overtime), all
players must be in their own half of the court.
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  The opponents must be at least 3 meters away from the player taking the throw
-off.

The Throw-In
 A throw-in is awarded when the ball has completely crossed the side line

 The throw-in is taken without whistle signal from the referees

 While the throw-in is being taken, the opponents may not be closer than 3
meters to the thrower.

The Goalkeeper-Throw
A goalkeeper-throw is awarded when:
 A player of the opposing team has entered the goal area

 The goalkeeper has controlled the ball in the goal area

 A player of the opposing team has touched the ball in the goal area

 When the ball has crossed the outer goal line, after having been touched last by
the goalkeeper or a player of the opposing team.

 The goalkeeper-throw is taken by the goalkeeper without whistle signal from

the referee, from the goal area out over the goal area line.

 The goalkeeper-throw the goalkeeper has completely crossed the ball in the
goal-area line.

Free-Throw
Free-Throw Decision
 In principle, the referees interrupt the game and have it restarted with a free-
throw for the opponents when:

 The team in possession of the ball commits a violation of rules that must lead
to a loss of possession

Free-Throw Execution
 The free-throw is normally taken without any whistle signal from the referee
and, in principle, from the place where the infraction occurred.

The 7-Meter Throw

 If a defensive player interrupted a clear chance of scoring.

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  On the 7 meter line without touching the ,line

General Instructions for the Execution of the Throws

Throw-Off, Throw-In, Goalkeeper-Throw, Free-Throw & 7-Meter Throw
ThePunishmentsWarning
A warning can be given for:
a) Fouls and similar infractions against an opponent such fouls which are to be
punished progressively and unsportsmanlike conduct by a player or team official
• The referee shall indicate the warning to the guilty player or official and to the
timekeeper/scorekeeper by holding up a yellow card.

Suspension
A suspension (2 minutes) shall be given:
 For a faulty substitution
 For repeated fouls of the type that they are to be punished progressively.
 For repeated unsportsmanlike conduct by a player, on the court or outside the
court
 After calling time-out the referee shall clearly indicate the suspension to the guilty
player and to the timekeeper
 A suspension is always for a playing time of 2 minutes; the third suspension for
the same player also always leads to a disqualification.
 The suspension period begins when play is restarted with a whistle signal.
 A 2-minute suspension carries over to the second half of the game if it has not
been
completed by the end of the first half.
Disqualification
A disqualification shall be given:
 for unsportsmanlike conduct by any one of the officials of a team, after they have
previously received both a warning and a 2-minute suspension in accordance with
 for fouls which endanger the opponent’s health
 for seriously unsportsmanlike conduct
 for an assault by a player before the game or during a tie-breaking procedure
 for an assault by a team official
 because of a third suspension to the same player
 After calling a time-out, the referees shall clearly indicate the disqualification to
the

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 guilty player or official, and to the timekeeper/scorekeeper, by holding up a red
card.
 A disqualification of a player or team official is always for the entire remainder of
the
playing time.
The player or official must leave the court and the substitution area
immediately. After leaving, the player or official is not allowed to have any form of
contact with the team.
 The disqualification of a player or a team official, on or off the court, during the
playing time, always carries with it a 2-minute suspension for the team. This
means
that the team’s strength on the court is reduced by one.
Exclusion shall be given:
 After calling a time-out, the referees shall clearly indicate the exclusion to the
guilty
player
 Exclusion is always for the entire remainder of the playing time, and the team
must
continue with one player less on the court.
If a player who receives an exclusion was already serving (or had just received) a 2-
minute suspension, or had caused a 2-minute reduction in team strength, then such a
suspension or reduction would be incorporated into the exclusion The excluded player
must not be replaced and must leave both the court and the substitution area
immediately.
The Referees
 Two referees with equal authority shall be in charge of each game. They are
assisted
by a timekeeper and a scorekeeper.

 The referees monitor the conduct of the players and team officials from the
moment
they enter the premises until they leave.

 The referees are responsible for inspecting the playing court, the goals, and the
balls
before the game starts; they decide which balls will be used.

The Timekeeper and the Scorekeeper

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 The timekeeper has the main responsibility for the playing time, the time-outs, and
the suspension time of suspended players.

 The scorekeeper responsibility for the team rosters, the score sheet, the entering
of players who arrive after the game has started, and the entering of players who
are not entitled to participate

Fundamental Techniques of handball

Technique; - way of doing/ performing something by using special skill and /or
knowledge
In handball technique can generally categorized in to attacking and defensive
technique Attacking technique is way of performing so that the team can score or
create good opportunity for teammate and the skill we use for this purpose are basic
movement, catching and holding the ball skill, passing skill, dribbling skill, blocking
skill, faking skill and shooting skill.

Basic movement
In handball player can move with or without ball and the type of movement they use
are piston movement and side stepping
 Piston movement it is in depth movement attackers used this movement
against a well set defender and it is mostly used by back court players
(connective and play maker).

 Side stepping it is in width movement attackers used this movement against a

well set defender and it is mostly used by forward payers (wing and pivot
players).

Catching the ball

Taking the possession of the ball will start with catching the ball and this skill greatly
influenced the next skill we are going to execute. Based on the flight of the ball, we
can divide this skill in to upper catching skill and lower catching skill.
 Upper catching when the balls come above waist level and the payer trays to
catch the ball by forming a funnel shape with our palms.

 Lower catching when the ball come below waist level and the player tray to
catch the ball by forming shovel shape.

Passing the ball

This skill is the means for contacting with player (the contact between attackers) with
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the ball as mediator and execution of this skill may be affected by position and
distance between the passer and receiver and the path of the ball.
 Over arm pass it is the most commonly used in handball computation executed
above the shoulder level (the path of the ball).

 Under arm pass is simple and natural passing technique can be execute below
the shoulder up to waist level with closely guarded by defensive player while
he/she is running.

 Wrist pass while we are executing organized attack in front of defense wall we
can use this skill to pass the ball without delay. This type of pass should be quick
but not power full and should not be used for long distance pass.

 Back hand pass when a player interrupted his /her shooting attempt in front of a
defense he/she will try to pass the ball with behind the back if under arm pass is
interrupted and behind the neck if over arm pass is interrupted.

 Jump pass we use this type of pass when a player forced to pass the ball above
the defender and as a continuity of frustrated jump shot.

Dribbling
This one of the attacking skill we use while we want to have the ball for longer period
of time. Dribbling can be high or low dribbling we use high dribbling skill to move
forward with speed and if there no opponent player who closely guarded the attacker
and low dribbling skill.
Generally we can use dribbling skill
 To advance to the goal / fast break

 To get out from congested area

 To have position of the ball for longer time/to organize and kill time

Blocking
Blocking is one of the attacking skills we use to restrict the opponents freedom of
movement by physically blocking his /her way.
Faking
Is the deception of opponent, forcing the player in to an unfavourable position or
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misleading so that defensive player makes wrong decision this can be with
spontaneous faking or with feign movement.
Spontaneous faking are those are the most basic and natural form of faking, when
player try to deceive his /her opponent only with natural movement. This can be
Positioning - this a skill that players try to position in which it lead to think as if he
/she has advantage example goalkeepers.
Limb movement–stepping out and stepping back arm movement example goal
keeper for attacker to make lob shot
Verbal and non- verbal- calling out deceptive words or information and head
movement and attention
Feint movement These are simple starting fake, combined starting fake and other
variation of the types
 Simple starting faking

As the name of this faking technique has derived from the fact that the attacker by
steeping out with one leg feigns a start. It is one of the most easily executed but
effective faking technique the skill start while we are up to 80cm away from the
defender try to deceive to non-throwing arm and finish with the throwing side
Combined starting fake When the defensive player is well trained and simple starting
fake is unsuccessful, start and finishes with the throwing side.

Body faking The name of this faking has derived from the fact that the attacker carry
out the first part of the action by moving his /her whole boy all at once. This is an
extremely convincing and effective technique which can be executed on both side of
the defender in the same way.

This skill will be more effective if

 After the attacker catch the ball in the air and land on both feet.

 If the defective player closely guarded the attacker

Arm swings faking

The name of this technique has derived from the action when the attacker in the
second part of the fake, swings over his throwing arm with ball anti-clockwise above
the defender shoulder. And this skill is only executed to the throwing arm side.
 Rotation faking

The name of this technique has derived from the rotating process that the payer
executes during the fake. That is, the attacker spins around his/her centrifugal axis,
away from the opponents moving direction, thus breaking away from him/her.
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  Passing faking

The name of this technique has derived from the fact that the player by executing a
part of the throwing process feigns passing the ball.
 Shooting fake

This is the act of forcing the defense and goal keeper to believe he/she is going to
shot, so the defense can attempt to block then you will go against the attempt.
 Shooting

This skill is a conclusion of the attacker with the hope of scoring, as we all know
attacking has two objective scoring or creating an advantageous position for team
meat to score.
Based on the distance from the goal and position from the goal we can divide court in
zone.
 Zone of the long range shot

 Zone of the close range shot

 Zone of the side range shot

A. Zone of the long range shot

The most extensive and the farthest area from the goal. It incorporates the back court
players’ area and the region mainly used to move. In this zone players can attempt
while they are on ground (over arm shot, curved shot, underarm shot) or on the air
(jump shot curved jump shot sliced jump shot).
A.1. Over arm shot
It is the simplest and most common type of shooting above the defender shoulder on
the throwing arm side can be executed while the attacker is running or standing.
Mostly this shooting skill is performed by back court player.

A.2.Curved shot
this type of shooting skill needs the flexibility of spine and hip joint and strong torso
and take more time while the execution of this skill because the swing arm take longer
path and this give advantage for the defender to intervene/ recover so to prevent the
intervene it better to execute this shooting type while we are closer to the defender.
Mostly this shooting skill is performed by back court player.
A.3. Jump shot
Jump shot is the most characteristics of handball which is developed by Scandinavian
player to increase the radius of through-shot, we use three steps to build up imputes
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and the throwing motion at the highest level of the jump.
B. Zone of the close range shots
On this zone of shooting angle and range will be optimum the player has to execute on
the air behind the defender, it is generally the closest area. Although it is the initial
scoring area of pivot score by breakthrough other players from the field. Long jump
shot, failing shot, dive shot are type of shot we execute on this zone.
B.1. Long jump shot
This shooting skill gives the player an opportunity to get out of a defender range and
to approach the opponent’s goal as closely as possible. This type of shooting is the
most common type of finishing a clear chance.
B2. Failing shot
The falling shot is the basic techniques of the pivot when the player by falling, tries to
out of the range of the defender while executing a goal shot so that his legs do not
leave the ground.
B.3. Dive shot
The dive shot has develop from the combination of the falling shot and the long jump
shot and it unites the advantages of both shooting techniques. While the players dive,
he/she gets further away from the defender thus decreasing the defender opportunity
to intervene and increasing the shooting angle.
Zone of the side shots
It is the scoring area of wings, and this player try to reduce the disadvantage by
increasing the shooting angle during the preparation of the throw by jumping or diving
while they execute the shot. Lob shot, volley shot and dive shot are the type of shot we
use on zone of the side shot.

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152
Defensive technique
The objective of defensive organization is to prevent the ball from crossing the goal
line and disturb the organization of the attackers and this can be done by different
techniques.
The components of attacking technique are basic position, basic movement, checking,
gaining possession of the ball, and blocking.
Basic movement
There are two types of defensive movement this are failing out step and shuffle step.
Failing out step this technique will be employed against organized attack and
intercept the pass & it is the technique element of active defense, executed on the
zigzagged way not in the same path.
Shuffle step this technique element will be used to obstruct /stop/ breakthrough
attempts & while we want to protect the goal area all the way.
Checking
It is a dynamic meeting between attacker and defender with the body and limb as
permitted by the rule and this can be done while the attacker is on the air or on the
ground.
Gaining the possession of the ball
Even if objective of defenders is stopping the ball from scoring the scope is not limit
on this but if the opportunity arises they should try to get to get the ball out of the
opponent’s hand. This can be done
• Intercept the pass between two attackers this is called snatching.
• Playing the ball out of opponents control with an open palm while dribbling, this is
called knocking.
Blocking
This is the last opportunity to prevent goal shooting by putting the hands in the path of
the ball. This can be done with individuals or with collective on the air or on the ground.

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Tactics
Tactic- an action a player, group or team takes using a series of technical elements to
achieve desired goals.
Tactics are the specific actions in which individuals, groups, or the whole team can
perform. Tactics refers to targeted actions that allow the realization of the strategy
The individual-tactical skills represent the player’s ability to generate actions, taking in
to account situational variables and applicable action rules or principles.
The group-tactical actions are joint actions between two or more players, who
cooperate to solve situational game problems. Therefore, the group-tactical elements
(e.g., give-and-go) are a kind of standardised pattern of action between players.
From a team-tactical perspective, the system of play provides the basis for team
organization and also the concrete basis for players to act and interact in a logical and
interconnected way.

Defensive Blocking

There are three basic defensive systems in handball: man-to man, zone, and
combination defenses.
1. Man-to-Man defense or Individual Player-to-Player defense
 New handball players should learn first until they reach an acceptable skill…
 Defenders focus on guarding their respective opponents
 Can be applied in a full or half-court press system without switching opponents.
2. Zone Defense
 It is used by more technically and tactically advanced teams.
 Players focus on guarding their respective spaces
 The most popular zone formations: 6:0, 5:1, 3:2:1, 4:2, and 3:3
3. Combination Defense
 It is a combination of man-to-man and zone defenses that is used in specific
tactical

 Depending on the formation, some defenders may engage in individual

marking of one or more attackers while others play zone defense.

 The most popular combination defense formations are: 5+1, 4+2, and 4:1 + 1.

Attack tactic
There are two type of Fast Break

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A- Sudden Fast Break: a quick process that occurs through 1/2 players for scoring a
goal.
B- Wide Fast Break: this occurs through increasing the Numbers of players
The counter Attack
Counter attack in the handball is when there is a sudden turn over and then the ball
rushes down to the opposite end of the court.
Simple fast break occurs when the defending team gets the ball and is able to move
quickly up the court, getting an easy scoring attempt. Others may call it the 1st wave
or primary fast break.
The extended fast break is triggered when more attackers are involved in making fast
forward progression with quick inter-passing. Also termed 2nd wave or secondary fast
break.
The complete fast break is performed around the goal area when the defending team
has already returned, but has not yet adjusted their defensive system. In this way, it is
a kind of sustained fast break attack or pressure play aiming to exploit the opponents’
temporary defence.
Organization of the Attack
Organized attack: there are two parts of Organized attack or Positioned Attacks
A. Building Attack: Offensive formations ( 3 – 3 ) ( 2 – 4 ) ( 4 – 2 )
Movements: long - wide – cross – complex – fixed
positions
B. Finishing Attack: Using one of the Basic Offensive Formations
Left and Right Wing
 Typically excellent ball control and wide jumps from the outside of the goal to
get a better shooting angle at the goal.
 Teams usually try to occupy the left wing position with a right-handed player
 Fast and able to run fast-breaks (counter-attacks) for the team.

Left and Right Back

 Goal attempts by jumping high and shooting over the defenders by breaking-
through in 1-on-1situations.

Center Back
 A player with experience and acts as a primary play-maker.
Circle (Pivot)
 Interferes with the opposing defense to create opportunities for the team by
disrupting the defense or setting picks.
Defense tactic, Return defense
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When the ball is lost to the opponents the team must as quickly as possible shift from
attack to defense and a fast retreat must be performed. The fast retreat can be
divided into 4 forms.
1. Home and help the goalkeeper
If the opponents have a efficient fast break there is only one thing to do - try to catch
up and distract the attacking player with the ball the most (legally of course)
2. Ordinary retreat
The retreating players are all oriented of the ball's position as well as their opponent's
position when they pass the center line - look behind and even run sideway or
backwards.
3. Retreat with focus to stop a fast break
Is used if the opponents are in an immediate control of the ball.
The retreat is divided into 3 steps:
Step 1 - Pressure on the ball holder
The pressure is made by that player who is closest to the ball holding player, while the
other players covers the remaining attacking players.
Step 2 - Actual retreat
If the wings are the attacking players, the backcourt players cover these in order to
block a long pass. If the backcourt players are behind the wings they must try to run
behind then in such a way, that they are positioned between the wing and the ball
holding player.
Step 3 – Organization
Here the defenders arrives to their defending line and will often be on a position other
than their normal. Now it is a question of co-operation in order to make an effective
defense and communication between the defenders are very important.
4. Ordinary fast retreat defense
Is used if the opponents have immediate control of the ball, but don't have an effective
fast break. All players cover an opponent while retreating.
Return defense is not to be used each time a ball is lost. It must be a surprise for the
opponents because they don't expect such an act.
Retreat defence is divided into 3 steps:
Step 1 - Press on the ball holder
This is performed as mentioned under Retreat with focus to stop a fast break Step 1
If the ball is passed, the defending player seeks the receiver of the ball, as she hardly
will be covered by another defender and continues covering her in the same way.
Step 2 - Retreat with defence
Here the 2 backcourt must cover the 2 wings and try to prevent that they receive a
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long pass. Centre backcourt follows the opponent's Circle Runner or CB, the defending
CR cover the opponent's CR or CB and the wings cover the attacking backcourts.
We are talking about man-to-man defense and therefore a normal retreat defense
cannot be performed if for instance the defending wing is lying on the floor after an
attempt to shoot.
Step3 – Organizing
This is performed in the same way as described under Fast retreat with focus to stop
the fast break - Step 3
N.B Strategy- the overall plan to achieve a goal
Pressure play: A tactical element where a small group of attacking players work
together using an array of technical-tactical elements to create a high percentage
scoring opportunity by attacking multiple gaps at the same time.

MODULE TEN

BASIC GYMNASTICS
THE HISTORY OF GYMNASTICS IN ETHIOPIA
The sport has its origins in ancient Greece, where young men underwent intense physical and
mental training for warfare. The word stems from the Greek word gymnos, or
“naked,”—appropriate, since the youths trained in the nude, performing floor exercises,
lifting weights, and racing one another.
Gymnastics is one of the famous competitive sports. It has three forms of
competition in Olympic Games. These are Artistic, Rhythmic, and Trampoline. Men and
women participate in artistic and trampoline while only women’s participate in
Rhythmic gymnastics. Participating in gymnastic activities develop strength, rhythm,
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balance, flexibility, agility, courage, and self confidence.
Gymnastics, competitive sport that tests an athlete's strength, rhythm, balance, flexibility,
and agility. There are three major forms of competitive gymnastics: artistic gymnastics,
rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline. Artistic gymnastics and trampoline have men’s and
women’s competitions. Rhythmic gymnastics is open only to women.
The term gymnastics also refers to a system of physical exercises used for therapeutic or
educational purposes. Therapeutic or remedial gymnastics is a series of selected
exercises that help relieve physical discomfort or restore function to disabled people.
Educational gymnastics is a program that challenges students to master tactics involving
strength, flexibility, and conditioning.
1. Historical Development of Gymnastics
A) Gymnastics in the Early Ages
Gymnastics is one of the most important and the oldest means of physical education in
early times. The beginning of gymnastics was traced back to about 2600 B.C. At this time
Chinese developed a few activities that were similar to gymnastics. They used it for
medical purposes. The word” Gymnastic s” meaning “naked art” comes from early Greeks.
It refers to the way how physical exercises should be performed. Gymnastics in the most
ancient civilization was used for various purposes. Some of the scholars classified
gymnastics as, military, curative or remedial, and athletically. Early Greek history
indicates that gymnastics developed as systematic exercises to which a great emphasis
was given. The gymnastic endorsed by the Greek educators and philosophers, thus
become an integral part of their educational process.

The Greeks were loves of beauty and as such case they regarded gymnastic as a way of
beautifying human body. They also realized that by exercising the body’s muscle they could
promote health comfort and strength. In ancient Greece, three distinct programs of
gymnastic exercise were developed: one for the maintenance of good physical condition,
another for military training, and a third as part of the conditioning regimen for athletes. The
early Greek teachers of physical fitness were the first to design systems of physical activity
for both athletes and for the general citizenry.
Such programs, which included gymnastics, were considered central to the formal education
of children. The Greeks believed that the unity of mind and body could only be realized through
participation in physical exercises. Gymnastic systems designed to give strength for military
combat also were used extensively by the Romans.
The first gymnasts were acrobats who performed in ancient Egypt. In the 2nd millennium BC,
men and women of Crete (Kríti) during the age of Minoan culture developed the art of bull
leaping. In bull leaping the performer would run toward a charging bull, grab its horns, and,
upon being tossed into the air, execute various midair stunts before landing on the bull's back,
then dismount with a flip.

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The Romans later adopted the Greek exercise system for their military training program. In
Sparta Gymnastics was used as the means for military training.
In Athens _ it was used as the means of teaching young generation of the upper class.
French gymnastic system directed to the mastery of exercises for life and military activities.
It had practical significance in the preparation of soldiers and officers.
Swedish gymnastic system directed to the development of physical qualities, primarily to the
development of strength.
German gymnastic system directed to the mastery of complex movements primarily up on
gymnastic apparatus, as a result sport gymnastics come to the sense.
As the Greeks and Romans civilization declined so does Gymnastics. (I.e. gymnastic was
declined)
B) The Revival OF Gymnastics
The contribution of some scholars plays a great role for the revival and development of
gymnastics.
1. John Gutsmuth (1759_1839) _ often referred today as the “grand father of gymnastics”
introduced gymnastics in to the Prussian schools. He taught gymnastic for about 50 years
inventing endless games and apparatus for his students. He also wrote a book including
“Gymnastic for youth”.
2) Fredric Johan (1778_1852) _was the follower of Gutsmuth because of his contribution for
the revival of gymnastics as the “father of gymnastics”. In his book “German nationality”
strongly advocated a program of Physical education made up of compulsory exercises and
games. He also invented several equipments as horizontal bar, parallel bar, side horse and
vaulting box.
3) Pehr Ling (1776_1839) _ of Sweden was the first to appreciate the corrective value of
gymnastics. He invented a vaulting box or Swedish box.

There was a great movement towards physical education both before and after American civil
war in 1860.Millitary Schools stressing physical fitness and it becomes relevant. The schools
that taught physical education began to flourish and many colleges began to build
gymnasiums. German and Swedish immigrants to north America and other part of the world
in the 19th century helped gymnastics to spread all over the world. German and Swedish
immigrants to North America in the 19th century brought their commitment to gymnastics
with them. The Germans set up gymnastics clubs, or Turnvereins, where families could
participate together. A compromise between the German and Swedish system was introduced
into school physical education programs in the United States by the end of the 19th century.
European gymnastics did not, however, generally appeal to American and Canadian children.
Rather, the predominantly English cultural heritage had created an atmosphere in which
games were preferred to the rote patterns of exercise. In fact, gymnastics did not achieve
popularity in North America until the 1970s, when gymnasts at the Olympics captured the
public’s imagination. Physical education teachers come to our country from Germany and

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other European countries, bringing with them their expertise and different methods of
gymnastics.
1.2 The subject matter, values, and purposes of gymnastics
Gymnastics is a harmonious system of selected and organized form of physical
exercises that are done with or without apparatus. Gymnastics is the art of performing
various types of physical exercises and feats of skills, such as agility, balance,
coordination, power, endurance, speed, strength, and flexibility. Effective conditioning
exercise can be accomplished by calisthenics, particularly when flexibility and balance
are the desired outcomes.
Nature of Gymnastics
Gymnastics has a:
1. Competitive
2. Therapeutic
3. Educational nature
1) Competitive_ gymnastic is divided in to:
Artistic
Rhythmic, &
Trampoline
Artistic gymnastics consists of prescribed sets of events, each of which is scored
separately by judges to determine a winner. Rhythmic gymnastics consists of several
events in which the gymnasts use objects such as balls and hoops while performing
choreographed routines, which are judged to determine a winner. In trampoline,
gymnasts bounce up and down on a trampoline and are judged on the movements
they perform while airborne.
Artistic gymnastics become an Olympic sport scince1896. In this gymnastics women
compete in floor exercise, vault, uneven bars, and balance beam. Men compete in floor
exercise, vault, pommel horse, rings, parallel bars, and horizontal bars.
Artistic gymnastics competition has been part of the modern Olympic Games since the
Games began in 1896. Extensive television coverage helped the sport gain great
popularity in the late 20th century. In Olympic competition, performance is scored on a
10-point scale by four to six trained judges. A level of difficulty is figured into the
overall score, which is then averaged after the individual high and low scores by the
judges are eliminated.
The History of Gymnastics in Ethiopia
Gymnastics in Ethiopia is a popular sport that is growing in popularity. It is an exciting
and challenging form of physical activity that requires its participants to use their
bodies to perform various movements. Gymnastics is an Olympic sport and Ethiopia
has several gymnasts who have competed in international competitions.
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Gymnastics in Ethiopia is practiced in both men's and women's divisions. It is a
discipline that helps develop physical strength, flexibility, coordination, and balance.
Participants in gymnastics in Ethiopia can choose from a variety of events, such as
floor exercises, uneven bars, balance beam, and vaulting. Different competitions are
held at different levels. Gymnasts in Ethiopia can compete in the National
Championships, the African Games, and even the Olympic Games. Gymnastics in
Ethiopia is a great way to stay physically active and develop skills like discipline, focus,
and determination. It allows Ethiopians to pursue a sport that offers physical and
mental challenges, as well as the opportunity to represent their country on the
international stage. In short, gymnastics in Ethiopia is a sport that offers its
participants an opportunity to reach their goals and push their limits.
It is a Sport that benefits ALL Sports
Gymnastics provides a great foundation for ALL sports. Gymnastics develops strength,
flexibility, balance, agility and coordination…all skills needed for sports like soccer,
hockey, baseball, basketball, volleyball and football..
Fundamental techniques of gymnastics

The five fundamentals of gymnastics are Floor, Vault, Bars, Beam and Tumbling. Our
classes at Five Gymnastics in Fulham. At five, we provide great opportunities for
children to not only learn new skills, but also develop their self-confidence, form new
friendships and stay active, all in a fun and rewarding environment. Basic skills
required for the gymnast are flexibility, core strength, balance, upper and lower-body
strength, power, mental focus, discipline, and dedication. Although not necessarily a
skill, commitment is mandatory and is often assessed by gymnastic coaches. Basic
skills can be trained, and most are taught by a coach. All skills can be learned by using
proper technique and having a tenacious attitude. Technique is the crucial foundation
to increase skill level and become proficient with all functional movement.
Floor
Master the basics, improve the big floor skills, perform to music, the floor is an
exciting foundation stone at Five Gymnastics. We ensure everyone can progress and
succeed.

Vault
The ultimate discipline to develop speed and power. Sprint down the runway, explode
off the springboard, the vault is a dynamic and motivating experience. Our young
gymnasts love the excitement and speed of progress.

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Bars
Whether you are swinging on our high bar or transitioning between our asymmetric
bars, your child will build confidence and develop strength. Learn the swings, casts,
upstarts and dismounts all in a safe and rewarding environment.

Beam
Perfect ones balance and build core strength. Our young gymnasts will learn and
progress leaps, jumps, turns, holds, mounts and perform the acrobatic moves and
dismounts. Master the basic skills on our floor beams and when your confidence
builds, progress to the high beams. It’s inspiring.

Tumbling
possibly the most popular of all the skills learnt, tumbling is a truly spectacular
element within gymnastics. Whether viewed as an important skill or simply an exciting
piece of theatre, tumbling at Five Gym is performed on a 15 metre long Gymnova
Airtrack: the best piece of equipment around. From roundoffs and flicks to
somersaults and twists your child will master the art of this impressive discipline.

Let's look at three basic tumbling moves: the handstand, cartwheel and back bend.
These three moves are fundamental to tumbling, and you'll be using the techniques
that you learn from them when you perform any advanced moves. Before you start,
remember that it is important to always be safe!
Tumbling, execution of acrobatic movements such as rolls, twists, handsprings, or
somersaults on floor mats or on the ground. Unlike most
other disciplines in gymnastics, tumbling does not involve the use of apparatuses.
The rules of judge and sporting in gymnastics

The score is determined based on the execution and artistry of a routine with
deductions for falls, errors in technique, and execution. Deductions range from 0.1 to
1.0. Errors, such as time violations, stepping out of bounds, behavior faults, or falls,
are penalized using neutral deductions. For Olympic gymnastics, two judges sit on the
D Panel, which judge’s difficulty. Five judges sit on the E Panel, which judges execution.
So, no one judge is judging a gymnast's performance across the board. The team
score is typically determined by taking the top three scores on each event in a level
and adding them together.

This puts all teams on an “even” playing field; regardless of how many girls each team
may have in that level. Gymnastics program assessments are a chance to regularly

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measure your child's skills, like a progress report in school. Held once a month, your
child has time to improve between assessments and then see just how much they
improved by being evaluated by the assessment coach. The athletes compete in either
compulsory or optional exercises or both. The compulsory routines are developed with
varying levels of difficulty so the athletes use the compulsories to develop their skills
progressively. Optional routines are choreographed (put together) by the gymnast and
the coach. Gymnastics is a sport that includes exercises requiring balance, strength,
flexibility, agility, coordination and endurance,” according to Wikipedia. Merriam-
Webster agrees, calling gymnastics a 'physical exercise designed to develop strength
and coordination.”
How do they pick Olympic judges?

Those federations are in charge of nominating the judges, referees, and technical
officials for their respective sports. The International Olympic Committee then
chooses whether to accept the nominations or not. Each federation has its own
process for choosing judges. All gymnasts start on an 'E-score' of 10 before execution
faults are subtracted (if they don't fulfil all basic requirements then the 10 is again
deductible.) How is the final score calculated? The final D (difficulty) score and the
final E (execution) are added together to give the final total score.
In simple terms, gymnasts have two different scores, the D score (difficulty of the
routine) and the E score (execution of the routine aka how neat and tidy it is!). All
gymnasts begin with a 10.0 execution score which then has points removed for faults
such as bent legs, arms and falls.

Scoring basics; The Code of Points was introduced in 2006 to allow for a more
open ended scoring system. It removed the ‘Perfect 10’ (earned by a 10.0 execution
score) but that doesn’t mean a gymnast can no longer receive a perfect score for their
routine.

Judging;-For each Olympic gymnastics event, nine judges are chosen from a pool of
multinational candidates approved by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG).
They are categorized into three groups:

 The D panel calculates the Difficulty Score

 The E panel calculates the Execution Score
 The Reference panel corrects any problems with the Execution Score
How it works
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Two judges sit on the D Panel and determine the Difficulty Score. A routine has a set
difficulty score that is calculated starting from 0 and determined by combining the
total difficulty value achieved through each skill and connection.
Five judges sit on the E Panel to determine a routine’s Execution Score. This is
determined by the execution and artistry of a gymnast’s routine. This score starts at
10.0 and deductions are made for various errors.
The difficulty score and execution score are combined for the final score. A score
under the current Code of Points ranges from 13 to 16 points.

Final Score = [Difficulty + Execution] - Any neutral deductions

To learn more about how these scores are calculated, read further.

Difficulty Score

Both judges on the D Panel individually record his/her Difficulty Score. The eight most
difficult skills for women and 10 most difficult skills for men are counted. This
includes the dismount. The two judges compare scores following the completion of a
routine and reach a consensus, which becomes the Difficulty Score. Elements must be
performed as technically described to receive the difficulty value and can only do so
once in an exercise. Each skill’s difficulty value is outlined in the Code of Points.
Judges award connection values on every event, except for vault, for unique
combinations of elements. These connections are evaluated at 0.1, 0.2, or 0.3.

Composition requirements are the basic skills or elements that must be included and
differ by apparatus. The men define ‘composition requirements’ as Element Groups in
their Code of Points. If all the requirements are included, a maximum of 2.5 points is
rewarded. Vault is the only apparatus that has a predetermined difficulty score, which
is shown to the judges on a scoreboard at the beginning of the runway. The difficulty
score is assigned to each vault in the Code of Points.

Execution Score;- Five judges on the E Panel independently record a routine’s

Execution Score. The highest and lowest scores are dropped, with the three remaining
scores averaged for the final Execution Score. The score is determined based on the
execution and artistry of a routine with deductions for falls, errors in technique, and
execution. Deductions range from 0.1 to 1.0.Neutral deductions;- Errors, such as
time violations, stepping out of bounds, behavior faults, or falls, are penalized using
neutral deductions. Falls receive a 1.0 deduction under the 2017-2020 Code of Points.
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Inquiries:-An inquiry is a verbal challenge of a routine’s score. It is followed by a
written inquiry that must be submitted before the end of the rotation. The challenge
can only be brought forward after the gymnast’s final score is posted and before the
end of the next gymnast’s routine. A fee is required for filing an inquiry and is returned
if the inquiry is upheld. It can be resolved by using video review. A score can be raised,
lowered, or remain the same as a result of an inquiry.
1.5. Safety rule of gymnastics
The first and most important topic in gymnastics instruction is how to stay safe and
uninjured. The following is a list of some of the things you can do to help ensure your
safety and the safety of others.
Be Prepared

As with any other physical activity, injuries occur much more often when you are tired
and/or worn down. Make sure you get sufficient sleep the night before your classes or
practices. If you did not get enough sleep, rest and take a nap before class or practice.
Make sure your body has enough energy from nutrition to last through your class or
practice.

Follow and Master Skill Progressions

It is extremely important to learn gymnastics skills in the proper order of difficulty.

Gymnasts should not be attempting difficult skills without learning all the lead-up skills
and doing any appropriate lead-up drills. Gymnastics instruction and learning is a series of
habits built upon other habits. Moving along too quickly without mastering skills can
ultimately interfere with learning higher level gymnastics skills.

Follow Equipment Progressions :- It is only common sense to work on gymnastics

apparatus in their naturally progressive order. Beam skills are first learned and mastered
on the floor (on a line). Then gymnasts can move up to low, medium and high beams.

Don’t do Gymnastics by Yourself :- Just like swimming and other physical activities where
there is even the remotest chance of injury, gymnasts should only work out when there is
at least one other person around. This means on those home trampolines, too.

Don’t Spot other Gymnasts :- Spotting is an art and requires the knowledge, strength and
experience of a gymnastics instruction professional. Any error in judgment on your or their
part could lead to you being involved and responsible for their potentially serious injury.

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Only Let Professional Coaches Spot You By the same token, you should only let
qualified gymnastics professionals spot you on skills you cannot do and need help
with. You risk potentially serious injury by being spotted or coached by someone who
is not qualified, knowledgeable, experienced or strong enough.
Learn How to Fall Safely
It is probably a good idea to learn or at least know how to fall safely from any specific
skill you is going to attempt, especially new skills. You also need to prepare yourself
by learning how to fall on common types of skills. Gymnastics instruction in learning
to forward, backward and shoulder roll out of front, back and sideward over-rotated
skills is necessary. Practicing front and back drops (on a mat), including with the use
of judo falls (slapping the hands to absorb the force of the fall) is another fall
sequence to learn.
Pay Attention
You need to be aware of what is going on around you in the gym if there are other
gymnasts, especially bigger ones, around. You need to be aware and pay attention to
everything and everyone around you who might crash into you or land on you. You also
need to pay careful attention to your coach so you understand exactly what they
expect of you to learn efficiently and keep yourself safe.
Stop Look and Listen.
Just like crossing a street, when you approach an equipment area, the floor exercise
mat, tumbling strips or other mats and pieces of equipment, you need to stop and look
both ways before you cross or enter to make sure you are not in the way or going to
get landed on.
Build Your Strength to Increase Your Safety Margin
The stronger you are, the less likely you are to get hurt and the more likely you are to
learn gymnastics skills quickly and safely. Flexibility not only makes many skills more
attractive (like back walkovers), but also can make you less prone to injury. So prepare
for your gymnastics by working to make yourself strong and flexible.
Check Equipment First
Make sure all equipment is set and sturdy before you begin to perform any skills on it.
Handles and cables need to be tight enough so the equipment is safe for you to be on.
Don’t assume the equipment is correctly set and tight. Check it and make sure first.
Know Fall Zones

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Don’t sit or stand in potential landing or fall zones. Too often gymnasts waiting for their
turn do not stay enough out of the way of other gymnasts who need adequate room to
dismount or a place to fall.
Don’t Be Afraid to Ask for a Spot
Ask for a spot if you are doing tricks if you need or want it. You are the one most likely to
know and remember if you need a spot or not and it will be too late if you attempt a skill
you are not sure of and fall. Spotting can protect you and build your confidence in doing
the skill until you are ready to do it on your own safely. Don’t tell a coach that you can do
skills if you are not 100% sure you can do them safely.
Make Sure You Understand What to Do
Tell your teacher if you don’t understand instructions on what to do. You should know and
understand exactly what skill your teacher expects you to do and how they want you to do
it. If you are not sure, ask. Understanding will help you learn more quickly and do things
more safely.
Being Able to See is Helpful
Keep your hair out of your face and tie back long hair during all gymnastics instruction.
Hair can obstruct your vision, get caught on equipment or you can pull it on skills like back
extension rolls.
What Not to Wear
Don’t wear hair ties with hard objects, like plastic balls, on them. Skills, like back extension
rolls, or falls can press them painfully into your head. There is no place during gymnastics
instruction in the gym for decorative but dangerous hair ornaments.
This is Not Ballet
Don’t wear slippery nylon tights, like you commonly see in ballet classes. They are not
appropriate or safe in a gymnastics gym. They can cause you to slip on both beam and
bars.
Don’t Be a Bag (gym) Lady
Don’t wear baggy shirts or sweatshirts during gymnastics instruction. Your vision can be
obstructed if your shirt goes over your head when you are upside down. This can make it
difficult and unsafe to tumble or perform on apparatus. Baggy clothing can also caught on
spotters and equipment or wrap up your spotter’s hands.

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Don’t wear any valuable jewelry in the gym, especially into a loose foam pit. You may
never find it or find only by pulling out every single piece of foam in the pit. Take it from
the girl who lost her mother’s diamond stud earring and spent three full days sifting
through the pit and dust and dirt at the bottom of the pit to find it. She never did find the
back to it.
Tight is Right
If you wear socks to class, make sure they fit tightly. You don’t want them to come off in
the pit and get lost. And you don’t want them to bunch up and possible create poor footing
on skills or landings.
No Studs in the Gym
Don’t wear any clothes in the gym to work out with belts, metal studs or buttons during
your gymnastics instruction. The uneven bars are especially likely to get scratched with
these. They can also scratch up your instructor or maybe even you.
Tell Mom and Dad It’s Time for Contacts
Well, maybe that won’t work as an excuse, but if you wear glasses, you need to make sure
they are safe and secure. Wear a strap with glasses if they fit too loosely or tend to come
off. Not only they can fall off and perhaps break, but also they could come partially off and
poke you in the eye. You need to find some kind of solution for your glasses situation if
you are unable to see well enough to vault or to see your coach clearly enough.
Watch where you are going
Watch where you are walking. Nothing is more embarrassing and sometimes painful and
dangerous than falling over mats, into pits, over bar cables, etc. There are lots of
obstacles in every gym like different heights and softness levels of mats.
No Such Thing as too many Mats
Make sure there are enough mats under and around the equipment you are working on.
The harder the skill you are doing the more mats it is wise to have in potential landing and
fall areas. Don’t be shy about going to get some more mats if some area is not sufficiently
and safely matted.
Tell Your Teacher if You get Hurt
Let your teacher decide if you need medical attention, ice, a band aid, or if you can and
should continue to work out if you get injured. Don’t keep injuries to yourself.
Nail It
Keep your toenails and fingernails closely clipped and manicured. The rough and jagged
edges of both toenails and fingernails can get caught on the floor exercise carpet and
cause a
painful tear. There is no place in gymnastics instruction and the gym for extremely long
nails. Hey could break or even scratch your coach.

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 MODULEELEVEN

Health and Fitness

Specific objective
 Describe the basic knowledge of fitness, health and their relationship.

 Evaluate Safe and effective fitness program.

 To provide and apply Health and fitness programs for performance to athletes
and the society.

Concept of Health and Fitness

1. What is Health?
World health organization WHO defines health as “not merely the absence of disease
it is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing”. Being healthy does
not necessarily mean the absence of disease or illness.

It's a wellness approach that addresses the physical, mental, emotional, social, and
spiritual aspects of an individual.
Health is the condition of being sound in body, mind or spirit especially freedom from
physical disease, injury or pain.
It focus on improving mental, physical and spiritual health issues through diet,
nutrition, exercise, changes in lifestyle and awareness of environmental toxins.
Health is optimal well-being that contributes to one’s quality of life. It is more than
freedom from disease is important to good health. Optimal heath includes: high level
of mental, social, emotional, spiritual & physical wellness.
 Health varies widely, depending on income, gender, & age.
i.e. A person have poor income are likely poor in health. Women are likely poor in
health. Older adults are likely poor in health & wellness.
Wellness expand one’s potential to live (quality of life) & work effectively and to make
a significant contribution to society.
Wellness reflects how one feels about life (sense of wellbeing) as well as one’s ability
to function effectively.
Dimension of health
Physical health is important, but it is not the only component of overall well-being.
Different Health organizations recognize and seek to improve five dimensions of

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 health and well-being: physical, emotional, spiritual, social and intellectual/financial
and these dimensions are inter-related.
When one or more of the dimensions is impaired, your overall health and vitality
suffers and your ability to thrive is diminished.

 Poor health may interfere with your ability to answer the call to serve your
community.

The five dimensions of health

 Physical: refers to the bodily aspect of health and health as the absence of disease
and injury.
 Mental: refers to the cognitive aspect of health includes emotional health, the
functioning of the brain.
 Emotional: refers to the persons mood or general emotional state, the ability to
recognise and express feelings adequately, it relates to self-esteem, the ability to
control your emotions to maintain a realistic perspective on situations.
 Spiritual: relates to our sense of overall purpose in life, find this purpose from a belief,
trust or confidence system.
 Social: refers to the ability to make and maintain meaningful relationships with
others, behaving appropriately within the family, friends, social networks, teachers,
and youth leaders.

What is Wellness?
Wellness is “a dynamic or ever changing fluctuating state of being”.
Wellness is much more than merely Physical Health, Exercise or Nutrition. It is the full
integration of states of physical, mental, & spiritual well-being. Wellness is the
integration of many different components of health such as, social, mental, spiritual
and physical. Wellness is the positive component of optimal health.
Death, disease, illness and debilitating conditions are negative components that
reduce from optimal health.
A positive total outlook on life; is essential to wellness & each of the wellness
dimensions. A positive total outlook is a key to wellness.
A “Well” person:
- is satisfied in work,
- is spiritually fulfilled, - is socially involved &
- enjoys leisure time,
- is physically fit,
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 - has a positive look.
emotional-mental

Dimensions of wellness
Wellness is much more than merely physical health, exercise or nutrition. It is the full
integration of states of physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. The model used by
our campus includes social, emotional, spiritual, environmental, occupational,
intellectual and physical wellness. Each of these seven dimensions act and interact in
a way that contributes to our own quality of life.

The seven dimensions of wellness:

 Environmental: good health by occupying pleasant stimulating environments that
support well-being.

 Intellectual: recognizing creative ability and finding ways to expand knowledge and
skill.

 Physical: recognizing the need for physical activity, diet, sleep and nutrition.

 Occupational: personal satisfaction and enrichment derived from ones work.

 Spiritual: expanding our sense of purpose and meaning in life.

 Social: developing a sense of connection, belonging and a well-developed support

system.

 Financial: satisfaction with current and future financial situations.

 Emotional: coping effectively with life and creating satisfying relationships.

2. What is Fitness?

Fitness is defined as a condition in which an individual has enough energy to avoid

fatigue, to live a happy & well-balanced life. Fitness involves NOT only physical factors,
but also has intellectual, social & emotional components. These component interact &
interdependent; SO THAT, if any component differs from normal it affects the overall
fitness & ability of an individual to meet the demands made by his/her way of life.

Physical Fitness
Over the years many definitions of physical fitness have been proposed. Widely
accepted definition is that: Physical Fitness is the ability of the body to function
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efficiently & effectively, to enjoy leisure time, to be healthy, to resist disease & to cope
with emergency situation. Physical fitness is generally achieved through; correct
nutrition, regular exercise, hygiene & enough rest.

Components of Physical Fitness

Physical fitness is divided into 4 health- & 6 skill- related components:
 Health-related fitness components is the ability to become & stay physically
healthy.
 Skill-related fitness components are fitness types which enhances one’s
performance in athletic or sports settings.

This component focus on factors that promote optimum health & prevent the onset of
disease & problems associated with physical inactivity. Physical fitness components
can be improved through a particular kind of exercise.
1. Health related physical fitness components:
1. Cardiovascular endurance: also called cardio respiratory endurance. It is the ability
of the heart, lung & blood vessels and respiratory system to supply fuel & oxygen to
working muscles & tissues, as well as the ability of the muscles & tissues to utilize
fuel & oxygen to allow continuous exercise. A fit person can continue in physical
activity for relatively long periods without too much stress. Cardiovascular endurance
can be measured using a number of formal testing methods including: Vo2 max,
Cooper test (12min run test) & 1.6 mile run test.
 Benefits of Cardiovascular Endurance
 Stronger & more efficient heart (increase stroke volume),
 Lower heart rate at rest, during exercise, & recovery,
 Lower blood pressure at rest, during exercise, & recovery,
 Lower total cholesterol (raise HDL-C), Improved body composition, burn fat,
 Improved ability to perform work, faster recovery,
 Maintenance of a healthy heart & cardiovascular system.

 How to develop Cardiovascular Endurance?

Everyone needs some degree of cardiovascular endurance to carry out normal daily
activities. Aerobic exercise: is the best exercise for building cardio respiratory system.
Aerobic exercise like;- aerobic interval training, circuit resistance training, continuous
calisthenics, aerobic dance, walking, jogging, running, water exercise & swimming.
 Training techniques to improve cardiorespiratory fitness
Several methods can be used to improve cardio respiratory endurance, including:
Continuous training, Interval training, Fartlek training ………….e.t.c

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 i. Continuous training is a technique that uses exercise at the same level of intensity for
long periods.
ii. Interval training: (advanced training method). It is a technique that involves activities
that are more intermittent. It consists of alternating periods of relatively intense work
with period of active recovery. It allows high level of intensity (at 80%) for a short period
followed by active recovery (with 30-45% MHR). Thus, the intensity of work out and its
duration can be greater than continuous training.
iii. Fartlek training (advanced training method): It is a training technique that originated in
Sweden. Fartlek means “Speed Play” (play at varying speed). It is a type of workout that
involves jogging with different running paces & distances over varying topography or
normal road running.

2. Muscular strength: refers the ability of muscles to exert maximum amount of

force against a resistance (an opposing force) with in a single contraction of
muscles.
 Practically, this means how much weight that an individual can lift during one
maximal effort.
 Muscular strength is important in almost all sports. Muscular strength &
performance have direct relationship.
 Sports such as Football, Basketball and Track & Field events require a high level of
muscular strength. Fitness testing usually consists of a one-time maximum lift using
weights, bench press, and leg press….etc. Weight training results an increase in the
size & strength of muscles. Even non-athletes require some degree of muscular
strength to function everyday life.
For example, routine tasks around the home requires muscular strength, such as lifting
bags, moving furniture……etc.
3. Muscular endurance: refers to the ability of the muscles & muscle group to
work an extended period of time without fatigue.
 It is the ability of the muscles to carry on a repeated action or function over a
period of time. (Muscle generate force over & over again).
 A fit person can repeat movements for a long period without too much fatigue.
Muscular strength are closely associated with muscular endurance. As
muscular strength increases, there tend to be a correspondingly increase
muscular endurance. In training setting muscular strength & muscular
endurance can go in line.
 Strength training develops muscular strength & endurance in the same way that
endurance exercises develop cardiovascular fitness. BUT, Muscular strength &
muscular endurance are related they are not the same.
For examples: Muscular strength is a person lifting a heavy weight during one
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 maximal muscular effort. Muscular endurance is a weightlifter performing several
lifts or repetition of a lightweight. Most successfully played sports require
muscular endurance.
For instance, Tennis players who must repeatedly swing their racquets during a
match require it. Many every day activities also require some level of muscular
endurance. Performing push-ups & sit-ups or crunches for one minute is commonly
used in fitness testing of muscular endurance.

 Benefits of Muscular strength & endurance

 Enhanced muscular strength & endurance can lead:
 Injury prevention  Ability to do more work over a
 Improve Self-image longer period of time
 Improve appearance  Less susceptible to muscular
 Ability to do more strenuous fatigue
work
 Improve athletic performance
 Improve rate of metabolism
 Lifetime muscle & bone health

 How to Improving muscular Fitness (muscular strength & endurance)

The development of muscular endurance and strength is an essential component of

fitness for anyone involved in a physical activity program. Strength training exercise
are generally classified as: - Static (Isometric exercise) & Dynamic (the most common
dynamic exercises are Isotonic & Isokinetic).
i. Isometric Programs: is based on the concept of contracting a muscle at a fixed
angle against an immovable object, using an isometric or static contraction.
Isometric training can increase muscular strength and endurance.
ii. Isotonic Programs: Isotonic programs, utilize the concept of contracting a muscle
against a movable load (usually a free weight or weights mounted by cables or
chains to form a weight machine). Isotonic programs are very popular and are the
most common type of weight training program in use today.
iii. Isokinetic Programs: isotonic contractions performed at a constant speed.
Isokinetic training is a relatively new strength training method. Isokinetic exercises
require the use of machines that govern the speed of movement during muscle
contraction (isokinetic refers to constant speed of movement). The first isokinetic
machines available were very expensive and were used primarily in clinical settings
for injury rehabilitation.

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 4. Flexibility: is the ability of any group of joints & muscles to move through a full range
of motion (ROM).

 The amount of flexibility that a person possesses can be seen by how easily they can
bend, twist or stretch.

 A person’s flexibility can vary from joint to joint; they may have excellent range of
motion in the shoulder joint while having limited range of motion in the hip joint.

 People can develop flexibility during the warm-up phase of an exercise program, and
will better maintain their flexibility by re-stretching during the cool down phase after
an activity.

 Power walking, jogging, performing jumping jacks or other low-intensity activities can
be used to ‘warm the muscle’ & increase the amount of oxygen & nutrients going to
the muscles before stretching. This will make stretching easier & less dangerous.

 Factors that can affect flexibility:

 Age, Body temperature (warmer muscles are more ‘elastic’)
 Gender, Injuries , Excessive body fat
 Lifestyle (active or sedentary), Genetics
 Benefits of maintaining and/or improving flexibility:
 Healthy joints , Decreased risk of joint injury
 Increased range of motion , Helps control stability
 Improved hamstring & lower back flexibility
 Reduces risk of lower back pain
 Maintenance stretching, after an activity, can reduce delayed on-set of
muscle stiffness and/or soreness
 Maintenance stretching, after an activity, reduces risk of muscle cramping.

5. Body composition: refers to the amount of muscles, bones, & fat tissue that make up
your body.
 Having a healthy body is to have a good balance between the amount of lean muscle
tissue & fat tissue in the body.
 A fit person has a relatively low, but not too low, percentage of body fat. Having too
much body fat puts an extra demand on the heart & the joints. It also raises a person’s
risk of being with heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure & osteoarthritis.
 On the other hand, having too little body fat is NOT healthy either. People need body
fat to protect their organs, insulate the body & to have as a stored source of energy.

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 Average body fat: for men 15 -18 %, for women 22 – 25%; Minimum % of body fat: (for
good health), for men 3%, for women 12%.
 The % of body fat less than minimum it is risk for health (it may be death).
 Method of measuring Body fat:
 Body Mass Index (BMI);
 Skin fold;
 Waist-to-Hip; waist/hip (>1 risk, =1 moderate, <1 good)
 Under water weight;
 Electrical impendences electric ray

 Body Mass Index (BMI): an index that expresses adult weight in relation to height,
calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squared.

BMI = Body weight in kg = Kg

Height squared M2
Classification of BMI:
BMI  Assessment
BMI values are age-independent
Less than 20 Under weight
Factors that can
20 – 25 Normal
influence body
> 25 Over weight (Pre-Obesity)
composition:
> 30 Obesity
 Calorie intake /Diet
 Calorie expenditure /Activity level
 Genetics
 Illness
 Age
 Metabolic rate

 Health-related fitness is more important than skill-related fitness it is for

everyone! Because, Health related fitness has a more direct impact on person’s
health, quality of life, & life expectancy.

In addition to improving quality of life, health-related fitness:-

- Increases muscle tone & strength; - Decreases susceptibility to
injuries &illness;

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- Improves bone mineral density; - Decreases risk of diabetes &
- Reduces risk of osteoporosis; some cancers;
- Improves posture; - Improves self-esteem & self-
- Increases efficiency of the confidence;
respiratory & circulatory systems; - Increases energy level & academic
- Decreases risk of cardiovascular achievement.
disease & stroke;
- Decreases body fat & improves
- Improves blood pressure;
metabolism;

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 2. Skill related physical fitness components
1. Agility: refers to a person’s ability to move their body quickly and easily. This also includes the
ability to quickly and easily change direction with maintaining balance. Skiing & wrestling are
examples of activities that require exceptional agility.
Examples: - Stepping aside quickly in the hallway to avoid running into someone else
- Stopping, starting and changing directions quickly to avoid a defender
- Stepping quickly on the court to return a serve or an opponent’s shot
- Changing directions quickly to avoid stepping out of bounds.

Enhanced agility also help improve performance in basic activities of daily living, and even assist in
the prevention of some types of injuries, especially fall.
It is recommended that agility drills must be trained progressively and slowly with an emphasis on
technique mastery, before learning the speed of movements and adding complex variations, such
as open or non-programmed agility training.
2. Power: the ability to transfer energy into force at a fast rate. Power is a combination of strength and
speed. Sportsmen and women use power to propel themselves or an object forward or upwards.
In Football: long throw, in weightlifting: clean and jerk and in athletics: long or high jump and
throwing activities wants high power.
It is created by releasing maximum muscular force at maximum speed. By exerting strength with
speed.
Power can be described in three ways: explosive power, dynamic power and static power.
Throwing the discus & putting the shot are activities that require considerable power.
3. Coordination: refers to a person’s ability to perform complex movements due to the working
together of the nervous system and the muscles of the body. This is also referred to as a person’s
ability to do two things at the same time.
Example: - Catching a ball in a lacrosse scoop while running
- Dribbling a ball while moving
- Hitting a pickle ball while moving forward on the court
- Juggling, hitting a tennis ball, batting a baseball or kicking a ball are examples of
activities requiring good coordination.

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 4. Speed: refers to a person’s ability to move fast or to cover a distance in a short period of time. It
is the ability to perform a movement in a short period of time. A runner on a track team or a wide
receiver on a football team needs good foot and leg speed.

When speed combined with strength it will provide power. Running a fast-break in basketball,
moving a racquet fast through the ‘hitting zone’ to hit a ball harder in racquet games, sprinting in
short sprint running and fast reaction in karate needs speed.

Speed can be improved by increasing a player’s power by using trainings like countermovement
jumps and loaded squat jumps are effective for improving speed.

5. Balance: refers to a person’s ability to maintain their equilibrium when moving or when they are in
a stationary position.
Examples: - Performing a v-sit on the beam or on the floor
- Landing after a rebound in basketball
- Re-gaining balance after ‘stepping in opposition’ when serving a ball
- Gymnastically activities are best examples of balance.

6. Reaction time: refers to the time required to initiate a response to a given stimulus. It is the time
relapsed between stimulation and the beginning of reaction to that stimulation. It is important for
starts of races, racquet sports, and self-defence.
 Reaction time = response time − movement time

Example: Driving a racing car and starting sprint race require good reaction time.

Major benefits of good Physical Fitness:

o Improved appearance, Increased energy levels, Increased self-esteem and
confidence, Stronger and more efficient heart
o Increased capacity to do physical work, including sport performance
o Injuries are less frequent, less severe, and recovery time is shorter
o Improved emotional control
o Sleep better (and therefore more energized throughout the day)

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 o Body fat stays within normal healthy range
o Increased life expectancy / enjoy more healthy years
o Improves overall health / all body systems are positively affect
Approaches to develop physical fitness components

Principles of training
1. The Overload Principle
The most important principle of exercise and training.
Overload Principle means that the body will adapt to the workload placed upon it. The more you
do, the more you will be capable of doing. This is how all the fitness improvements occur when
exercising and training.
The human body is an amazing machine. When you stress the body through lifting a weight that
the body is unusual to lifting, the body will react by causing physiological changes in order to be
able to handle that stress the next time it occurs. This concept is similar in cardiovascular
training. If you ask the heart, lungs and endurance muscles to do work not previously done, it will
make changes to the body to be able to handle that task better the next time. This is how people
get stronger, bigger, and faster and increase their physical fitness level.
2. The F.I.T.T. principle
An easy way to get started on developing a personal fitness program is utilizing the F.I.T.T.
principle. This acronym stands for Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type.
 Frequency: refers to how often you will exercise. Determining the frequency of exercise is
important in order to find a balance that provides just enough stress for the body to adapt and
also allows enough rest time for healing.
 Intensity: defined as the amount of effort or work that must be completed in a specific
exercise. This too requires a good balance to ensure that the intensity is hard enough to
overload the body but not so difficult that it results in over training, injury or burnout.
 Time: Time is simply how long each individual session should last. This will vary based on
the intensity and type.
 Type: What type of exercise will you be doing? Will an exercise session be primarily
cardiovascular, resistance training or a combination of both? And, what specific exercises will
you perform.

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FITT Principle Guideline

Fitness and Variables

/or Health F I T T
Benefit Frequency Intensity Time Type
Cardiovascula 3 to 5 times per Moderate to Minimum of  Running
r Endurance week vigorous 29 minutes  cycling, cross-
(Aerobic intensity country skiing
fitness) (60% to 85% of (continuous
maximum heart motion of large
rate muscle group)
Muscular 2 or 3 times per high resistance minimum of  free weights
Strength week, with rest (sets to 20 minutes  universal gym
days in between maximum per session  tubing
bouts capability) 1 to 3 sets of  body weight
6 to 10
repetitions

Muscular 2 or 3 times per low to moderate minimum of  free weights

Endurance week, with rest resistance 20 minutes  universal gym
days in between per session  tubing
bouts 3 sets of 16  body weight
to 20
repetitions
Flexibility Daily Slow & 10 to 12  static
controlled minutes
movement
Body 5 to 7 times per combination of dependent on  Aerobic
composition week intensities intensity  Anaerobic
 resistance
Anaerobic alternate days 2 90% of 2 to 3  Sprinting
or 3 times per maximum heart minutes per  jumping
week rate bout
Active Daily Daily Low to 30 to 60  Gardening

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Living /Health moderate minutes  Walking
intensity  Bowling
References: Manitoba Fitness Council. Active Healthy People: Fitness Theory & Resistance Training
Manual.

3. The Specificity Principle

The exercise should be specific to your goals. If your main goal is simply health, fitness and
weight management, you should focus on total body strength, cardio and a healthy diet. If you're
trying to improve your racing times, you should focus on speed workouts. Make sure your training
match with your goals.
4. The Rest and Recovery Principle
While we often focus on getting in as much exercise as possible, rest and recovery is also
essential for reaching your weight loss and fitness goals. While you can often do cardio every day
(though you may want to rest after very intense workouts) you should have at least a day of rest
between strength training workouts. Make sure you don't work the same muscles two days in a
row to give your body the time it needs to rest and recover.
5. The Use or Lose Principle/Reversibility
The Principle of Use or Lose implies that when it comes to fitness, you "use it or lose it." This
simply means that your muscles build strength (hypertrophy) with use and lose strength (atrophy)
with lack of use. This also explains we lose fitness when we stop exercising.
6. Principle of Individuality
This principle concentrates on individual differences or limits on adaptability. Everyone is different
and responds differently to training. Some people are able to handle higher volumes of training
while others may respond better to higher intensities. This is based on a combination of factors
like genetic ability, predominance of muscle fiber types, other factors in your life, chronological or
athletic age, & mental state.
 Special Exercise Guidelines for Different population
1. Children
Being physically active every day is important for the healthy growth and development of babies,
children and pre-schoolers.
All children under 5 who are overweight can improve their health by meeting the
activity guidelines, even if their weight doesn't change. To achieve and maintain a healthy weight,

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they may need to do additional activity and make changes to their diet.
For this age group, activity of any intensity should be encouraged, including light activity and
more energetic physical activity.
Babies (under 1 year)
Encourage them to be physically active every day for at least 30 minutes by reaching and grasping,
pulling and pushing, moving their head, body and limbs during daily routines, and during
supervised floor play.
Children (1 to 2 year)
Children should be physically active every day for at least 180 minutes (3 hours). This should be
spread throughout the day, including playing outdoors include light activity such as standing up,
moving around, rolling and playing, as well as more energetic activity like skipping, hopping,
running and jumping.
Pre-schoolers (3 to 4 year) Pre-schoolers should spend at least 180 minutes (3 hours) a day doing
a variety of physical activities spread throughout the day, including active and outdoor play. The
more the better.
The 180 minutes should include at least 60 minutes (1 hour) of moderate-to-vigorous intensity
physical activity.

2. Children (above 5 years) and Adolescents

Children and adolescents should do a minimum of 60 minutes of physical activity daily as part of
transportation, physical education, sport, free play and planned exercise. The activities should be a
combination of moderate and vigorous intensity.

3. Aged People
The guidelines relevant to all healthy adults aged 65 years and above, They are also relevant to
individuals in this age range with chronic conditions or with disabilities.
Individuals with specific health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes, may
need to take extra precautions and seek medical advice before trying to achieve the
recommended levels of physical activity for older adults. Strong evidence demonstrates that
compared to less active men and women, older adults who are physically active have: -
 Lower rates of coronary heart disease, hypertension, stroke, diabetes, colon and breast
cancer, a higher level of cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness,

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  Healthier body mass and composition and enhanced bone health; and
 Higher levels of functional health, a lower risk of falling, and better cognitive function.
Inactive people should start with small amounts of physical activity and gradually increase
duration, frequency and intensity over time.
 Adults should aim to:
 do strengthening activities that work all the major muscle groups (legs, hips, back,
abdomen, chest, shoulders and arms) on at least 2 days a week
 do at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity activity a week or 75 minutes of vigorous
intensity activity a week
 spread exercise regularly over 4 to 5 days a week, or every day
 reduce time spent sitting or lying down and break up long periods of not moving with some
activity
4. Pregnant Women
Exercise during Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period
The physiologic and morphologic changes of pregnancy may interfere with the ability to engage
safely in some forms of physical activity. A woman's overall health, including medical risks, should
be evaluated before prescribing an exercise program. Participating in a wide range of recreational
activities appears to be safe during pregnancy.
Activities with a high risk of falling or those with a high risk of abdominal trauma should be
avoided during pregnancy. Scuba diving also should be avoided throughout pregnancy because
the fetus is at an increased risk for decompression sickness during this activity.
In the absence of medical problems, 30 minutes or more of moderate exercise a day on most, if
not all, days of the week is recommended for pregnant women.

Planning and Management of the fitness program

What do you need to do before starting in fitness program?
Starting a fitness program may be one of the best things you can do for your health. Physical
activity can reduce your risk of chronic disease, help to lose weight and even improve your self-
esteem.
A fitness program in only five steps.
1. Assess your fitness level

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Assessing and recording starting point fitness level first, it can give benchmarks against which to
measure the progress. To assess your level of fitness, like aerobic and muscular fitness, flexibility
and body composition:
2. Design your fitness program
A well-designed personal physical activity plan will outline how often (Frequency), how long
(Time), and how hard (Intensity) a person exercises, and what kinds of exercises (Type) are
selected. For design fitness program, keep these points in mind:
 Consider your fitness goals (plan):
 Create a balanced routine: (FITT);
 Start low and progress slowly:
 Allow time for recovery:
 Put it on paper:

3. Assemble your equipment

If you are planning to invest in exercise keep these point in mind:
 Check certain types of equipment were available at a fitness centre. (For example, running
shoes…).
 Developing tools for monitoring your progress (tests to measure fitness components to
compare the result with the initial fitness level).

4. Putting your plan into action and commitment

It is the central point of fitness program. As you begin your fitness program, keep these tips in
mind:
 Start slowly and build up gradually: consider warm up, stretching, work out and cool down;
gradually increase the amount of time.
 Recovery: don't have to do all your exercise at one time,
 Be creative: workout routine includes various activities. But don't stop there, add any
activities you enjoy to your fitness routine. For example: take a weekend hike with your
family or spend on dancing.
 Listen to your body: If you're not feeling good, take a break, one or two day off.

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5. Monitor your progress
Retake your personal fitness assessment six weeks after you start your program and then again
every few months. You need to increase the amount of time you exercise in order to continue
improving. If you lose motivation, set new goals or try a new activity.
 What does a well-rounded fitness program include?
1. Cardiovascular activities including walking, swimming, water aerobics, jogging/running, cycling,
stair climbing, rope jumping, rowing, cross-country skiing, and some continuous action games
such as basketball and soccer, using an elliptical trainer, and taking aerobic classes.
 At least three days per week 20 to 30 minute bouts of aerobic (activity requiring oxygen)
exercise each week are recommended.
 The type of activity suitable for a person to develop cardio respiratory fitness is dependent
upon the person’s initial fitness.
 Start out with moderate-intensity exercise (comparable to brisk walking).
 Participate in cardio exercise a minimum of 150 minutes each week.
 Use the "The Talk Test" to measure your intensity level. You should be able to carry on a
conversation while exercising at a moderate intensity level.
 Begin slowly and gradually increase frequency, duration, and intensity level.
 Through endurance training an individual may be able to improve: -
- Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) increased by about 10-30%. But it depends on
age, health status and initial fitness level.
- Resting heart rate may decreased by as much as 10- 15 bpm by about 4 to 6 week
trainings.

Frequency: To build cardiovascular endurance you should exercise 3 to 5 days per week.
Beginners have to start from 3 days and work up to 5 days per week. Works beyond 5 days can
lead the athlete to injury and trainings less than 3 days per week can’t make it to improve your
fitness level.
Time (duration): A total duration of 30- 60 minutes is recommended and sometimes it may be up
to 70 minutes and 90 minutes according to the intensity.
Intensity: There are two methods that help to monitor exercise intensity they are Target heart rate
zone and rate of perceived exertion.
i. Target heart rate zone

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It is one of the best methods of monitoring intensity of cardiovascular endurance training to improve
maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) training up to your maximum heart rate. According to ACSM
target heart rate zone at which you should to exercise to get cardiovascular benefit is between 65%
and 90% of your maximum heart rate.
To calculate your target heart rate zone
A. Estimate your maximum heart rate (MHR= 220 - your age)
B. Multiplying your maximum heart rate by 65% and 90%, but unfit people should train at their 55%
MHR for their training threshold.
C. Heart rate reserve (HRR) may be used some times for calculating target heart rate.

(HRR = MHR – RHR, and THR = HRR + 40/50% for unfit person and HRR+85% for fit person)

ii. Ratings of Perceived Exertion

It is a system of monitoring exercise intensity based on assigning a number to the subjective
perception of target intensity. For example if your target zone is about 135-155bpm, exercise
intensity enough to raise your heart rate that level, and then associate a rating some “what hard or
hard” with how hard you feel during working.
2. Muscular Strength: Two or three 20-minute sessions each week that include
exercises for all the major muscle groups are required. Using of free weights, weight machines, or
doing callisthenic exercises such as push-ups or sit-ups. Lifting weights is one of the
most effective ways to increase strength. For sedentary people, as little as two
workouts per week can be beneficial.
o Perform a minimum of 8 to 10 exercises for each of the major muscle groups.
o Perform a minimum of 1 or more sets of 8 to 12 repetitions.
o Train strength training 2 to 3 days per week.
o Perform each exercise in a controlled manner through the full range of motion.
o Exercise with a partner for assistance and motivation.

2. Endurance training exercises: Two to three 30-minute sessions each week that include
exercises such as calisthenics, push-ups, curl-ups, pull-ups, and light weight training for all the

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major muscle groups are required. For a sedentary person, muscular strength and muscular
endurance sessions can be combined and limited to two sessions per week.
3. Flexibility exercises such as yoga and stretching keep muscles and joints flexible and improve
joint range of motion. Perform flexibility exercises that stretch the major muscle groups (chest,
shoulders, back, arms, abdomen, hips, and legs).
o Do these a minimum of 2-3 days per week.
o Perform stretches to a position of mild discomfort.
o Hold each stretch 10-30 seconds. DO NOT bounce while in a stretch position.
o Do 3-4 repetitions for each stretch.

Individual & Group physical fitness plan

The 7-Day Workout Schedule Sample Beginner Total Bodyweight Workout

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- Monday: Cardio. - 25 jumping jacks.
- 15 bodyweight squats.
- Tuesday: Lower body. - 20-30 second plank.
- Walking lunges — 10 per side.
- Wednesday: Upper body and core.
- 10 push-ups

- Thursday: Active rest and recovery. - 30 seconds running in place with high
knees.
- Friday: Lower body with a focus on glutes. - 15 glute bridges.
- 30 seconds Russian twist.
- Saturday: Upper body.

- Sunday: Rest and recovery.

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 MODULE TWELVE

SPORT MEDICINE

 Recognize knowledge and basic skill practiced in sport medicine

Essential Sports Medicine Physician Skills

1. Sports Medicine. Sports Medicine refers to a specific branch of medicine that focuses on
treating injuries obtained from playing a sport or performing other physical exercise. This may
include preventing further injuries and disorders from occurring due to an exacerbated injury. A
common concern in sports medicine is concussions and head trauma, a common injury in football.

2. Family Medicine. Here's how family medicine is used on sports medicine physician resumes:
Paneled physician providing family medicine services for family members of active duty military
personnel and for retired military families. Full range family medicine services for active duty,
dependents and retirees.

3. Primary Care. Here's how primary care is used on sports medicine physician resumes: Cared
for patients in outpatient and primary care medical facility; practiced occupational medicine and
assisted individuals suffering from industrial injuries.

4. Family Practice. A family practice is a specialization that constitutes those comprehensive

medical services provided to people corresponding to all age groups and genders. It includes
healthcare coverage for all diseases whether chronic or acute. family doctors.

5. EMR. Here's how emr is used on sports medicine physician resumes: Maintain accurate EMR
documentation of all services given to patient under strict confidentiality. Learn Power Chart (EMR)

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Then Teach Power Chart (EMR) To Physicians Prior To Electronic System Going Live. Assist
provider by facilitating use of technology including EMR (electronic medical records) and PACS
(electronic imaging).

6. Internal Medicine. Here's how internal medicine is used on sports medicine physician resumes:
Teach Internal Medicine to residents and medical students. Perform physicals for various
executives in the community through Executive Health Services Worked in Maternity, Pediatrics,
and Internal Medicine for emergency and non-Emergency ambulatory patients.

7. Physical Therapy. Transported patients to physical therapy and physician appointments. Refer
patients to specialist, such as orthopedic surgery or physical therapy, for additional treatment.

8. Medical Education. Medical education is the education related to the practice of being a
medical practitioner and a physician. It provides instruction and information in the sciences basic
to medicine and in clinical practice.

9. Medical Care. Provided leadership for clinical staff and delivered quality medical care at the
Pocahontas Family Medical Center.

10. Athletic Injuries. Athletic injuries are injuries sustained from athletic activities in active
sporting environments. Provided initial/on-field assessment and/or treatment of athletic injuries
at all home varsity athletic events.

11. Joint Injections. Performed joint injections, arthrocentesis, incision and drainage, and
vaccinations, interpretation of labs, imaging, and EKGs.

12. Level of class. III is often used to describe the level of a class, clearance, or experience in a
tiered system. This may mean a class level such as Calculus III.

 Apply knowledge and skills of sports medicine in their future practice

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Sports medicine emphasizes the importance of physical activity in promoting excellent physical
and mental health benefits but, by nature, there is an inherent risk of injury. Addressing both
athletes and non-athletes, sports medicine works to bridge the gap between exercise science and
medicinal practice for the prevention and treatment of sporting injuries. Sport demands high
functional joint mobility and a strong musculoskeletal system from its athletes, making it
important to consider physical fitness levels. Far too often, athletes injure themselves by
overexerting their bodies. Sports-related medical practices can vary from strength and
conditioning for injury prevention, to treatments such as injections, rehabilitation and osteopathic
manipulation. Common injuries treated in sports medicine practice include fractures, tendonitis,
dislocations, ankle sprains and ACL tears. Once treated, sports medicine practitioners work to
prevent future injury reoccurrence and help enhance sporting performance with strength building
exercises and proper nutritional intake.

Recognize common sport injuries and their management

The term “sports injury” refers to the kinds of injuries that most commonly occur during sports or
exercise, but they are not limited to athletes. Factory workers get tennis elbow, painters get
shoulder injuries, and gardeners develop tendinitis, even though they may not participate in sports.
Sports injuries are divided into two broad categories, acute and chronic injuries.

Who Gets Sports Injuries?

Anyone can suffer a sports injury, but several factors can increase the risk of sustaining injury.
The risk factors for sports injuries include: Not using the correct exercise techniques, overtraining,
changing the intensity of physical activity too quickly, playing the same sport year-round, running
or jumping on hard surfaces, wearing shoes that do not have enough support, not wearing the
proper equipment, having had a prior injury, taking certain medications, such as antibiotics. Types;
-Sports injuries are broadly categorized into two kinds: Acute injuries, which happen suddenly and
chronic injuries, which are usually related to overuse and develop gradually over time.

Types of Musculoskeletal Injuries:- Injuries to the musculoskeletal system that are common in
athletes include fractures, dislocations, sprains, strains, tendinitis, or bursitis. These terms are
defined below.

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1. Bone fracture. A fracture is a break in a bone that occurs from either a quick, one-time injury,
known as an acute fracture, or from repeated stress, known as a stress fracture.

2. Acute fractures. A fall, car accident, or blow can cause a fracture, and the severity depends on
the force that caused the break. The bone may crack, break all the way through, or shatter.

3. Stress fractures. Stress fractures occur largely in the weight-bearing bones of the lower
extremity. These include the femur, tibia and fibula, and foot bones.

4. Growth plate fractures. The growth plate is an area of cartilage near the ends of long bones,
and they enable the bones to lengthen until children reach their full height.

5. Dislocation. When the two bones that come together to form a joint become separated, the
joint is described as dislocated. Contact sports such as football and basketball, as well as high-
impact sports and sports that involve significant stretching or falling, cause most dislocations.

6. Sprain. Sprains are stretches or tears of ligaments, the bands of connective tissue that join the
end of one bone with another.

7. Strain. A strain is a twist, pull, or tear of a muscle or tendon, a cord of tissue connecting muscle
to bone. Athletes who play contact sports can get strains, but they can also happen from
repeating the same motion again and again, as in tennis or golf.

8. Tendinitis. Tendinitis is inflammation of a tendon, a flexible band of fibrous tissue that

connects muscles to bones. It often affects the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, or ankle.

9. Bursitis. Bursitis is inflammation of the bursae (plural of “bursa”), small, fluid-filled sacs that act
as cushions between a bone and other moving parts, such as muscles, tendons, or skin.

Common Sports Injuries. Most sports injuries involve one or more of the types of musculoskeletal
injuries described above. The joints are particularly susceptible because a person’s body places
significant demands on them.

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Shoulder Injuries ,Rotator cuff injury. These are the most common shoulder injuries. The rotator
cuff is a group of four muscles and tendons that stabilize the shoulder joint. Rotator cuff injuries
happen when the tendons or bursae near the joint become inflamed from overuse or a sudden
injury. Impingement. This happens when the top of the shoulder blade puts pressure on the soft
tissues beneath it when the arm is lifted.

Elbow Injuries, Tennis elbow .When you play tennis or other racket sports, the tendons in the
elbow can develop small tears and become inflamed, causing pain on the outside of the elbow.

Golfer’s elbow (medial epicondylitis). This is a form of tendinitis that causes pain in the inner part
of the elbow. Pain may spread to the forearm and wrist. Golfers and others who repeatedly use
their wrists or clench their fingers can develop it.

Knee Injuries . Runner’s knee. Also called jumper’s knee or patellofemoral pain syndrome, this
condition causes pain or tenderness close to or under the kneecap (patella) at the front of the
knee. It is common in runners, but it also affects people who are active in other ways, such as
those who hike or cycle.

Fracture. Fractures can happen in any bone around the knee, but the kneecap (patella) is the most
common, usually as a result of an event like a bad fall or a blow to the knee.

Dislocation. A large impact to the knee can cause the kneecap to be forced from the groove in the
thigh bone (femur) and pushed out of alignment, causing the kneecap to slip out of position.

Torn ligament. When the knee is over-extended or twisted, the ligaments within it can tear.
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are especially common in athletes. They often happen
when the person changes direction suddenly or lands from a jump.

Meniscal tear. Meniscal cartilage serves as a shock absorber in the knee. An awkward twist or
pivot can cause a tear. They are commonly torn when the knee suffers a sprain or complete tear
of the knee ligaments.

Tendon tear. Tendon tears tend to be more common in middle-aged people who play sports that
involve running and jumping. They often happen because of a forceful landing and sometimes

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from an awkward jump.

Leg Injuries, Groin pull. Quick side-to-side motions can strain the muscles of the inner thighs and
lead to a groin pull. People who play sports such as hockey, soccer, football, and baseball have a
higher risk of groin pulls.

Hamstring strain. Three muscles run along the back of the thigh and form the hamstring.
Activities that involve a lot of running, jumping, and sudden starts and stops place you at risk of a
hamstring strain. Basketball, football, and soccer players commonly get them.

Shin splints. Shin splints refers to the pain caused by inflammation of the muscles, tendons, and
bone tissue along the inside length of the shinbone (tibia), the large bone in the front of the lower
leg. The pain is usually on the inner side of the lower leg.

Ankle Injuries, Ankle sprain. You can sprain your ankle when you roll, twist, or turn your ankle in an
awkward way, stretching or tearing the ligaments in the joint.

Achilles tendinitis. An Achilles tendon injury results from a stretch, tear, or irritation to the tendon
connecting the calf muscle to the back of the heel.

Cause of Sports Injuries. The cause of an acute sports injury is a force of impact that is greater
than the body part can withstand, while a chronic injury is typically due to repeating the same
motion over and over again. Sometimes, overuse injuries can degrade tissues and joints and set
the stage for an acute injury.

PRICE Method

 Protection: In this case, protection means stopping the activity immediately and protecting

the injured part from additional damage.

 Rest: Rest the area to allow the tissues to heal.

 Ice: Applying cold therapy (ice or an ice pack wrapped in a thin towel) to an acute injury

reduces swelling and pain.

 Compression: Compression of an acute injury is perhaps the next most important

immediate treatment.

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  Elevation: Elevating the injured area is another way to reduce the blood flow and swelling in

the area.

The ABCDE of Trauma Care

A- Air way. First, the care team should assess if the patient’s airway is patent. If the patient
responds to the team in a normal voice, then that is a good sign that the airway is intact. It is
important to note that airway obstruction can be complete or partial, and can be caused by upper
airway obstruction or reduced level of consciousness.
B – Breathing. Generally, airway and breathing are examined simultaneously. Determine if
breathing is intact by assessing the respiratory rate, inspecting the chest wall movement for
symmetry, depth, and respiratory pattern.
C – Circulation. Conditions that threaten the patient’s circulation and can be fatal include shock,
hypertensive crises, vascular emergencies such as aortic dissection and aortic aneurisms. These
conditions should be immediately identified and managed

D – Disability. The main disability in the primary survey to be assessed for is the brain. Abnormal
neurological status can be caused by primary brain injury or systemic conditions that effect brain
perfusion, such as shock, hypoxia, intoxication etc
E – Exposure. The exposure portion of the ABCDE approach involves assessment of the whole-
body to avoid any signs of missing injuries. During this part of the management, undress the
patient fully and examine the back for any signs of C-spine precautions.

Relate sport medicine with special population and Environment

Disease/ Disorder. Sports medicine of athletes with disabilities includes screening, injury
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the physically and/or intellectually disabled athlete.
Classification of participants varies between governing bodies and is based upon an athlete’s
physical or intellectual abilities as to make for fair competition.

Patho-anatomy/physiology. As with the able-bodied athlete, repetitive use can cause common
overuse conditions, such as tendinopathy and osteoarthritis, as well as sports-specific acute

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traumatic injuries. However, there are certain chronic/acute injuries which are unique to the use of
adaptive equipment in participation.

Amputee Athlete. Following amputation and prosthetic fitting, the skin of the distal portion of the
residual limb becomes a weight-bearing surface where it had not previously been, resulting in
increased risk for abrasions, blisters, and skin rash.

Spinal Cord Injury Athlete. Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a condition that occurs when
sympathetic outflow increases in response to a noxious stimulus that is unregulated. Spinal cord
injuries at the level of T6 and above are at risk for AD.

Cognitively impaired athlete. Common musculoskeletal issues in the Down syndrome population
include joint laxity, poor muscle tone, scoliosis, pes planus/cavus, hallux varus/valgus,
patellofemoral syndrome, slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE), plantar fasciopathy,
tendinopathy, and osteoarthritis.

Environmental Considerations:- Environment factors, such as temperature, humidity and wind,

can present a number of hazards for athletes. Planning can minimize the risk, however a climatic
change can catch an athlete off guard if they are participating in outdoor events.

Temperature Regulation A person’s normal core body temperature is between 36° and 37° Celsius.
If this drops below 36°, the body begins to shiver; anything over 38° is classified as a fever.

Convection occurs when fluid, in the water or air, draws heat away from the skin as it passes over.
Conduction describes the process when heat from an athlete’s skin or body is transferred onto
another object. Radiation occurs naturally when the body becomes warm and radiates heat into
the atmosphere. Evaporation occurs when the body sweats; when water evaporates on the skin it
cools the body.

Climatic conditions:- Climatic conditions, including temperature, wind, rain, humidity, altitude and
pollution, can have an impact on the performance and health of an athlete. Changing conditions
can have a negative and harmful effect on an athlete.

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Temperature:- When an athlete competes or performs in the 15-25 degree Celsius temperature
range, there is little risk to the body. However, when the competition occurs in conditions which
are warmer or cooler than these temperatures, there is need for concern.

Humidity:-When the level of humidity is high, exercising becomes more dangerous. Humid
conditions make it difficult for the body to rid itself of heat through the natural process of
evaporation.

Wind:-When athletes exercise or compete in windy conditions, it can increase the convection. This
can be quite dangerous in cold conditions, as the body cools quite quickly. Athletes will often refer
to this as wind chill.

Rain;- Rain can make playing surfaces slippery and dangerous, negatively impacting of the safety
of athletes. Examples of high risk situations include an athlete playing soccer on a wet field
without the right studs on their shoes, or a cyclist in the Tour de France having their vision limited
by the rain. When rain is coupled with wind, it can increase the likelihood of hypothermia occurring.

Altitude;- Athletes who compete at a higher altitude (above 1500m) will experience lower oxygen
levels, which can have an impact on their health and ability to perform aerobic activities. The body
can adapt to this scenario, but this takes time.

Pollution:- Pollution is a safety hazard. It can be dangerous to train around city areas as polluted
air contains irritants, which can effect breathing. Carbon monoxide, which is a common element
of polluted air, is particularly dangerous. This pollutant can bind to hemoglobin in the blood, which
negatively effects the body’s ability to deliver sufficient oxygen to working muscles.

Guidelines for fluid intake:- The body can lose a great deal of fluid through sweat (evaporation),
which needs to be replaced. Water in the body is needed for thermoregulation (temperature
regulation). Water is also required for blood plasma. Any reduction in the water level can cause
blood pressure to decrease, meaning that there is less blood being made available to the working
muscles.

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Acclimatization:- It is important that athletes identify the different environmental conditions that
they will be competing in as they will need to prepare and adapt their bodies so that they are able
perform in unfamiliar climates.

MODULE THRTEEN

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

1. Describe the mechanisms responsible for the response and adaptation of the major organ
systems of the body to the stress of exercise.

Physical activity in the form of exercise induces a coordinated response of multiple organ
systems.

Musculoskeletal System - The musculoskeletal system is at the forefront. Three types of muscle
fibers have different characteristics. Higher myosin ATPase activity is directly proportional to
faster muscle contraction speed while higher oxidative capacity relates to fatigability. Type-I fibers
are known as slow-twitch fibers. These fibers have abundant mitochondria and myoglobin with
great vascular supply. They have low myosin ATPase activity, High oxidative, Low glycolytic
capacity, Resistant to fatigue, these fibers are predominant in postural muscles as they provide
low force but don’t fatigue as easily as the others.

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Type-IIa fibers are known as fast-twitch oxidative fibers, They have high myosin ATPase activity,
high oxidative, high glycolytic capacity, relatively resistant to fatigue, these fibers are recruited for
power activities that require sustained effort, such as weight lifting for multiple repetitions. Type-
IIa fibers are the middle-ground type of fiber, between the slow but fatigue-resistant type-I fibers
and the fast but fatigue-prone type-IIb fibers. Type IIb fibers are known as fast-twitch glycolytic
fibers. They have high myosin ATPase activity, low oxidative, high glycolytic activity, rapidly fatigue
and these fibers are recruited for high intensity, short-duration exercises such as full effort sprints.

Circulatory System: - The circulatory system plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis
during exercise. To accommodate the increased metabolic activity in skeletal muscle, the
circulatory system must properly control the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as
help to buffer the pH level of active tissues. This action is accomplished by increasing cardiac
output (increased heart rate and stroke volume) and modulating micro vascular circulation. Also,
the action of local vaso-mediators such as nitric oxide from endothelial cells helps to ensure
adequate blood flow. Blood flow is preferentially shunted away from the gastrointestinal (GI) and
renal systems and toward active muscles through selective constriction and dilation of capillary
beds. This increased skeletal muscle blood flow provides oxygen while facilitating the removal of
carbon dioxide. The increased metabolic activity increases carbon dioxide concentrations and
shifts the pH to the left, which further facilities erythrocytes (RBC) to extract carbon dioxide (CO2)
and release oxygen (O2).

On a mechanical level, RBCs that have been in circulation for a long time tend to be less compliant
than younger RBCs, meaning that during exercise, older RBCs can be hemolysis intravascular
when passing through capillaries in contracted muscles. This activity leads to an average
decrease in RBC age since the younger RBCs have more favorable rheological properties. Younger
RBCs also have increased oxygen release compared to older RBCs. Exercise
increases erythropoietin (EPO) levels, which cause an increase in RBC production. Both of these
factors improve the oxygen supply during exercise. Over time, vascularization in muscles also
improves; further improving gas exchange and metabolic capacity.

Respiratory System;- The respiratory system works in junction with the cardiovascular system.
The pulmonary circuit receives almost all of the cardiac output. In response to the increased

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cardiac output, perfusion increases in the apex of each lung, increasing the available surface area
for gas exchange (decreased alveolar dead space).With more alveolar surface area available for
gas exchange, and increased alveolar ventilation due to increased frequency and volume of
respiration, blood gas and pH balance can be maintained. Going into more detail, CO2 is one of
the metabolic products of muscular activity. CO2 is carried away from peripheral active tissues in
various forms. The majority is transported in the form of bicarbonate, but a portion also travels as
dissolved CO2 in plasma and as carbamino hemoglobin on RBCs.CO2 readily dissolves into the
cytosol of erythrocytes, where it is acted upon by carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid then spontaneously will dissociate into a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate. After being
transported to the lungs, a high oxygen environment (Haldane effect), this reaction is catalyzed in
the opposite direction to reverse itself and produce CO2, which is exhaled and removed from the
body. In exercise of higher intensity, the volume of carbon dioxide (VCO2) eliminated per unit of
time is sustained by the effect of the decreased alveolar dead space and increased tidal volume,
as mentioned before.

Endocrine System: - Plasma levels of cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine

increase with maximal exercise and return to baseline after rest. The increase in levels is
consistent with the increase in the sympathetic nervous system activation of the body. Growth
hormone is released by the pituitary gland to enhance bone and tissue growth. Insulin sensitivity
increases after long-term exercise. Testosterone levels also increase, leading to enhanced growth,
libido, and mood.

Function

Exercise has demonstrated many health benefits. Through functional exercise, we can see
benefits in but not limited to: Cognition, flexibility and mobility, cardiovascular health Improved
glycemic control and insulin sensitivity, mood elevation, lower risks of cancer and increased bone
mineral density. Through a properly executed exercise program, the body adapts and becomes
more efficient at performing various exercises. Some of these adaptations are:

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Musculoskeletal system. Increased muscle capillary perfusion, increased strength due to muscle
hypertrophy, increased endurance due to increased muscular mitochondrial content and increased
bone density.

Cardiovascular: Improved contractility, increased blood vessel diameter, increased capillary

density, improved vasodilation and decreased average blood pressure at rest or submaximal
activity due to the increased efficiency.

Mechanism

For muscles to contract, the body must hydrolyze adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to yield energy.
The ways muscles maintain ATP levels is contingent upon the conditions of the body. Muscles
can utilize glucose or glycogen in both aerobic or anaerobic manners. The glycolytic energy
system tends to lead to lactate accumulation and subsequent pH decrease in muscle tissue,
especially in the anaerobic setting. Aerobic metabolism is typically utilized in exercises such as
walking, while anaerobic metabolism participates in a high-intensity activity such as weightlifting.
The major source of ATP for cells is through the oxidative phosphorylation pathway; this is part of
the aerobic pathway that occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane and produces much more
ATP than other metabolic pathways. During high-intensity exercises such as HIIT (high-intensity
interval training), or intense weight training, muscles cycle through ATP rather quickly, resulting in
a pool of ADP as a result.

During rest and low-intensity exercise, muscles can utilize fatty acids as substrates for energy
production. Medium-chain fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondrial matrix. Long-
chain fatty acids need to be transported from the cytosol into the mitochondria with the help of
carnitine. When a motor unit receives an excitation signal, the axon terminal releases
acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter, onto receptors of the sarcolemma. This signal opens voltage-
gated channels and creates an action potential which will pass along the T-tubules to conduct a
coordinated signal deep into the muscle. When that depolarization reaches the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, it will cause a release of its stored calcium ions. When these calcium ions are released,
they bind to troponin C in the sarcoplasm, which initiates unblocking of the actin-binding site on
myosin due to tropomyosin. Essentially, calcium binds to troponin, which causes tropomyosin to

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unbind from the actin-myosin binding site exposing the site, which now allows the binding of actin
and myosin together, which will create a contractile force and shortening of the sarcomere unit.
ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate when the myosin head causes this contraction.

Related Testing:- Exercise capacity can be a useful measure of cardiovascular and pulmonary
function. Impaired exercise tolerance can reflect dysfunction in any one of the involved organ
systems. Symptom onset during a controlled exercise test can suggest conditions such as angina,
peripheral vascular disease, or even exercise-induced asthma. Often, a thorough history taken
from the patient can also recommend these conditions, but a supervised exercise test can be
much more objective. VO2max is a measure of aerobic exercise capacity, defined as the highest
rate of oxygen uptake an individual can maintain during intense activity.VO2max (in L of oxygen
per minute) can be measured by having a subject perform an exercise on a treadmill or bicycle in
increasing intensity. During the exercise, oxygen uptake is calculated by measuring the volumes
and concentrations of inspired and expired gas.

2. Differentiate the physiological metabolic processes that govern human movement and apply
each of these processes to physical performance.

The cells of all living things have ATP (adenosine triphosphate) inside them. ATP is a molecule
that brings energy to the parts of the cell where it’s needed. Digestion converts food into ATP.
Then, very small amounts of ATP are stored — like money in a bank — in your body.

They can be used as needed. But since only a small amount is stored, your body relies on its
metabolic pathways to create the rest of the ATP it needs. Your body has three different
metabolic pathways:

1. Phosphagen system (ATP-PC system) for immediate energy

Phosphocreatine (PC) is a molecule in your muscles that can make ATP in the blink of an eye. It’s
also known as creatine phosphate (CP). And while PC is available when you need it, there isn’t a

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lot to go around. “You store a small amount of PC that you can quickly access for bursts of high-
intensity effort. Think of your phosphagen system as your immediate energy system. It’s the grab-
and-go energy your body needs to jump out of the way of an oncoming train. In weightlifting, it’s
what you use to achieve your one-rep max (the highest amount of weight you can lift for one
repetition).

2. Glycolytic system (anaerobic glycolysis) for short-term energy

“Glyco” refers to something sweet, as in glucose, or blood sugar. Glycogen is the stored form of
glucose in your body. “Lytic” and “lysis” refer to the act of loosening or dissolving
something. “Anaerobic glycolysis breaks down sugar to fuel activity. Like PC, glycogen is stored
in your muscles,” But glycogen takes longer to break down.” After about six to 10 seconds of high-
intensity effort, your phosphagen system’s PC has run dry.

3. Oxidative (aerobic) system for sustained (or long-term) energy

Any activity that requires endurance uses the oxidative pathway. “Your body uses the oxidative
pathway for anything that lasts longer than several minutes. After three to five minutes of intense
energy use, it’ll kick in With the oxidative (or aerobic) system, your body needs oxygen to make
ATP. “The phosphagen and glycolytic systems are anaerobic, meaning they produce energy
without using oxygen. “Without the need for oxygen, they can kick into gear faster than the aerobic
system.” The oxidative system fuels activities such as 30 minutes on an elliptical machine or
running a 5K or even a marathon. “A marathon runner runs at a lower intensity than a 100-meter
sprinter does. While sprinters need a lot of energy quickly, they run out of it just as fast. But
endurance athletes can reach a steady state where they run at the same speed for miles. Their
aerobic system isn’t as fast. But because the exercise is less intense, they’re able to make energy
at the same rate they use it — and last longer.”

What is metabolic conditioning:- Now, it’s possible — and beneficial — to train your body to use

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each metabolic system, a process called metabolic conditioning. “Depending on your goals, there
are reasons to condition your body to use one metabolic pathway more than others. For example,
playing American football involves short, intense periods of activity with rest in between each play.

How to include metabolic conditioning in your fitness routine

The three metabolic pathways are like the three musketeers — when you train one, you’re training
them all. “There’s a misconception that you can switch between each system, but actually they’re
all working simultaneously “The difference lies in what percentage of each system you’re using at
a given time.” well-rounded fitness program will condition all three.

Training your phosphagen system

The keys to working this system are: Super-short intervals (aim for 10 seconds, high-intensity
effort. You should feel like it’s as hard as you can go and long rests in between exercises. If you
can sustain your intensity for longer, it’s not your max, and you’re working the wrong
system. Examples of activities that work your phosphagen system include: Swimming at top
speed, weightlifting your max weight for one rep and wind sprints (running at top speed).

Training your glycolytic system

For this system, you want to feel like you are pushing yourself but you can still maintain a
moderate intensity workout for two to three minutes at a time. Aim for a brief rest in between.
Activities that train your glycolytic system include: basketball, circuit training, and interval running
alternating faster running with walking or a light jog and high-intensity interval training).

Training your oxidative system

Aerobic system training should last much longer than training the other systems. “You should
take shorter breaks because the intensity is low enough to do repeated bouts. Aim for a few hours
each week. You can break that down by doing about 20 to 30 minutes of exercise, three to five
times per week. Examples of aerobic activities include:

MODULE FORTEEN

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 INTRODUCTION AND STRUCTURE OF COACHING
1.1 What is the Concepts coaching?

The term ‘coaching’ is often used to cover a wide range of activities, usually to help someone
prepare for something. Coaching in sport has been described as the organized provision of
assistance to an individual athlete or group of athletes in order to help them develop and
improve.
Coaching involves teaching, training, instructing and many more. It is not simply about helping
people to learn sports skills, improve performance and reach their potential. It is also about
recognizing, understanding, respecting and providing for the other needs of athletes. These needs
are many and cover a wide range such as social and emotional needs, as well as the more obvious
needs related to training and competition.
As a good coach you should have:
 A code of behavior based on a code of ethics which places the rights and needs of your
athletes before those of yourself.
 To develop a caring and continuing relationship with the athletes you coach.
* Note that participation in sport is a social process. Your coaching will therefore have great
power to shape the lives of your athletes through this social process.
Coaching is a very difficult task and requires a specialized person or a professional i.e.coach. To
coach simply mean "to give instruction or advise." The coachis a trained individual in a specific
field who gives instruction and advise on `what is to be done` and `how to do`so as to meet the
desired goal. He/she is a technician who has a special skill and knowledge about his field of
specialization.
1.2What are the roles of a coach?

The coach is expected to carry out different roles. His roles are many and varied. The coach is
supposed to act as a:
 talent identifier:

Talent identification is an essential part and a base for good coaching. Coaching will only be
effective if talented individuals (athletes) are included .To do so the coach is expected to
recognize the talent(ability or inclination)of an individual and develop it to its fullest potential. If

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possible they may move in different parts of the country to identify talent and recruit.

 teacher:

This role involves imparting new knowledge, skills and ideas. The coach is paves the way
so that the athlete can acquire new skills. He must be in a position to impart the
knowledge and skill he acquired throughout his training or learning/coaching experience.
He must be ready to teach the skills on the correct procedure.
 trainer:

Being a trainer is a major role of the coach. It is concerned with the improvement of
athlete’s fitness.
 instructor:

It involves directing activities and practices.

 social worker:

To play a role as a social worker, counseling and advising are the matter of the crux.
Athletes as a human being may face different problems ranging from simple societal one
to more complex psychological problems. Dealing with these problems is a very complex
but vital task that the coach is expected to carry out. No matter how effective the training
program is, it is will be fruitless without adjusting the mental setting of the athlete. Besides
athletes must be informed about their performance and advised how to execute or behave
on a better way. In doing so counseling and advising are very important.
 public agent: It involves promoting athletics within society and possibly with the media

 Motivator: It involves generating a positive and decisive approach. The coach acts as a
catalyst to inspire and arouse athletes to perform their task successfully

 Scientist:The coach strives to ensure athletes development/success. To do so he

analyses and evaluates the on -going process of the training. He also conducts
researches(action research) for problem solving.

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  Student: It refers to the duty/role of the coach tolearn and look for new knowledge in
his area of specialization.

 Disciplinarian: It refers to creating an environment for each athlete’s self-control. He

determine the system of reward and punishment strategy. He is the one who have
become a role model for proper behavior. He is expected to educate his athletes
against alcohol and drug.

 Mentor: It refers to the off-line help by a coach to an athlete. When athletes attend the
training session, the coach is responsible to take care of the athlete on behalf of their
parents/family. He is responsible to ensure security and safe environment..

 friend:  administrator:

 demonstrator:  manager

 -

1.3 Effective Coaching

Coaching effectively is essential in improving performance. Gallwey defines effective

coaching as‘…unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It
is helping them to learn rather than teaching them.’

Coaching essentially involves planning, doing (delivering) and reviewing (evaluating);

and an effective coach will excel in these main areas.

To be an effective coach it is important for the coach to:

 Analyze their performance against a checklist to identify areas of strengths and

weaknesses

 Recognize the different behaviors exhibited in their own coaching

 Devise and implementing an action plan to change aspects of your own

coaching behavior where required

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  Monitor any improvements in their coaching practice

Qualities of an Effective Coach

Wade (1997) believes that in order for coaching to be effective the coach must exhibit
a number of qualities. He outlines these:

 Effective Planning  Vision and imagination

 Leadership and intelligence  Coping with unpleasantness

 Organization and
 Analytical ability
administration
 Confidence and decisiveness
 Enthusiastic approach
 Integrity and reliability

Developing a Coaching Philosophy

2.1What is a coaching philosophy

In the first chapter an attempt were made to acquaint you with the roles of a coach, some may play
limited roles or others may possess many roles. In coaching situation any or all of these roles are
combined and in all these situations you will need to make decisions. Your philosophy of life guides
everyday decisions you make in your life, while your coaching philosophy guides all the decisions you
are faced with and encounter as a coach. Philosophy is simply the way you see situations and
experiences in your life. It is the way you view people and develop relationships with them. It is also
the value you put on all of these. You already have a philosophy of life and this may be well developed.
You may be aware of your philosophy or you may be unaware, behaving and doing things without
giving much thought to the reasons for your decisions. Whether you are very aware of your
philosophy, partially aware or completely unaware, this personal philosophy is always developing and
will do so throughout your life.
2.2. Developing a Coaching Philosophy
The key to developing a coaching philosophy is knowledge.
1. Knowledge of yourself
It is concerned with ''Knowing Who You Are".
 Why do you coach or want to coach?

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  What do you value most in coaching?
 Are you, or will you be, proud of how you act as a coach?
These and many more questions you could ask yourself.
2. knowledge of what you want to achieve-your objectives.
It is concerned with " Knowing What You Want to Achieve"
It is difficult to make a journey if you don’t know the destination, it is unlikely you will reach your
coaching objectives if they are not clearly known to you.
 Winning
 Fun
 Athlete Development
You may think that all three are important, but which is most important?

3. Knowledge of Your Athletes

It is concerned with "Knowing What they Want to Achieve
 Why do they play the sport?
 How old are they?
 What do they want out of their sports experience?
4. Knowledge of Your Coaching Styles
It is concerned with " Knowing How You Approach Your Athletes "
 How you decide what skills and strategies to teach?
 How you organize for practice and competition?
 What methods you use to discipline your athletes?
 What role you give athletes in making decisions?
2.3. Philosophy and Coaching Objective
As it is been described earlier, knowledge about your objective/what you want to achieve is
important for developing a coaching philosophy. Coaches often list many specific goals they hope
to achieve when coaching their athletes; usually their goals fall under three broad objectives.
 To have a winning team
 To help young people have fun.
 To help young people develop.
All three are important, but which is most important to you?

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With this regard the two coaching philosophies are "Win at all cost" and "Athlete first, winning
second" An athlete’s development is affected by the importance placed on winning or losing.
Striving to win is always important. But a ‘win at all costs’ attitude ignores the development of the
athlete.
It is an attitude frequently used by those coaches who judge themselves by how well their athletes
finish. On the other hand , "Athletes First, Winning Second” place the long term development of
the athlete as the single most important consideration. An emphasis on the development of the
athlete is more likely to produce better performance, greater consistency and more satisfaction
for the athlete and coach than an over emphasis on winning. Competition then becomes merely a
challenging and satisfying way of measuring personal development. The view is taken by many
successful and experienced coaches .
"Athletes First, Winning Second” means:
 the sport is seen as one aspect of a person’s life not his whole life
 There is respect and appreciation of the coach and his work
 Athletes decide with the coach the importance of performance and strive to meet their joint
expectations
 There is respect for the laws and spirit of fair competition
 There is respect for opponents, other coaches and officials
 Athletes reaching their potential are seen as success
"Athletes First, Winning Second” is an easy philosophy to understand, but more difficult to put
into practice. As a coach you must decide for yourself the relative importance placed on your
athletes’ development and winning. That decision should then be followed not just in words, but
by every coaching action you take.
1.4. Philosophy and Coaching Styles
In the past the often accepted role of the coach was to be a dominant, authoritarian leader with the athlete
as a disciplined follower. In the modern world the athlete is exposed to wider views and his vocabulary has
expanded to include the word “why?” This should not be seen as a challenge of the coach or his position,
but a healthy curiosity and involvement with their learning on the part of the athlete. Most coaches, who
were athletes, tend to coach in the style that they were coached themselves. This is sometimes effective.
To become a better coach you should look carefully at the coaching or leadership style you use most of the
time. A good leadership style comes from your coaching philosophy and your Personality and allows you to

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communicate more effectively with your athletes.
The three coaching styles are :
I- The authoritarian / command.
II- The cooperative/ democratic
III- The casual /liaissez- fair
I- The authoritarian /command.
 The coach makes all the decision. The role of the athletes is to listen, to absorb and to
comply.
II-The cooperative/democratic
 The coach shares decision making with athletes.
III- The casual/liaissez- fair
 The coach makes as few decisions as possible. The coach provides little instruction,
provides minimal guidance in organizing activities and resolves discipline problems only
when absolutely necessary. Coaches who adopt this style either lack the competence to
provide instruction and guidance, or are too lazy to meet the demands of their coaching
responsibilities or are very misinformed about what coaching is.

Basic skills Key points

Building and Developing  Be confident as a coach in front of your athletes
Relationships  Smile and make eye contact

the Primary Skill of Coaching  Show interest in and respect for each athlete
 Use athlete's name
 Coach the athlete rather than "Coach the sport"
 Think about what you are going to say.

Instruction and Explanation  Gain attention

 Keep it simple
the ‘Telling’ Skill of Coaching
 Group athletes according to numbers, ability & activity
 Check for understanding

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  Decide purpose and type of demonstration
 Position so all can see and hear
Demonstrations
 Focus on one or two key points
the ‘Showing’ Skill of Coaching  Silent demo- repeated several times from d/t directions
 Ask "would you like to try that, or would you like to see ?
 Break the action down into phases
 Observe several times from several directions
Observe and Analyze
 Compare with your technical model
the ‘Seeing’ Skill of Coaching  Identify what's correct and incorrect
 Decide what action to take , if any
 Observe several times before giving feedback
 Identify and reinforce what the athlete did correctly
Providing Feedback
 Ask question to raise self -awareness
the ‘Teaching’ Skill of Coaching  Limit to one or two key important points
 Keep it positive.

4.1. Planning the Training Program

One of the most important responsibilities of the coach is planning the training program. it involves a
written document that guides the coach and the athlete throughout training and competition.
Planning is essential to improve performance. It is related with how to prioritize and sequence
the components of training to get the advantage of what is called training adaptation in sport
science.. In fitness it is clear that if you want to improve your performance ,you can't train the
same way all the time. If you do, your body would simply adapt to the training you were doing, your
fitness would remain the same(unchanged).Hoping to perform better with unchanged training
program is like to expect to become a Maths specialist with basic knowledge of mathematical
operations.
To progress you could simply increase your volume ,intensity and frequency of training over time.
As long as you are doing in the right way, you would get improvement. If there is an improvement
in fitness, then there is an improvement in performance. As a coach ,our primary goal is to help
athletes develop and improve performance ,therefore we need to have a clear plan in advance on

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what we are going to do to help them improve. Coaching without planning is wasting time or
worse. On the other hand inappropriate/ poor plan may cause :
 injury,
 long term damage, and/or
 may force the athlete to quit the sport.
Training should be organized and planned in advance of a competition. It should consider
the athlete’s stages of development, potential, performance and calendar of competition. Training
program has to be simple, suggestive, and above all flexible as its content can be modified to
meet the athletes rate of progress and need.

4.2 What is Periodisation?

Definition
Periodization is the division of the training program into a number of periods of time.
It is a systematic planning of a training program.
The aim of per iodization is to bring athletes to their peak performance level at the appropriate
time in the season.
The time available for training can be divided into specific periods. Each of these periods will have
specific training objectives. The three main periods to any training program are:
 A preparation period..................."pre season"
 A competition period..................".in season"
 A transition period......................."off season"/"post season"
The sum of these periods makes up a larger cycle of training known as a macrocycle. The time
available for training (macrocycle) could be twelve weeks, six months, one year or two year or four
year(i.e. Olympic plan) or any other amount.

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 Planning for peaking an athlete for two major competitions is called double periodization.
Some training programs may even employ triple periodization
4.3. The structure of macro cycle.
 The Preparation Period
The first period of any training program is the preparation period. it is the longest training period in
athletics. In this period the athlete will move gradually from very general to specific training. The
main objective of the period is to prepare the athlete for the competition period. The general
training can be thought of as a foundation of ‘training to train’ All round general fitness is
developed by gradually increasing the volume of training. This general fitness will allow the athlete
to do the more demanding specific training which follows without injury. Volume should not
increase in a straight line, but in steps to allow time for recovery, adaptation and
overcompensation.
The beginning of the preparation period is the best time to introduce new techniques or modify
existing skills.
 The Competition Period
In the competition period the volume of training is gradually reduced and the intensity is increased..
The training during this period is most related to the characteristics of competition. Training loads
should be heavy enough to keep the athlete’s fitness improving and light enough to keep the
athlete enthusiastic and with high energy levels for competition. Athletes will have an athletic
shape. ‘Athleticshape’ refers to how fit an athlete is for his chosen event. This athletic shape
should be at its highest in the last part of the competition period.
 The Transition Period
The transition period comes at the end of a period of planned training and can be thought of as an
‘active rest’. The main objectives of the transition period are to allow the athlete an opportunity to
recover mentally and physically from the training loads of the preparation and competition periods.
Athletes should be encouraged to try different types of low volume, low intensity activities away
from the usual training environment. The activity should provide change and allow the athlete to
return to his sport refreshed and eager to resume training for the following season. The transition
period is also a useful time for the coach and athlete to evaluate what was achieved and to make
plans for the future.
4.3 Planning the Session.
Planning the training session is the basic building block of coaching. In the training session skills

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are learned, conditioning and fitness are achieved and confidence is developed. Each session
should contain the following progression:
 Warm up
 Skill unit
Work out/Main Part/
 Fitness unit
 Cool down
A. The Warm Up
The warm up starts slowly and gradually involves all muscles and body parts in exercise
which prepares the athlete mentally and physically for the units which follow.
All exercises should be ones that the athlete can do well. The effective warm up should
progress from:
 slow to fast
 active to dynamic
 general to the specific and
 simple to more complex
The warm up is not the time to teaching skills ,but the coach can provide feedback on the
correct movement.
B. Skills Unit
In this unit, athlete will practice known skills and they willlearn new skill. If there is no new
skill is being introduced, and conditioning is the main objective of the session, athletes may
move straight from the warm up to the fitness unit.
C. Fitness Unit
This unit involves physical conditioning activities which are specific to the needs of the
athlete’s development. These activities may involve running, jumping, weight training or
other resistance work.
D. Cool Down
The cool down gradually reduces the body’s temperature and heart rate and speeds up the recovery
and adaptation process before the next training session.
It also provides an opportunity for the coach and athlete to evaluate the session. An
effective cool down is as important as the warm up.
4.3.1. Principles of effective training sessions

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When designing your training session try to consider some of the following principles
1. Keep all active
 The athlete should be active, rather than a passive viewer or listener
2. Use all 5 skills of coaching
 Before the session decide what you will work on – as a coach on your skills of coaching
3. Give clear, concise instructions and goals
 Learning improves when the athlete knows what is expected of him -demonstrations help
improve accuracy of instruction
4. Recognize progress
 Beginners perform better when they are informed of their progress - drills and exercises
sho4uld allow measurement or recognition by which the coach and athlete can assess
progress
5. Give positive feedback
 Emphasize and reward things the athlete is doing well
6. Provide variety
 Maintain interest by varying activities - prevent boredom by using short time periods for
instruction
7. Encourage enjoyment
 Training sessions should be focused fun and enjoyable
8. Create progressions
 Learning is enhanced if it progresses from
- known to unknown
- Simple to complex
- General to specific
9. Plan optimal use of resources
 Make sure that whatever resources you have available they are all used - if you do not have
the correct equipment consider improvising with what is available
10. Allow for individual differences
 Allow for different learning rates and in the different ways people learn. Take into account
different capacities for work.

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 MODULE FIFTEEN
INTRODUCTION TO SPORT MANAGEMENT

Definition of organization

 Different scholars have defined organization in different forms. Among those the
following are the main concepts

 Organization is the association of person grouped together around the specific

goals

 It is a group of people identified by shared interest or purpose

 Individuals and groups operate elements in to a unit of structure.

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  It is the assemblage of individuals who perform distinct but interrelated and co
coordinated functions in order that one or more tasks may be completed on
continual base.

 An organization is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or

an association that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment.

 There are a variety of legal types of organizations,

including corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, Sports

Organization, political organizations, international organizations, armed
forces, charities, not-for-profit corporations, partnerships, cooperatives,
and educational institutions.

Definition of management

Management is executive (operational) function that concerns itself with carrying out
polices laid down by the administration, while administration concerns in self with the
overall determination of major policy and objectives.

Management is accountable to administration.

Management is any other science and has theories and principles which guide the day to
day managerial practices and activities of managers.

At the same time it in an art and it requires the ability and skill of the managers to
appropriately fit and apply the theories and principle in light of the existing
organizational and environmental realities and Circumstance.

Management is the art of setting things done with and through people, also leads
finance and time.

Management is both a science and an art which using people, material and
resources to attain the objectives of organization effectively.

The interdependence between organization, management and administration can

express as follows,

organization is a machine which in working by management to achieve the

objectives set by the administration

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 Organization is a machine sport
production

Management is a coordinating functions and

services

Administration is a directing process

Organization is the association of person grouped together around the specific

goals

Administration is a directing process carried on within the organizational setting

Management is both a science and an art which using people, material and
resources to attain the objectives of organization effectively.

Sport organization is the association of person grouped together about the sport
goals

Sport administration is a directing process carried on within the sport

organizational setting

According to P. Chelladurari

Sports administrators help to ensure the smooth running of a sports organization, which
may range from reception work at a local sports club to marketing or human resources at
a major sports club. There are also opportunities in sports funding bodies and local
authority sports development.

Sports management can be defined as the coordination of resources, technologies,

processes, personnel and situational contingencies for the efficient sport
production and exchange of sports services.

Functions of Management

1-Planning- It is a decision what to be done

2-Organizing- Answer the question how things to be done.

3-Directing - People‘s need interaction to carryout organizational tasks.

4-Controlling – Checking the planned activities, what plains implementing

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5-Staffing - Staffing is a function of properly manning an organization.

6-Coordinating 7-Reporting 8-Budgeting 9-Recruiting 10-Motivating

METHODS OF ORGANIZING A TOURNAMENT

Tournament

A tournament has several goals beyond determining a winner.

It is important to promote fair competition and to provide opportunities for

participation beyond a one-even elimination.

All of those goals must be met in a manner that is consistent with space, facilities,
equipment.

Thus planners have developed several standard scheduling techniques to structure

tournament.

The standard procedures are also useful for creative management.

Types of tournaments

1. Knockout/Elimination/ 3. Combination tournament

2. Round robin/League/

Knockout or elimination tournament

A. Single knockout C. Consolation tournaments

B. Double knockout

II. League or round robin tournament

 Single league  Double league

III. Combination tournament

o Knockout followed by knockout

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 o Knockout followed by league o League followed by knockout

o League Followed by league

I. Knockout or elimination tournament

A/ Single elimination /tournament/

This form of organization is the most economical from stand point of time in
determining the winner player or a team usually a drawing for position takes place,
with provisions for seeding the better players or teams on the basis of past
performance.

Such seeding provides more intense competition as the tournament moves

forward the final.

Under such structure, byes are awarded in the first round of play whenever the
number of entrants / competitors/ does not fall in to units to the power of two
(i.e.2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc.)

The number of byes is determined by subtracting the number of entrants from the
next higher power of two.

Although such tournament is a time saver it possesses a flaw because it does not
adequately select the second and third place winners.

Method of structuring byes

Under such structure, byes are awarded in the first round of play whenever the number
of entrants / competitors/ does not fall in to units to the power of two (i.e.2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64, etc.)

The number of byes is determined by subtracting the number of entrants from the
next higher power of two.

Although such tournament is a time saver it possesses a flaw because it does not
adequately select the second and third place winners.

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o When the number of teams are not the power of two byes must be given. e.g. (2, 4, 8,
16, 32 etc)

o When the number of competitors falls on the power of two there are no byes needed.

o To determine the number of byes subtract number of teams from the next power of
two and placing in to the upper and lower half.

o Byes must be given at the first round to keep the advantage of the teams.

a. When there is even number of bye

NB represents number of byes

NB = upper 4 = 2 byes upper

2 2
NB = lower 4 = 2 byes lower
2 2
b. When there is odd number of byes nb 1
NB +1 = upper 1+1 = 1 byes upper
2 2
NB-1 = lower 1-1 = 0 byes lower
2 2

Number of Total Number of Number of

teams number of byes in byes in t
byes upper half lower half

4 No bye ------- -------

5 8-5=3 2 1

6 8-6=2 1 1

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 9 16-9=7 4 3

12 16-12=4 2 2

After determined the number of byes write the number (symbol) vertically and indicate
the position of byes, then draw a lot to get their representative number (symbol)

A bye D bye

B E bye

Methods to determine the number of play N- 1

N- Represents number of teams or competitors E.g. If there are 8 teams the number of
competition will be 8-1 = 7 there for there are seven competitions between eight teams
when we conducting single knockout tournament.

Round I Round II final

4 competitions 2 competitions 1 competition

Grouping of teams in the upper and lower half

A. When there are even numbers of teams.

E.g. If the number of teams are six A,B.C, D,E,F

N/2 upper 6/2 = 3 ABC upper

N/2 lower 6/2 = 3 DEF lower

B. Double elimination /tournament/

In double elimination tournament a team must be between twice to be eliminated. The
play continues until the team has been twice defeated. The double elimination ensures
players at least two opportunities to participate and to provide for a champion and a
runner-up. The double elimination tournament avoids some of the weaknesses of the

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single elimination, because it is necessary for a team or individual to lose twice before
being eliminated.
This also characteristics of various types of consolation elimination tournaments that
permit the player of a team play more than once. In some consolation tournaments, all
players or teams who lose in the first round and those who because they received a bye,
did not lose until the second round get to play again to determine a consolation winner.
C. Consolation tournaments
In single elimination knockout tournament, a team has only one chance to play and if that
opportunity is lost either through the absence of the player or unforeseen circumstances
the team loses never to get opportunity to present their ability in the tournaments. To
overcome handicaps consolation tournament are arranged by which the losers play a
consolation round and vindicate their worth. In a consolation tournament each team shall
at least twice.
II. Round robin /league/ tournament
The round robin tournament is probably one of the most widely used and one of the best
types of competitive structure, because it allows for maximal ply.
To decide the number of Competitions in single league we can use the following formula
Or n represents number of teams 1+2+3+4+5 = Cancel the highest number If the teams
are five cancel the highest number and add the rest numbers. 1+2+3+4=10 Therefore
number of competition will be ten. In league tournament we can use cyclic and tabular
methods for designing the program and for register scores.
Cyclic method
Cyclic method used for preparing rounds and programs. There is a formula for even and
odd number of teams. The following can be describe in detail
For even number of teams
To drown up a round robin schedule, place as many as numbers as there are teams in two
vertical lines or vertical columns. The number should be arrived consecutively drown the
first column down and up the second column with each number representing the team.
The arrangement provides the pairing of the first round. To obtain pairing for the
subsequent round rotate the number clockwise (anticlockwise) direction around one of
the number that remains fixed.

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For odd number of teams
When there are add number of teams we can apply the cyclic method. The same plan is
used as even number of teams. In this case the bye should be placed in one of the
position and the other rotated about it. The number opposite the bye signifies the team
that receives the bye in that particular period.
Tabular method
Tabular method can used for register the scores of each team on the chart and it shows
the points and the positions of the team Let us see examples how can we register and
calculate results in a given chart.
III. Combination tournament
Combination tournament can be applied with connecting (one follow the other) knockout
and league tournament. In the first pool teams play in one type of tournament and the
winner teams allowed to play in different forms of tournaments.
They can be formed as follows,
a. knockout followed by knockout c. League followed by leagues.
b. Knockout followed by league. d. League followed by knockout
A. Knockout followed by knocks out
In this method you grouped the teams according to
 The number of teams that can be manageable
 The time that can be accomplished with in the given period
 The level of the teams
Based on the level of teams you can Use grouping by a lot or by seeding. We can group
teams in to equal pools. If the teams are not grouped equally the number of teams should
not be make difference more than one number.
Activity
1. Construct a structure in Knockout followed by knocks out tournament for twenty-
four teams.
B. Knockout followed by league
As we indicate in the above (1st knockout) we take only the winners and form league
tournament structure.
C. league followed by league

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In league followed by league tournament we grouped teams in the 1st round according to
the number of teams and each pool play each other in single league tournament. The
winner of each pool groped in one pool to continue the champion in the 2nd league
tournament. League followed by league tournament can apply in inter class competitions
which can organize within the semester. Let as see competitions between grades 5th -8
th .
D. league followed by knock out
In league followed by knockout tournament in more desirable type mostly It is a type of
world foot-ball cup championship 1. In this type of tournament at the first round teams
play each other in their pool with in league tournament. The winners or both the winners
and the runner up teams construct knock out structure in the 2nd round. From the above
we have seen league followed by league. The same plan is used to construct league and
we construct the winners in knock out tournament. This type of tournament is commonly
used in world football cup.
EVENT AND SERVICES MANAGEMENT
Identification of events/ services:-An event may be defined as anything that happen
Oxford Dictionary While this is very wide it has to be all embracing to allow for the innate
universality referred to earlier.

Events can range from a local competition to a 10-day international championship

featuring teams from throughout the world. A special event is a one-off happening
designed to meet specific needs at any given time
The purpose of the event
Consideration of recent trends has identified quite clearly that the majorities, amongst
others, have been able to identify quite specific purposes for holding events. This is the
crucial point to all good events—having a genuine reason to hold them. Even for a fairly
small event, there is going to have to be a significant commitment by staff or volunteers.
This is not going to happen
for an event which is not seen as genuinely worthwhile, beneficial and serving some
useful purpose within a wider scale of operation. There must be a clear purpose which is
clearly understood to all participants.
Special Events—the Art and Science of Celebration

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This aim may be quite general and long term but it should be public and widely supported:
• To encourage the identification of…as a venue for events in the sports field;
• To encourage visitors to come to…;
• To boost the participation levels of the local population in…
All the above, and many others, may be worthwhile aims in setting up sports events. The
key point is that there must be a clearly stated aim, otherwise the event should not
happen.
Events demand a lot of concentrated effort and commitment. This commitment can only
come out of a genuine belief, in all the participants, that they are worthwhile and they will
be beneficial in the long term.
Types of sports events
1. Competitions 2. Tournaments
3. Training camps, 4. Coaching courses
5. Sponsored events 6. Field trips,
7. Expeditions, 8. Outdoor education
Preparation of conduct of events/ proving service
How, then, do we do it?
1 Have an aim and a set of specific objectives
2 Examine all the event questions and issues.
3 Identify all the right requirements.
4 Recruit the personnel and take all the necessary steps to get these items carried out.
Sport Facility and Event Management

Types of Facilities

The facilities for which they are responsible include

1- Outdoor facilities such as play-ground, courts, and fields.

2- Indoor facilities such as locker and shower rooms, courts, weight and fitness exercise
rooms, and gymnasiums

INDOOR FACILITIES

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 • Locker, shower & drying • Indoor swimming pools
rooms
• Athletic training and
• Gymnasiums
• Sports medicine facilities
• Special activity areas
• Office and storage areas
OUTDOOR FACILITIES

 elementary school • university and college

• junior high / middle school • outdoor swimming pools

• senior high school • outdoor pursuer

Supplies and equipment’s

In addition to sport facility physical education and sport programs use supplies and
equipment.
Supplies are those materials that are expendable and have to replace at frequent intervals,
such as shuttlecocks, tennis balls and adhesive tape.
Equipment refers to those items that are not considered expendable, but are used for a
period of years such as parallel bars, basketballs, soccer goals, and video tape records.
Equipment is two types they are:
• Permanent type – e.g. goal post, short put etc which are used for long period of time
• Perishable type. Which are easily worn out or destroyable?
E.g. nets, balls, racket etc.
So much money is spent on supplies and equipment’s and because such materials are
vital to the health and safety of participants, to good playing conditions, and to values
derived from the program it is important that the management aspects related to
supplies and equipment are well planned and carefully developed.
Determining supply and equipment needs
Supply and equipment needs vary according to the wide range of factors, including the
level of the program, age of the user group, activities being offered, of course, and finance.
Other factors are the facilities and physical plant, athletic training rooms, playing space
available, and number of activities or sports being offered.

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Guidelines for Selecting supplies and equipment’s
In the selection of equipment for physical education or an instruction the following points
will be the main considerations.
 The equipment must be suited to the program to be followed.
 The choice of equipment will be depend up on facilities available
 The article purchased should serve large numbers
 Selection should be based on quality.
Facility Management

Facilities are built as a result of needs, Facility management (FM) is an interdisciplinary

field devoted to the coordination of space, infrastructure, people and organization, often
associated with the administration of office blocks, arenas, schools, sporting complexes,
convention centers, shopping complexes, hospitals, hotels, etc.

Event Management

Every event is a product, an outcome and an occurrence. An event will occur in a specific
year and month, on specific date and at a specific place.

All preparation must be completed before the event begins. Event management includes
the Planning, Coordinating, Staging and Evaluating of an event.

 In general, when setting objectives for determining what events will be held in a sport
facility, there will be a general list of accepted events, but there also needs flexibility to
consider other options that may be financially and socially viable.

Some of the questions that should be answered to set these objectives include:-

 What does the sport facility management ownership want to achieve by hosting
the event?

 Who are your target audiences and participants? Is there an understanding of the
history of the potential event?

 Does the event have a track record of success or failure?

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  Does the sport facility have access to partnerships that can aid in the success of
the event?

 Is there support from key stakeholders and partners for hosting the event in the
sport facility?

 After objectives are understood, the sport facility needs to develop concepts of
how they view these potential events in their facility.

 This includes the functions of ingress/egress, seating, timing, scale, facilities and
equipment needed, marketing plans, set-up, during event responsibilities,
breakdown, and evaluation processes.

 As a part of this process, the sport facility will develop a series of

 Strategies for success of the event.

Questions need to be answered:-

In conjunction with effectively creating this strategy, three main questions need to be
answered

 What is the importance of the event to the sport facility and the community?

 What are the benefits of hosting the event to the sport facility and the community?

 Who are the parties within the sport facility (and potentially the community) that
should have input into creating the strategies?

Successful event management requires attention to each of the following areas:

 Recruitment and training of  Alcohol management and

the personnel training
 Planning emergency medical  Box office management and
services ticketing
 Risk Management  Food service management
and catering
 Facility Rental and venue
logistics  Building Maintenance

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  Marketing, advertising and  Merchandise, concession and
public relations novelty sales
 Hospital and VIP protocol  Crowd management
 Securing proper permits and  Parking and traffic control
licenses
 Evaluating the final result
 Contract negotiations with
promoters
Every event need a effective management plans. A management plan should include
six basic steps:

 Scheduling  Staging

 Negotiating  Settling with the promoter

 Coordinating  Evaluating

Critical Thinking in Sport Facility and Event Management

The FM sector acts as an umbrella, horizontally oriented market. Its relationship to the
human resources, real estate and information technology functions of an enterprise
has increased. It should be noted that the number one priority of a Facility manager
(FM) is that of Life Safety and nothing is more important than this. Ensuring life safety
though the number one priority has a myriad of tasks attached to ensure same.

The discipline of FM and the role of facility managers in particular are evolving to the
extent that many managers have to operate at two levels: strategic-tactical and
operational.

In the former case, clients, customers and end-users need to be informed about the
potential impact of their decisions on the provision of space, services, cost and
business risk. In the latter, it is the role of a facility manager to ensure corporate and
regulatory compliance plus the proper operation of all aspects of a building to create
an optimal, safe and cost effective environment for the occupants to function.

This is accomplished by managing the following activities:

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7.5. Ethics in Sport Facility and Event Management

Who is Facility Manager??

In a Global Job Task Analysis the International Facility Management Association (IFMA)
identified eleven core competencies of facility management. These are:

 Communication * Real estate and property management

 Emergency preparedness and business continuity *Quality

 Environmental stewardship and sustainability * Operations and

maintenance

 Finance and business *Technology.

 Human factors *Leadership and strategy

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