Q1.

Define Composting, differentiate between managed and unmanaged composting and

write in brief about the composting basic requirements.

Composting is a natural process that involves the decomposition of organic materials, such
as kitchen scraps, yard waste, and other biodegradable materials. It is a sustainable and
environmentally friendly method of recycling organic waste, turning it into nutrient-rich
compost that can be used as a soil amendment for gardening, landscaping, and agricultural
purposes.

Managed composting refers to a deliberate and controlled process where specific conditions
are created to optimize the decomposition of organic materials. It typically takes place in
designated composting bins, piles, or containers, where the composting process can be
closely monitored and managed. Managed composting often involves turning or aerating the
compost pile, maintaining the right moisture levels, and controlling the carbon-to-nitrogen
ratio to facilitate faster decomposition and prevent odor or pest issues.

On the other hand, unmanaged composting, also known as backyard or passive composting,
involves a more hands-off approach. Organic waste is simply piled up or added to a
designated area without much active management or intervention. While the composting
process still occurs naturally over time, unmanaged composting may take longer and is
generally less efficient than managed composting. It may also be more prone to odor
problems or attract pests if not properly managed.

Basic requirements for successful composting include:

1. Organic Materials: Composting requires a mix of "green" and "brown" organic materials.
"Green" materials include fresh grass clippings, fruit and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds,
and other nitrogen-rich materials. "Brown" materials consist of dry leaves, straw, wood chips,
and other carbon-rich materials. The ideal ratio is approximately 3 parts brown materials to 1
part green materials.

2. Air/Oxygen: Composting is an aerobic process, meaning it requires oxygen to facilitate the

decomposition process. Sufficient airflow and aeration are crucial to prevent the compost
pile from becoming anaerobic (without oxygen) and producing unpleasant odors. Turning or
mixing the compost pile regularly helps to introduce oxygen and maintain aerobic conditions.

3. Moisture: Proper moisture content is essential for composting. The compost pile should be
moist like a wrung-out sponge, but not overly wet or soggy. Adequate moisture helps
microorganisms break down the organic materials effectively. If the pile becomes too dry, it
can slow down the composting process, while excessive moisture can lead to waterlogged
conditions and inhibit decomposition.

4. Temperature: Composting generates heat as microorganisms break down the organic

matter. The internal temperature of the compost pile should ideally reach between 130°F and
160°F (55°C to 71°C) to ensure the destruction of pathogens, weed seeds, and harmful
bacteria. Regular turning of the pile helps distribute heat evenly and accelerate
decomposition.

5. Size and Surface Area: The size of the compost pile or bin affects the efficiency of the
composting process. A larger pile retains heat better and provides a more stable environment
for decomposition. However, it should be manageable enough to turn or mix easily. Increasing
the surface area by shredding or chopping the materials into smaller pieces can speed up
decomposition by increasing the available surface area for microorganisms to work.

[Link] the ingredients and quantity of any five of the following formulations (0.5x5-2.5)

a) Panchgavya

b) Jeevamrit

c) Matka Khad

d) Ghanjeevamrit

e) Agneyatra

f) Biosol

Ans- a) Panchgavya:a) Panchgavya:

Panchgavya is an organic formulation made from five cow products, namely cow dung, cow
urine, cow milk, cow curd, and cow ghee. The quantities of each ingredient can vary, but a
commonly used ratio is:

- Cow dung: 3 kilograms

- Cow urine: 2 liters

- Cow milk: 2 liters

- Cow curd: 2 liters

- Cow ghee: 1 kilogram

These ingredients are mixed together thoroughly to create Panchgavya.

b) Jeevamrit:

Jeevamrit is a microbial inoculant used in organic farming to enhance soil health and plant
growth. The ingredients for Jeevamrit include:
- Cow dung: 10 kilograms

- Water: 10 liters

- Jaggery or molasses: 1 kilogram

- Gram flour (besan): 1 kilogram

- Soil: 1 kilogram

These ingredients are mixed together in a container and allowed to ferment for a specific
duration, usually around 48 hours, to activate the beneficial microorganisms.

c) Matka Khad:

Matka Khad is a traditional Indian composting method that utilizes earthen pots or matkas.
The ingredients for Matka Khad can vary, but a common formulation includes:

- Kitchen scraps (fruit and vegetable peels, leftover food, etc.): Fill up to 70% of the matka.

- Dry leaves or straw: Fill up to 20% of the matka.

- Cow dung: Fill up to 10% of the matka.

These ingredients are layered inside the matka, and the matka is covered with a lid. The
mixture is allowed to decompose naturally over time, typically a few months, before it is
ready to be used as compost.

d) Ghanjeevamrit:

Ghanjeevamrit is a concentrated liquid fertilizer used for foliar application. The ingredients
for Ghanjeevamrit include:

- Cow dung: 5 kilograms

- Cow urine: 5 liters

- Jaggery or molasses: 1 kilogram

- Water: Sufficient quantity to make a 200-liter solution

These ingredients are mixed together thoroughly, and the mixture is then diluted with water
to make a 200-liter solution. The diluted Ghanjeevamrit can be used for spraying on plant
leaves.

e) Agneyatra:

Agneyatra is a bio-fertilizer that incorporates the beneficial effects of fire ash. The ingredients
for Agneyatra are:

- Firewood or plant biomass: Burned to create fire ash.

- Fire ash: Quantity can vary depending on the desired concentration. Generally, a small
amount (e.g., 100 grams) is mixed with water to make a solution.

The fire ash is mixed with water to create a solution that can be applied to the soil or used as
a foliar spray. The concentration of fire ash in the solution can be adjusted based on specific
requirements.

f) Biosol:

Biosol is an organic liquid fertilizer derived from biodegradable plant and animal waste. The
ingredients for Biosol can vary, but a general formulation may include:

- Organic waste (fruit and vegetable waste, animal manure, etc.): Quantity varies based on
availability and desired concentration.

- Water: Sufficient quantity to make a solution.

The organic waste is processed through composting or fermentation, and the resulting liquid
is used as Biosol. The concentration and nutrient content can be adjusted based on the
proportion of organic waste used in the formulation.
Q3 Enlist the following

a) Crops grown in Zero Budget Natural Farm b) Components of agriculture being practiced in
Model Organic Farm

Ans- a) Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) is an agricultural practice that emphasizes
natural and sustainable farming methods without the use of chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
The crops grown in Zero Budget Natural Farming can vary based on the region and climatic
conditions. However, here are some common crops that can be grown in ZBNF:

1. Cereals and Grains:

- Rice

- Wheat

- Millets (such as finger millet, pearl millet, foxtail millet, etc.)

- Maize

- Barley

- Sorghum

2. Pulses and Legumes:

- Red gram (tur dal)

- Green gram (moong dal)

- Black gram (urad dal)

- Chickpeas

- Lentils

3. Vegetables:

- Tomato

- Brinjal (eggplant)

- Okra (lady's finger)

- Cabbage

- Cauliflower

- Leafy greens (spinach, amaranth, fenugreek, etc.)

- Bottle gourd

- Bitter gourd

- Ridge gourd

4. Fruits:

- Mango

- Banana

- Papaya

- Guava

- Citrus fruits (lemon, orange, etc.)

- Pomegranate

- Grapes

- Watermelon

- Muskmelon
5. Oilseeds:

- Groundnut

- Sesame

- Sunflower

- Mustard

- Flaxseed

6. Spices and Condiments:

- Turmeric

- Ginger

- Garlic

- Cumin

- Coriander

- Black pepper

- Cardamom

- Cloves

7. Other Crops:

- Sugarcane

- Cotton

- Medicinal plants and herbs (such as aloe vera, tulsi, neem, etc.)
These are just some examples of crops that can be grown in Zero Budget Natural Farming. The
specific crop selection depends on factors like soil type, climate, market demand, and
farmer's preferences. The principles of ZBNF encourage crop diversity and a balanced
ecosystem, promoting the cultivation of multiple crops rather than monocultures.

B) The components of agriculture being practiced in a model organic farm may vary
depending on the specific farm and its practices. However, here are some common
components that are typically found in model organic farms:

1. Soil Management:

- Soil testing and analysis

- Organic soil amendments (compost, green manure, cover crops)

- Crop rotation to prevent soil depletion

- Conservation tillage or no-till practices

- Mulching to improve soil structure and moisture retention

2. Composting and Organic Waste Management:

- On-site composting of farm waste, crop residues, and animal manure

- Vermicomposting (using worms to decompose organic waste)

- Recycling and reuse of organic waste materials

3. Pest and Disease Management:

- Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques

- Biological control (use of beneficial insects, predators, or parasites)

- Crop rotation and companion planting to reduce pest and disease pressure

- Use of physical barriers, such as nets or traps, to protect crops

- Plant-based pest repellents and natural pesticides

4. Nutrient Management:

- Organic fertilizers (compost, manure, bone meal, rock phosphate, etc.)

- Microbial inoculants and biofertilizers

- Precision nutrient application based on soil testing and crop needs

- Use of organic amendments to improve soil fertility and nutrient availability

5. Water Management:

- Efficient irrigation methods (drip irrigation, microsprinklers)

- Rainwater harvesting and water conservation techniques

- Soil moisture monitoring to optimize irrigation scheduling

- Water recycling and reuse practices

6. Biodiversity and Habitat Conservation:

- Preservation of natural habitats and wildlife corridors

- Planting hedgerows and windbreaks to provide habitat for beneficial insects and birds

- Promotion of pollinator-friendly plants and practices

- Conservation of indigenous crop varieties and seeds

7. Crop Diversity and Rotation:

- Cultivation of diverse crop varieties to maintain genetic diversity

- Crop rotation to break pest and disease cycles and improve soil health

- Interplanting or mixed cropping to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services

8. Animal Welfare and Integration:

- Organic livestock management practices, such as pasture-based systems and access to
outdoor areas

- Integration of livestock and crop production (e.g., using animal manure as fertilizer)

- Utilization of animal byproducts, such as composting manure or using it for biogas

production

9. Farm Planning and Record-Keeping:

- Detailed farm planning and monitoring of activities

- Documentation of inputs, outputs, and practices

- Compliance with organic certification standards and regulations (if applicable)

These components represent a holistic approach to organic farming, focusing on sustainable

practices, ecological balance, and minimizing environmental impact while maintaining
productivity and profitability. The specific implementation of these components may vary
based on the farm's resources, location, and management practices.

Q4. Classify earthworms on the basis of habitat give at least one example in each case.

Ans- Earthworms can be classified into various groups based on their habitat preferences.
Here are some examples of earthworm classifications based on their habitat:

1. Epigeic Earthworms:

Epigeic earthworms are surface-dwelling worms that live in the litter layer or organic debris
on the soil surface. They do not create permanent burrows but instead move through the
organic matter. Examples of epigeic earthworms include:

- Eisenia fetida (also known as red worm or red wiggler): This species is commonly used in
vermicomposting systems and thrives in decaying organic material, such as compost piles or
leaf litter.

2. Endogeic Earthworms:

Endogeic earthworms live in the upper layers of soil, primarily in mineral soil, and create
horizontal burrows. They feed on soil and organic matter, and their burrows help with soil
structure and aeration. An example of an endogeic earthworm is:

- Aporrectodea caliginosa (also known as grey worm): This species is widely distributed and
found in a range of habitats, including grasslands, agricultural fields, and forests.

3. Anecic Earthworms:
Anecic earthworms create vertical burrows that extend deep into the soil and often form
permanent burrow systems. They bring organic matter from the surface down into their
burrows and deposit their castings at the entrance. Examples of anecic earthworms include:

- Lumbricus terrestris (also known as nightcrawler or dew worm): This species is well-known
for its deep burrows and is often found in gardens, agricultural fields, and grasslands.

- Glossoscolex spp.: These earthworms are commonly found in tropical regions, particularly in
the Amazon rainforest, and play a crucial role in soil fertility.

It's important to note that these classifications are general, and there is some overlap in
habitat preferences among earthworm species. Additionally, there are numerous species of
earthworms, each with its own specific habitat preferences and adaptations.

Q5. Write in brief about the factors responsible for the quality of FYM.

Ans- Farmyard manure (FYM) is a valuable organic fertilizer and soil amendment that
improves soil fertility and enhances crop productivity. Several factors contribute to the
quality of FYM, which determine its nutrient content, decomposition rate, and overall
effectiveness. Here are the key factors responsible for the quality of FYM:

1. Feedstock Composition: The quality of FYM is influenced by the type and composition of
the organic materials used as feedstock. A diverse mixture of plant residues, animal manure,
and bedding materials yields a more balanced nutrient profile in the final compost. The
inclusion of various organic materials, such as crop residues, animal waste, and kitchen
scraps, helps ensure a diverse nutrient content in the FYM.

2. C/N Ratio: The carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio is a critical factor affecting the quality of
FYM. The optimal C/N ratio for efficient decomposition and nutrient release is generally
around 25:1 to 30:1. A balanced C/N ratio allows for the proper functioning of microbial
activity during decomposition, ensuring efficient breakdown of organic matter and nutrient
mineralization.

3. Decomposition and Maturation: The decomposition process and the duration of

composting significantly impact the quality of FYM. Adequate decomposition and maturation
allow for the breakdown of complex organic compounds, reduction of pathogens and weed
seeds, and transformation of nutrients into plant-available forms. Properly decomposed FYM
should have a dark, crumbly texture and an earthy odor, indicating its stability and readiness
for use.
4. Moisture and Aeration: The moisture content and aeration during the composting process
play a crucial role in determining the quality of FYM. Optimal moisture levels, typically
around 50-60%, provide a favorable environment for microbial activity and decomposition.
Sufficient aeration is necessary to maintain aerobic conditions, prevent foul odors, and
support the growth of beneficial microorganisms involved in the composting process.

5. Temperature: Temperature regulation is essential for effective composting and quality FYM
production. The compost pile should reach and maintain temperatures between 130°F and
160°F (55°C to 71°C) during the active decomposition phase. These elevated temperatures
help in pathogen and weed seed destruction, ensuring a safe and high-quality end product.

6. Nutrient Retention: High-quality FYM should retain a significant portion of essential plant
nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, while minimizing nutrient losses.
Proper composting techniques, such as turning the pile to enhance aeration and optimizing
the C/N ratio, help retain and stabilize nutrients, reducing the risk of nutrient leaching or
volatilization.

7. Contamination Control: The quality of FYM can be influenced by the presence of

contaminants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, or herbicides. It is crucial to ensure that the
feedstock materials used for composting are free from any harmful contaminants. Care
should be taken to source organic materials from reliable and uncontaminated sources.

By considering these factors and implementing proper composting practices, farmers can
produce high-quality FYM that enriches the soil, promotes healthy plant growth, and
contributes to sustainable agriculture practices.

Q5. a) Pucca Structure:

Merits:

1. Enhanced Control: Pucca structures provide better control over the environmental
conditions for vermicomposting. The structure helps regulate temperature, moisture, and
aeration, creating an optimal environment for the worms and microbial activity.

2. Increased Efficiency: Pucca structures facilitate better management and monitoring of the
vermicomposting process. It allows for easy access to the composting material, simplifies
feeding and harvesting, and promotes efficient use of space.

Demerits:

1. Higher Costs: Constructing a pucca structure for vermicomposting can be relatively

expensive compared to other methods. The cost of materials, labor, and maintenance may be
higher, making it less accessible for small-scale operations.

2. Limited Portability: Pucca structures are usually permanent fixtures, limiting their
portability. This may be a disadvantage if there is a need to relocate or adjust the composting
operation.

b) Plastic Structure:

Merits:

1. Cost-effective: Plastic structures for vermicomposting are relatively affordable and can be
easily obtained or constructed. They provide a budget-friendly option for individuals or
small-scale farmers interested in vermicomposting.

2. Lightweight and Portable: Plastic structures are lightweight and easily portable, allowing
flexibility in changing the composting location as needed. They offer the advantage of
adaptability for those with limited space or changing environmental conditions.

Demerits:

1. Limited Durability: Plastic structures may have a shorter lifespan compared to other
construction materials. They can degrade over time due to exposure to sunlight, weather
conditions, or physical wear and tear.

2. Potential for Temperature Fluctuations: Plastic structures may be prone to temperature

fluctuations, especially in hot climates. Without proper insulation or ventilation, the internal
temperature of the composting system can become too high, negatively impacting the
vermicomposting process.

c) Four Chamber Structure:

Merits:
1. Continuous Production: The four chamber structure allows for continuous vermicompost
production. As worms and compost progress from one chamber to the next, new material can
be added to the initial chamber, ensuring a constant supply of mature compost.

2. Better Separation and Management: The four chamber structure facilitates easy separation
of worms from mature compost. It allows for efficient management of worm populations and
simplifies the process of collecting vermicompost without disturbing the worms.

Demerits:

1. Space Requirement: Four chamber structures can occupy a significant amount of space,
making them less suitable for those with limited land availability or small-scale operations.

2. Initial Investment: Constructing a four chamber structure may require a higher initial
investment compared to simpler vermicomposting methods. The cost of materials,
construction, and maintenance may be a barrier for some individuals or small-scale farmers.

d) On Ground Surface:

Merits:

1. Accessibility: Vermicomposting on the ground surface is easily accessible and requires

minimal construction. It can be implemented with basic resources, making it feasible for
individuals with limited means or small-scale operations.

2. Natural Temperature Regulation: On-ground vermicomposting takes advantage of the

natural temperature variations in the environment. The ground provides insulation, helping to
regulate temperature and create favorable conditions for the worms and composting
process.

Demerits:

1. Vulnerability to Pests: Vermicomposting on the ground surface is more susceptible to pest

infestations, such as ants or rodents. These pests can disturb the worms, feed on the
compost, or cause damage to the system.

2. Exposure to Environmental Factors: Composting on the ground surface exposes the system
to environmental factors like excessive rain, flooding, or extreme weather conditions. These
factors can impact the vermicomposting process and compromise the quality of the final
vermicompost.