CONTINUUM MECHANICS

Aerospace III/I

STRESS TENSOR

2025
2.1 Definition and Components of Stress

Decomposing ∆𝑭 into components parallel to 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧, we define

the normal stress 𝜎𝑥 and the shearing stresses 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 :
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∆𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝐹𝑥
𝜎𝑥 = =
∆𝐴 → 0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴

𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∆𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝐹𝑦 ….. (2.1)

𝜎𝑦 = =
∆𝐴 → 0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∆𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝐹𝑧
𝜎𝑧 = =
∆𝐴 → 0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴
The intensity of force perpendicular, or normal, to the surface is
termed the normal stress at a point, while the intensity of force
parallel to the surface is the shearing stress at a point.

The values obtained in the limiting process of Equation (2.1) differ

from point to point on the surface as ∆𝑭 varies. The stress
components depend not only on ∆𝑭, however, but also on the
orientation of the plane on which it acts at point 𝑄. Even at a given
point, therefore, the stresses will differ as different planes are
considered. The complete description of stress at a point thus
requires the specification of the stress on all planes passing
through the point.
In order to enable the determination of the stresses on an infinite
number of planes passing through a point 𝑄, thus defining the
stresses at that point, we need only specify the stress components on
three mutually perpendicular planes passing through the point.
These three planes, perpendicular to the coordinate axes, contain
three hidden sides of an infinitesimal cube as shown in Figure. We
emphasize that when we move from point 𝑄 to point 𝑄′ the values
of stress will, in general, change. Also, body forces can exist.
The stress components can be assembled in the following matrix
form, wherein each row represents the group of stresses acting on a
plane passing through 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ….. (2.2)
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧

We note that in indicial notation, a stress component is written as

𝜎𝑖𝑗 , where the subscripts 𝑖 and 𝑗 each assume the values of 𝑥, 𝑦, and
𝑧 as required by the foregoing equation. The double subscript
notation is interpreted as follows: The first subscript indicates the
direction of a normal to the plane or face on which the stress
component acts; the second subscript relates to the direction of the
stress itself.
2.1.1 Sign Convention
When both the outer normal and the
stress component face in a positive
direction relative to the coordinate
axes, the stress is positive.

When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a
negative direction relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is
positive.

When the normal points in a positive direction while the stress

points in a negative direction (or vice versa), the stress is negative.
In accordance with this sign convention, tensile stresses are always
positive and compressive stresses always negative.
2.1.2 Equality of Shearing Stresses
As the stresses acting on opposite faces
(which are of equal area) are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction,
translational equilibrium in all
directions is assured; that is, σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0,
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 and σ 𝐹𝑧 = 0.

Rotational equilibrium is established by taking moments of the

𝑥 −, 𝑦 −, and 𝑧 − directed forces about point 𝑄, for example.
From σ 𝑀𝑧 = 0

𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + −𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ….. (2.3a)

Similarly using σ 𝑀𝑦 = 0 and σ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥
….. (2.3b)
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦

Thus using Equation (2.3), Equation (2.2) can be written in

symmetric form as

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ….. (2.4)
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧

Hence, for this type of stress theory, only six components of stress
are required to describe the state of stress at a point in a member.
2.1.3 Some Special Cases of Stress
(a) Triaxial Stress: If an element subjected to only stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 ,
and 𝜎3 acting in mutually perpendicular directions is said to be in a
state of triaxial stress. Such a state of stress can be written as

𝜎1 0 0
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝜎2 0 ….. (2.5)
0 0 𝜎3
The absence of shearing stresses indicates that the preceding
stresses are the principal stresses for the element. A special case of
triaxial stress, known as spherical or dilatational stress, occurs if all
principal stresses are equal. Equal triaxial tension is sometimes
called hydrostatic tension. An example of equal triaxial
compression is found in a small element of liquid under static
pressure.
(b) Two-dimensional or Plane Stress: In this case, only the 𝑥 and
𝑦 faces of the element are subjected to stress, and all the stresses act
parallel to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, as shown in Figure. The plane stress
matrix is written
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ….. (2.6)
𝑦𝑥

When only two normal stresses are present, the

state of stress is called biaxial. These stresses occur
in thin plates stressed in two mutually
perpendicular directions
(c) Pure Shear: In this case, the element is subjected to plane
shearing stresses only, for example, 𝜎𝑥𝑦 and 𝜎𝑦𝑥 as shown in
Figure. Typical pure shear occurs over the cross sections and on
longitudinal planes of a circular shaft subjected to torsion.
(d) Uniaxial Stress: When normal stresses act along one direction
only, the one-dimensional state of stress is referred to as a uniaxial
tension or compression.
2.2 Stresses Acting on Arbitrary Planes

The stress vectors 𝝈𝑥 ,𝝈𝑦 and 𝝈𝑧 on planes that are perpendicular,

respectively, to the 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 axes are
𝝈𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝒊 + 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝒌

𝝈𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝒊 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝒌 ….. (2.7)

𝝈𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝒊 + 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝒌

where 𝒊, 𝒋, and 𝒌 are unit vectors

relative to the (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) axes.
Now consider the stress vector up on an arbitrary oblique plane 𝑃
that cuts the volume element into a tetrahedron. The unit normal
vector to plane 𝑃 is
𝑵 = 𝑙𝒊 + 𝑚𝒋 + 𝑛𝒌 ….. (2.8)

where (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) are the direction cosines

of unit vector 𝑵.

Therefore, vectorial summation of forces

acting on the tetrahedral element 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶
yields the following (note that the ratios of
areas 𝑂𝐵𝐶, 𝑂𝐴𝐶, 𝑂𝐴𝐵 to area 𝐴𝐵𝐶 are
equal to 𝑙, 𝑚, and 𝑛, respectively):
𝝈𝑃 = 𝑙𝝈𝑥 + 𝑚𝝈𝑦 + 𝑛𝝈𝑧 ….. (2.9)
Also, in terms of the projections (𝜎𝑃𝑥 , 𝜎𝑃𝑦 , 𝜎𝑃𝑧 ) of the stress vector
𝝈𝑃 long axes (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), we may write
𝝈𝑃 = 𝜎𝑃𝑥 𝒊 + 𝜎𝑃𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜎𝑃𝑧 𝒌 ….. (2.10)

Comparison of Equations (2.9) and (2.10) yields, with Equation

(2.7),
𝜎𝑃𝑥 = 𝑙𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚𝜎𝑦𝑥 + 𝑛𝜎𝑧𝑥

𝜎𝑃𝑦 = 𝑙𝜎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑚𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝜎𝑧𝑦 ….. (2.11)

𝜎𝑃𝑧 = 𝑙𝜎𝑥𝑧 + 𝑚𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 𝑛𝜎𝑧𝑧

Equations (2.10) allow the computation of the components of stress

on any oblique plane defined by unit normal 𝑵 (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛), provided
that the six components of stress: 𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧𝑧 , 𝜎𝑥𝑦 (= 𝜎𝑦𝑥 ), 𝜎𝑦𝑧 (=
𝜎𝑧𝑦 ), 𝜎𝑥𝑧 (= 𝜎𝑧𝑥 ) at point 0 are known.
Normal Stress and Shear Stress on an Oblique Plane
The normal stress 𝜎𝑃𝑁 on the plane 𝑃 is the projection of the vector
𝝈𝑃 in the direction of 𝑵; that is, 𝜎𝑃𝑁 = 𝝈𝑃 . 𝑵. Hence, by Equations
(2.7), (2.9), and (2.10)
𝜎𝑃𝑁 = 𝑙2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛2 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝑚𝑛𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑙𝑛𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 2𝑙𝑚𝜎𝑥𝑦
….. (2.12)
Often, the maximum value of 𝜎𝑃𝑁 at a point is of importance in
design. Of the infinite number of planes through point 0, 𝜎𝑃𝑁 attains
a maximum value called the maximum principal stress on one of
these planes.

To compute the magnitude of the shear stress

𝜎𝑃𝑆 on plane 𝑃, we note by geometry that

𝜎𝑃𝑆 = 𝜎𝑃 2 − 𝜎𝑃𝑁 2 = 𝜎𝑃𝑥 2 + 𝜎𝑃𝑦 2 + 𝜎𝑃𝑧 2 − 𝜎𝑃𝑁 2 ….. (2.13)

2.3 Transformation of Stress and Principal Stress
2.3.1 Transformation of Stress
Let (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) denote two
rectangular coordinate systems with a
common origin as shown in Figure.
𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
The cosines of the angles between the 𝑿 𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1
coordinate axes ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) and the 𝒀 𝑙2 𝑚 2 𝑛2
coordinate axes (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) are listed in 𝒁 𝑙3 𝑚 3 𝑛3
Table.

Each entry in Table is the cosine of the angle between the two
coordinate axes designated at the top of its column and to the left of
its row.
The angles are measured from the (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
axes to the (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) axes. For example, 𝑙1 = 𝑿 𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1
𝒀 𝑙2 𝑚 2 𝑛2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝑋 , 𝑙2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝑌 , ....
𝒁 𝑙3 𝑚 3 𝑛3
Since the axes (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and axes (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) are
orthogonal, the direction cosines of Table
must satisfy the following relations.

For the row elements

𝑙𝑖 2 + 𝑚𝑖 2 + 𝑛𝑖 2 = 1, 𝑖 = 1,2,3

𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 = 0
….. (2.14)
𝑙1 𝑙3 + 𝑚1 𝑚3 + 𝑛1 𝑛3 = 0

𝑙2 𝑙3 + 𝑚2 𝑚3 + 𝑛2 𝑛3 = 0
For the column elements

𝑙1 2 + 𝑙2 2 + 𝑙3 2 = 1 𝑙1 𝑚1 + 𝑙2 𝑚2 + 𝑙3 𝑚3 = 0

𝑚1 2 + 𝑚2 2 + 𝑚3 2 = 1 𝑙1 𝑛1 + 𝑙2 𝑛2 + 𝑙3 𝑛3 = 0 ….. (2.15)

𝑛1 2 + 𝑛2 2 + 𝑛3 2 = 1 𝑚1 𝑛1 + 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 𝑚3 𝑛3 = 0

The stress components 𝜎𝑋𝑋 𝜎𝑋𝑌 , 𝜎𝑋𝑍 . .. are defined with reference
to the (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) axes in the same manner as 𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑥𝑦 , 𝜎𝑥𝑧 , .. . are
defined relative to the axes (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Hence, 𝜎𝑋𝑋 is the normal
stress component on a plane perpendicular to axis 𝑋, 𝜎𝑋𝑌 and 𝜎𝑋𝑍
are shear stress components on this same plane and so on
By Equation (2.12),
𝜎𝑋𝑋 = 𝑙1 2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚1 2 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛1 2 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝑚1 𝑛1 𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑙1 𝑛1 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 2𝑙1 𝑚1 𝜎𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑌𝑌 = 𝑙2 2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚2 2 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛2 2 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝑚2 𝑛2 𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑙2 𝑛2 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 2𝑙2 𝑚2 𝜎𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑍𝑍 = 𝑙3 2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚3 2 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛3 2 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 2𝑚3 𝑛3 𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑙3 𝑛3 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 2𝑙3 𝑚3 𝜎𝑥𝑦
….. (2.16)
The shear stress component 𝜎𝑋𝑌 is the component of the stress
vector in the 𝑌 direction on a plane perpendicular to the 𝑋 axis; that
is, it is the 𝑌 component of the stress vector 𝝈𝑋 acting on the plane
perpendicular to the 𝑋 axis. Thus, 𝜎𝑋𝑌 may be evaluated by forming
the scalar product of the vector 𝝈𝑋 (determined by Equations (2.10)
and (2.11) with 𝑙1 = 𝑙, 𝑚1 = 𝑚, 𝑛1 = 𝑛) with a unit vector parallel
to the 𝑌 axis, that is, with the unit vector
𝑵2 = 𝑙2 𝒊 + 𝑚2 𝒋 + 𝑛2 𝒌 ….. (2.16)
By Equations (2.10), (2.11) and (2.16), 𝜎𝑋𝑌 is determined similar
procedures also determine 𝜎𝑋𝑍 and 𝜎𝑌𝑍 . Hence,

𝜎𝑋𝑌 = 𝝈𝑋 . 𝑵2

= 𝝈𝑌 . 𝑵1
= 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝑚1 𝑛2 + 𝑚2 𝑛1 𝜎𝑦𝑧
+ 𝑙1 𝑛2 + 𝑙2 𝑛1 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 𝑙1 𝑚2 + 𝑙2 𝑚1 𝜎𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑋𝑍 = 𝝈𝑋 . 𝑵3

= 𝝈𝑍 . 𝑵1
= 𝑙1 𝑙3 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚1 𝑚3 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛1 𝑛3 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝑚1 𝑛3 + 𝑚3 𝑛1 𝜎𝑦𝑧
+ 𝑙1 𝑛3 + 𝑙3 𝑛1 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 𝑙1 𝑚3 + 𝑙3 𝑚1 𝜎𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑌𝑍 = 𝝈𝑌 . 𝑵3

= 𝝈𝑍 . 𝑵2
= 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑚3 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛2 𝑛3 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝑚2 𝑛3 + 𝑚3 𝑛2 𝜎𝑦𝑧
+ 𝑙2 𝑛3 + 𝑙3 𝑛2 𝜎𝑧𝑥 + 𝑙2 𝑚3 + 𝑙3 𝑚2 𝜎𝑥𝑦 ….. (2.18)

Equations (2.16) and (2.18) determine the stress components

relative to rectangular axes (𝑋 , 𝑌 , 𝑍 ) in terms of the stress
components relative to rectangular axes (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧); that is, they
determine how the stress components transform under a rotation of
rectangular axes. A set of quantities that transform according to this
rule is called a second-order symmetrical tensor.
2.3.2 Principal Stresses
For any general state of stress at any point 0 in a body, there exist
three mutually perpendicular planes at point 0 on which the shear
stresses vanish. The remaining normal stress components on these
three planes are called principal stresses.

Correspondingly, the three planes are called principal planes, and

the three mutually perpendicular axes that are normal to the three
planes (hence, that coincide with the three principal stress
directions) are called principal axes.

Thus, by definition, principal stresses are directed along principal

axes that are perpendicular to the principal planes. A cubic element
subjected to principal stresses is easily visualized, since the forces
on the surface of the cube are normal to the faces of the cube.
2.3.3 Principal Values and Directions
Since the shear stresses vanish on principal planes, the stress vector
on principal planes is given by 𝝈𝑃 = 𝜎𝑵, where 𝜎 is the magnitude
of the stress vector 𝝈𝑃 and 𝑵 is the unit normal to a principal plane.

Let 𝑵 = 𝑙𝒊 + 𝑚𝒋 + 𝑛𝒌 relative to rectangular axes (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with

associated unit vectors 𝒊, 𝒋 , 𝒌. Thus, (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) are the direction
cosines of the unit normal 𝑵. Projections of 𝝈𝑃 along (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) axes
are 𝜎𝑃𝑥 = 𝜎𝑙, 𝜎𝑃𝑦 = 𝜎𝑚, 𝜎𝑃𝑧 = 𝜎𝑛.

Hence, by Equation (2.11), we obtain

𝑙 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎 + 𝑚𝜎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑛𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 0

𝑙𝜎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑚 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎 + 𝑛𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0 ….. (2.19)

𝑙𝜎𝑥𝑧 + 𝑚𝜎𝑦𝑧 + 𝑛 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎 = 0

Since Equations (2.19) are linear homogeneous equations in (𝑙, 𝑚,
𝑛) and the trivial solution 𝑙 = 𝑚 = 𝑛 = 0 is impossible because
𝑙2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 (law of direction cosines), it follows from the
theory of linear algebraic equations that Equations (2.19) are
consistent if and only if the determinant of the coefficients of (𝑙, 𝑚,
𝑛) vanishes identically. Thus, we have

𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧

𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎 𝜎𝑦𝑧 =0 ….. (2.20)
𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎

Expanding the determinant, we obtain

𝜎 3 − 𝐼1 𝜎 2 + 𝐼2 𝜎 − 𝐼3 = 0 ….. (2.21)
where
𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧
𝐼2 = 𝜎 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝑥𝑦

= 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑧 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝜎𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝜎𝑦𝑧 2 ….. (2.22)
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧
𝐼3 = 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧
𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧
The three roots (𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ) of Equation (2.21) are the three principal
stresses at point 0. The magnitudes and directions of 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 ,
for a given member depend only on the loads being applied to the
member and cannot be influenced by the choice of coordinate axes
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) used to specify the state of stress at point 0.
The stress invariants may be written in terms of the principal
stresses as
𝐼1 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3

𝐼2 = 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 ….. (2.23)

𝐼3 = 𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎3

When (𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ) have been determined, the direction cosines of

the three principal axes are obtained from Equations (2.19) by
setting 𝜎 in turn equal to (𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 ), respectively, and observing
the direction cosine condition 𝑙2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 for each of the
three values of 𝜎.
In special cases, two principal stresses may be numerically equal.
Then, Equations (2.19) show that the associated principal directions
are not unique. In these cases, any two mutually perpendicular axes
that are perpendicular to the unique third principal axis will serve as
principal axes with corresponding principal planes.

If all three principal stresses are equal, then 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 at point 0,

and all planes passing through point 0 are principal planes. In this
case, any set of three mutually perpendicular axes at point 0 will
serve as principal axes. This stress condition is known as a state of
hydrostatic stress, since it is the condition that exists in a fluid in
static equilibrium.
2.3.4 Octahedral Stresses
Consider the family of planes whose unit normals satisfy the
relation 𝑙2 = 𝑚2 = 𝑛2 = 1/3 with respect to the principal axes (𝑋,
𝑌, 𝑍).

There are eight such planes (the octahedral

planes) that make equal angles with respect to
the (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) directions.

Therefore, the normal and shear stress components associated with

these planes are called the octahedral normal stress 𝜎𝑜𝑐𝑡 and
octahedral shear stress 𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 .
By Equations (2.11), (2.12) and (2.13), we obtain
1 1
𝜎𝑜𝑐𝑡 = 𝐼1 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
3 3

2 2 2 1 2 2 2
𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3
9 3 3
….. (2.24)

The octahedral normal and shear stresses play a role in yield criteria
for ductile metals.
2.3.5 Mean and Deviator Stresses
2.3.5 Mean and Deviator Stresses
Experiments indicate that yielding and plastic deformation of
ductile metals are essentially independent of the mean normal stress
𝜎𝑚 , here
1 1 1
𝜎𝑚 = 𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 ….. (2.25)
3 3 3

Comparing Equations (2.23), (2.24) and (2.25), we note that the

mean normal stress 𝜎𝑚 is equal to 𝜎𝑜𝑐𝑡 . Most plasticity theories
postulate that plastic behavior of materials is related primarily to
that part of the stress tensor that is independent of 𝜎𝑚 . Therefore,
the stress array (Equation 2.4) is rewritten in the following form:
𝑻 = 𝑻𝑚 + 𝑻𝑑 ….. (2.26)
where
𝜎𝑚 0 0
𝑻𝑚 = 0 𝜎𝑚 0 ….. (2.27a)
0 0 𝜎𝑚

and

𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧

𝑻𝑑 = 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑦𝑧 ….. (2.27b)
𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜎𝑚

The array 𝑻𝑚 , is called the mean stress tensor. The array 𝑻𝑑 is

called the deviatoric stress tensor, since it is a measure of the
deviation of the state of stress from a hydrostatic stress state, that is,
from the state of stress that exists in an ideal (frictionless) fluid.
Let (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be the transformed axes that are in the principal stress
directions. Then,
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎1 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎2 , 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎3 , 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0

and Equation (2.26) is simplified accordingly. Application of

Equations (2.22) to Equation (2.27b) yields the following stress
invariants for 𝑻𝑑 :
𝐽1 = 0
1 2 1 2 2 2
𝐽2 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = − 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1
3 6
1 2
= − ቂ 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
6

1 2 3
𝐽3 = 𝐼3 − 𝐼1 𝐼2 + 𝐼1 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜎2 − 𝜎𝑚 𝜎3 − 𝜎𝑚
3 27
….. (2.28)
The principal directions for 𝑻𝑑 are the same as those for 𝑻. It can be
shown that since 𝐽1 = 0, 𝑻𝑑 represents a state of pure shear. The
principal values of the deviatoric tensor 𝑻𝑑 are
2𝜎1 − 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝑆1 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎𝑚 = =
3 3
𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝑆2 = 𝜎2 − 𝜎𝑚 = =
3 3
𝜎3 − 𝜎1 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎2 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3
𝑆3 = 𝜎3 − 𝜎𝑚 = =
3 3
….. (2.29)
Since 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 = 0, only two of the principal stresses (values)
of 𝑻𝑑 , are independent. Many of the formulas of the mathematical
theory of plasticity are often written in terms of the invariants of the
deviatoric stress tensor 𝑻𝑑 .
2.4 Differential Equations of Motions of a Deformable Body
Differential equations of motions are needed when the theory of
elasticity is used to derive load-stress and load deflection relations
for a member.
To write the differential
equations of motion, each
stress component must be
multiplied by the area on
which it acts and each body
force must be multiplied by
the volume of the element
since ( 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 ) have
dimensions of force per unit
volume.
Summation of forces in the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions respectively give

𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑥

+ + + 𝐵𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑦
+ + + 𝐵𝑦 = 0 ….. (2.31)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑧
+ + + 𝐵𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
As noted earlier, the form of the differential equations of motion
depends on the coordinate axes; Equations (2.31) were derived for
rectangular coordinate axes. To solve elasticity problems for system
have different geometrical shapes, we also need differential
equations of motion in terms of cylindrical coordinates and plane
polar coordinates.
2.4.3 Differential Equations of Motion in Plane Polar
Coordinate System (𝒓, 𝜽)
In plane-stress problems relative to (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinates, 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎𝑥𝑧 =
𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0 and the remaining stress components are functions of (𝑥, 𝑦)
only. Letting 𝑥 = 𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝜃, and 𝑧 = 𝑧 in Equations (2.36) and we
obtain from Equation (2.36), with 𝛼 = 1, 𝛽 = 𝑟 and 𝛾 = 1,

𝜕𝜎𝑟𝑟 1 𝜕𝜎𝜃𝑟 𝜎𝑟𝑟 − 𝜎𝜃𝜃

+ + + 𝐵𝑟 = 0
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟

𝜕𝜎𝑟𝜃 1 𝜕𝜎𝜃𝜃 2𝜎𝑟𝜃

+ + + 𝐵𝜃 = 0 ….. (2.40)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
Example 2.1
The state of stress at a point in a body is given by the following
components: 𝝈𝒙𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒚𝒚 = −𝟑𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒛𝒛 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂,
𝝈𝒙𝒚 = 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒙𝒛 = −𝟑𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 and 𝝈𝒚𝒛 = 𝟎. Find 𝝈𝑷𝒙 , 𝝈𝑷𝒚 ,
𝝈𝑷𝒛 and 𝝈𝑷𝑺 for point 𝑷 on a cutting plane 𝑸 with normal
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
vector 𝑵: , , .
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑

14.4338 𝑀𝑃𝑎, −14.4338 𝑀𝑃𝑎, −5.7735 𝑀𝑃𝑎; 20.9497 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Example 2.2
With respect to the frame of reference 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒛, the following state
of stress exists.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝝈𝒊𝒋 = 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

Determine the principal stresses and their associated directions.

3.7321, 0.2679, −1;

0.6279𝒊 + 0.6279𝒋 + 0.4597𝒌, 0.3251𝒊 + 0.3251𝒋 − 0.8881𝒌

0.7071𝒊 − 0.7071𝒋
Example 2.3
At a certain point in a drive shaft coupling, the stress
components relative to axes (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) are 𝝈𝒙𝒙 = 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒚𝒚 =
𝟔𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒛𝒛 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒙𝒚 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, 𝝈𝒙𝒛 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 and
𝝈𝒚𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂.
a) Determine the principal stresses 𝝈𝟏 ,𝝈𝟐 and 𝝈𝟑 .
b) Determine the maximum shear stress 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 .
c) Determine the octahedral shear stress 𝝉𝒐𝒄𝒕 and compare it to
the maximum shear stress.

110, 50, 0; 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 44.969 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.2231𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡

Example 2.4
The principal stresses 𝝈𝟏 and 𝝈𝟑 are known, and 𝝈𝟏 ≥ 𝝈𝟐 ≥ 𝝈𝟑 .
Determine the value of 𝝈𝟐 for which the octahedral shear stress
𝝉𝒐𝒄𝒕 attains an extreme value.
𝟏
𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑
𝟐
Example 2.5
The following describes the stress distribution in a body (in
megapascals):
𝝈𝒙𝒙 = 𝒙2 + 2𝒚, 𝝈𝒚𝒚 = 𝒙𝒚 − 𝒚𝟐 𝒛, 𝝈𝒙𝒚 = −𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏

𝝈𝒚𝒛 = 𝟎, 𝝈𝒙𝒛 = 𝒙𝒛 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝒚, 𝝈𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐

Determine the body force distribution required for equilibrium

and the magnitude of its resultant at the point 𝒙 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒎,
𝒚 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎, 𝒛 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎.

𝟐𝟗. 𝟒 𝒌 𝑵Τ𝒎𝟑 , 14.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 , 58.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3