CHAPTER 1

MATRIX ALGEBRA

1.1. INTRODUCTION OF MATRICES

DEFINITION 1
A rectangular arrangement of mxn numbers, in m rows and n columns and
enclosed with in a bracket is called a matrix. We shall denote matrices by capital letters as
A, B, C etc.

Remark: A matrix is not just a collection of elements but every element has assigned a
definite position in a particular row and column.

1.2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATRICES

SQUARE MATRIX
A matrix in which numbers of rows are equal to number of columns is called a square
matrix.
Example:

DIAGONAL MATRIX

A square matrix A= is called a diagonal matrix if each of its non-diagonal

element is zero.

That is and at least one element .

IDENTITY MATRIX
A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called identity matrix
and denoted by .
 That is

Example:

UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

A square matrix said to be an Upper triangular matrix if .
Example:

LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

A square matrix said to be a Lower triangular matrix if.
Example:

SYMMETRIC MATRIX
A square matrix A= said to be a symmetric if for all i and j.
Example:

SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
A square matrix A= said to be a skew-symmetric if for all i
and j.
Example:

ZERO MATRIX
A matrix whose all elements are zero is called as Zero Matrix and order Zero matrix
denoted by .

Example:

ROW MATRIX
A matrix consists a single row is called as a row vector or row matrix.
Example:

COLUMN MATRIX
A matrix consists a single column is called a column vector or column matrix.
Example:

TRANSPOSE
The transpose of matrix A = , written ( is the matrix
obtained by writing the rows of A in order as columns.
That is

PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE


 =A

 =k for scalar k

Example:

, A is symmetric by the definition of symmetric matrix.

Then
 That is .
A square matrix A is said to be skew- symmetric if
Example:

(i) and are both symmetric.

(ii) is a symmetric matrix.

(iii) is a skew-symmetric matrix

(iv) If A is skew symmetric matrix then odd integral powers of A is

skew symmetric, while positive even integral powers of A is
symmetric.
If A and B are symmetric matrices then
(v) is symmetric.

(vi) is skew-symmetric.
Exercise: Verify the (i), (ii) and (iii) using the following matrix A

1.3. OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic operations on the matrix. To add or
subtract matrices, these must be of identical order, and for multiplication, the number of
columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in the second matrix.

 Addition of Matrices

 Subtraction of Matrices
 Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
 Multiplication of Matrices

1.3.1. ADDITION OF MATRICES

If A [ai] mxn B [bij]mxn are two matrices of the same order, then their sum A + B is a matrix, and
each element of that matrix is the sum of the corresponding elements, i.e. A + B = [aij + bij]mxn
Consider the two matrices, A and B, of order 2 x 2. Then, the sum is given by

+ =

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION: If A, B and C are matrices of the same order,

then

(a) Commutative Law: A + B = B + A

(b) Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

(c) Identity of the Matrix: A + O = O + A = A, where O is a zero matrix which is the

additive identity of the matrix,

(d) Additive Inverse: A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A, where (-A) is obtained by changing the sign
of every element of A, which is the additive inverse of the matrix,

(e)

A+B=A+C
⇒B=C
B+A=C+A
(f) tr (A ± B) = tr(A) ± tr(B)

(g) If A + B = 0 = B + A, then B is called the additive inverse of A, and also A is called the
additive inverse of A.

1.3.2. SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then we define

A−B=A+(−B).
Consider the two matrices, A and B, of order 2 x 2. Then, the difference is given by:

– =

We can subtract the matrices by subtracting each element of one matrix from the
corresponding element of the second matrix, i.e. A – B = [aij – bij]mxn.
1.3.3 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

If A = [aij]m×n is a matrix and k any number, then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying
the elements of A by k is called the scalar multiplication of A by k, and it is denoted by k A,
thus if A = [aij]m×n,

Then

kAm×n=Am×nk=[kai×j]
PROPERTIES OF SCALAR MULTIPLICATION: If A and B are matrices of the same
order and λ and μ are any two scalars, then,

(a) λ (A + B) = λ A + λ B

(b) (λ + μ) A = λ A + μ A

(c) λ (μ A) = (λ μ A) = μ (λ A)

(d) (-λ A) = - (λ A) = λ(-A)

1.3.4 MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when the number
of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.

If

A= [aij ]m ×n. and B=[bij] n× p then their product AB=C=[cij] m× p

will be a matrix of order m×p where

(AB)ij=Cij =

1.3.5.PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

(a) Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general, i.e., in general

AB≠BA.
(b) Matrix multiplication is associative, i.e. (AB)C = A(BC).
(c) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition, i.e. A. (B + C) = A.B + A.C and
(A + B) C = AC + BC.

(d) If A is an m × n matrix, then

Im A=A=A In.
(e) The product of two matrices can be a null matrix while neither of them is null, i.e., if AB
= 0, it is not necessary that either A = 0 or B = 0.

(f) If A is an m × n matrix and O is a null matrix, then

A m ×n. On ×p= Om ×p.

i.e. the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null matrix.
(g) If AB = 0 (It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again, the product of two non-zero
matrices may be a zero matrix).

(h) If AB = AC, B ≠ C (Cancellation law is not applicable).

(i) tr (AB) = tr (BA)

(j) There exists a multiplicative identity for every square matrix, such as AI = IA = A

1.4. MATRIX OPERATIONS EXAMPLES

Example 1:

If A= and B=

find AB and BA if possible.

Solution: Using matrix multiplication. Here, A is a 3 × 3 matrix, and B is a 3 × 2 matrix;

therefore, A and B are conformable for the product AB, and it is of the order 3 × 2 such that

(First row of A) (First column of B)

= [213] =2×1+1×2+3×4=16

.
(First row of A) (Second column of B)

= [213] =2× (−2) +1×1+3× (−3) =−12

(Second ro-3w of A) (First column of B)

= [3−21] =3×1+(−2) ×2+1×4=3

Similarly

(AB)22=−10, (AB)31=3 and (AB)32=0

∴AB =

BA is not possible since the number of columns of B ≠ the number of rows of A.

Example 2: Find the value of x and y if

2 + =

Solution:

Using the method of multiplication and addition of matrices, then equating the corresponding
elements of L.H.S. and R.H.S., we can easily get the required values of x and y.

We have,
2 + =

Equating the corresponding elements, a11 and a22, we get

2+y=5⇒y=3;2x+2=8⇒2x=6⇒x=3;
Hence x = 3 and y = 3.

EXAMPLES ON MATRIX ADDITION

Example 1: Addition of matrices with different order.

Let,

A=

And, B=

A+B matrix cannot be defined as the order of matrix A is 2×2 and the order of matrix B is
3X2. So, matrices A and B cannot be added together.

Addition of matrices with the same order.

Let us add two 3 x 3 matrices.

Suppose,

P=
Q=

P+Q matrix can be found out by adding elements of P to the corresponding elements of Q.
So, value of matrix P+Q is

P+Q=

1.5 DETERMINANT, MINOR AND ADJOINT MATRICES

DEFINITION
Let A= be a square matrix of order n, then the number called
determinant of the matrix A.

(i) Determinant of 2 2 matrix

Let A= then = =
(ii) Determinant of 3 3 matrix

Let B=

Then =

Exercise: Calculate the determinants of the following matrices

(i) (ii)

1.5.1. PROPERTIES OF THE DETERMINANT

a. The determinant of a matrix A and its transpose are equal.
 b. Let A be a square matrix
(i) If A has a row(column)of zeros then
(ii) If A has two identical rows (or columns) then
c. If A is triangular matrix then is product of the diagonal elements.

d. If A is a square matrix of order n and k is a scalar then

SINGULAR MATRIX
If A is square matrix of order n, the A is called singular matrix when
and non- singular otherwise.

MINOR AND COFACTORS

Let A = is a square matrix. Then denote a sub matrix of A with
order (n-1) (n-1) obtained by deleting its row and column. The
determinant is called the minor of the element of A. The cofactor of
denoted by and is equal to .

Exercise: Let

(i) Compute determinant of A.

(ii) Find the cofactor matrix.
ADJOINT MATRIX
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors of the element of A denoted by is
called adjoin of matrix A.
.

DETERMINANT OF A 2X2 MATRIX

The determinant of a 2x2 matrix A = is |A| = ad - bc. It is simply obtained

by cross multiplying the elements starting from top left and then subtracting
the products.
MINOR OF ELEMENT OF A MATRIX

The minor of an element (aij)(aij) of a square matrix of any order is the determinant
of the matrix that is obtained by removing the row (ith row) and the column
(jth column) containing the element. We can understand this by an example.

Example: For a matrix A =

The minor of 6 is

= 1(8) - 2(7) = 8 - 14 = -6.

The minor of 9 is

= 1(5) - 2(4) = 5 - 8 = -3.

1.5.2. CO-FACTOR OF ELEMENT OF A MATRIX

The cofactor of an element [A]ij of a square matrix of any order is its minor
multiplied by (-1)i + j. i.e.,
 Co-factor of an element = (- 1) row number + column number (minor of the element)

We found the minors of elements 6 and 8 in the previous example. Let us calculate the
cofactors of the same elements now.
Example: For the same matrix A =

 Since 6 is in the 2nd row and 3rd column,

co-factor of 6 = (-1)2+3 (minor of 6) = (-1)5 (-6) = 6
 Since 9 is in the 3nd row and 3rd column,
co-factor of 9 = (-1)3+3 (minor of 9) = (-1)6 (-3) = -3

The co-factors of elements of any matrix are nothing but the minors but multiplied
by the alternative + and - signs (beginning with + sign for the first element of the
first row).

1.5.4 DETERMINANT OF 3×3 MATRIX

In the previous section, we have seen that the determinant of matrix is the sum of products of
elements of any row (or any column) and their corresponding cofactors. Thus, here are the
steps to find the determinant of matrix (a 3×3 matrix or any other matrix).

 Step 1: Choose any row or column. We usually choose the first row to find the
determinant.
 Step 2: Find the co-factors of each of the elements of the row/column that we have
chosen in Step 1.
 Step 3: Multiply the elements of the row/column from Step 1 with the corresponding
co-factors obtained from Step 2
 Step 4: Add all the products from Step 3 which would give the determinant of the
matrix.
Example: Use the above steps to compute the determinant of 3x3 matrix

A=
Solution:

Step 1: We choose the first row with elements 1, 2, and 3.

Step 2: Let us compute the cofactors of these elements:

Co-factor of 1 = (-1)1+1 Minor of 1 = (-1)

= 5(9) - 6(8) = -3

Co-factor of 2 = (-1)1+2 Minor of 2 = (-1)3

= -1 (4(9) - 6(7)) = -1(-6) = 6

Co-factor of 3 = (-1)1+3 Minor of 1 = (-1)4

= 4(8) - 5(7) = -3

Step 3: Multiply the elements by their cofactors.

1(co-factor of 1) = 1 (-3) = -3
2(co-factor of 2) = 2(6) = 12
3(co-factor of 3) = 3(-3) = -9

Step 4: Add them to get the determinant.

det A = -3 + 12 - 9 = 0.

ALL THESE STEPS CAN BE SUMMARIZED IN A SINGLE STEP AS FOLLOWS:

det A = 1(co-factor of 1) + 2(co-factor of 2) + 3(co-factor of 3)

=1 -2 +3

= 1 [5(9) - 6(8)] - 2 [4(9) - 6(7)] + 3 [4(8) - 5(7)]

= 1 (-3) - 2 (-6) + 3 (-3)

= -3 + 12 - 9

=0

Note: Here we have used a negative sign with 2 in the second step because we get a minus
sign while finding the co-factor of 2.

1.5.5. DETERMINANTS OF MATRIX FORMULAS

The process of finding the determinant of matrix that is explained in the previous section can
be used to find the determinant of a matrix of any order. But there are some tricks to find the
determinants of 1x1, 2x2, and 3x3 matrices. These tricks are very useful as we come across
finding the determinants of matrices of these orders only most of the time while solving
problems.

DETERMINANT OF 1×1 MATRIX

1x1 matrix is a row with just 1 row and 1 column and hence it has only one element. The
determinant of any 1×1 matrix is always equal to the element of the matrix. i.e.,

 If A = [x]1×1, then |A| (or) det A = x

DETERMINANT OF 2×2 MATRIX

As we discussed earlier, its determinant is obtained by subtracting the product of elements of

the non-principal diagonal from the product of the elements of the principal diagonal. i.e.,
 If A = en |A| (or) det A = ad - bc

DETERMINANT OF 3×3 MATRIX (SHORTCUT)

The shortcut to find the determinant of 3x3 matrix is, just write the matrix twice and apply
the following trick. Here is the shortcut (easiest way) to find the determinant of 3x3 matrix A

1.5.6.PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT OF MATRIX

The properties of determinants are useful in finding the determinant of a matrix without
actually using the process of finding it. These are helpful in evaluating the complex
determinants. These include how the determinant changes with respect to elementary row
operations.

PROPERTY 1

"The determinant of a matrix is equal to the determinant of its transpose."

Example:
 =

Try verifying it.

PROPERTY 2

"If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the sign of the
determinant changes."

Example:

= -

Here, the first and second rows of the left side determinant are interchanged. One can easily
verify this by finding both determinants.

PROPERTY 3

"If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, then the determinant is 0."

Example:

=0
PROPERTY 4

"If all elements of a row (or column) of a matrix of a determinant are zeros, then the value of
the determinant is 0."

Example:

=0

PROPERTY 5

"If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a scalar k, then the
value of the resultant determinant is k times the value of the original determinant."

Example:

= k

PROPERTY 6

"If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is expressed as sum of two (or more)
numbers, then the determinant can be split into the sum of two (or more) determinants."

Example:
 = +

PROPERTY 7

"If each element of a row (or column) is multiplied by a constant and the elements are added
to the corresponding elements of another row (or column), then the determinant remains
unchanged."

Example:

1.6. IMPORTANT NOTES ON DETERMINANT OF MATRIX:

 The determinant of an identity matrix is always 1.

 The determinant of a diagonal matrix is always the product of elements of its principal
diagonal.
 The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is either +1 or -1.
 The determinant of a matrix can be either positive, negative, or zero.
 The determinant of matrix is used in Cramer's rule which is used to solve the system
of equations.
 Also, it is used to find the inverse of a matrix. If the determinant of a matrix is not
equal to 0, then it is an invertible matrix as we can find its inverse.
 If A is a square matrix of order 3×3, then |kA| = k3 |A|, for any scalar k.
 A square matrix A is called singular if |A| = 0 and non-singular if |A| ≠ 0.
 The determinant is helpful in computing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix.
1.7. MATRIX INVERSE

If A is a non-singular square matrix, there is an existence of n x n matrix A-1, which is called

the inverse matrix of A such that it satisfies the property:

AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the Identity matrix

The identity matrix for the 2 x 2 matrix is given by

Learn: Identity matrix

It is noted that in order to find the inverse matrix, the square matrix should be non-singular
whose determinant value does not equal to zero.

Let us take the square matrix A

Where a, b, c, and d represent the number.

The determinant of the matrix A is written as ad-bc, where the value of determinant
should not equal to zero for the existence of inverse. The inverse matrix can be found for 2×
2, 3× 3, …n × n matrices. Finding the inverse of a 3×3 matrix is a bit more difficult than
finding the inverses of a 2 ×2 matrix.

1.7.1. INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

The inverse of a matrix can be found using the three different methods. However, any of
these three methods will produce the same result.
METHOD 1:

Similarly, we can find the inverse of a 3×3 matrix by finding the determinant value of the given matrix

METHOD 2:

One of the most important methods of finding the matrix inverse involves finding the minors
and cofactors of elements of the given matrix. Observe the below steps to understand this
method clearly.

 The inverse matrix is also found using the following equation:

A-1= adj(A)/det(A),

where adj(A) refers to the adjoint of a matrix A, det(A) refers to the determinant of a
matrix A.

 The adjoint of a matrix A or adj(A) can be found using the following method.

In order to find the adjoint of a matrix A first, find the cofactor matrix of a given
matrix and then take the transpose of a cofactor matrix.

 The cofactor of a matrix can be obtained as

Cij = (-1)i+j det (Mij)

Here, [Mij] refers to the (i,j)th minor matrix after removing the ith row and the jth column.
You can also say that the transpose of a cofactor matrix is also called the adjoint of a matrix
A.

Learn how to find the adjoint of a matrix here.

Similarly, we can also find the inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix. Here also the first step would be to
find the determinant, followed by the next step – Transpose.

METHOD 3:

Finding an Inverse Matrix by Elementary Transformation

Let us consider three matrices X, A and B such that X = AB. To determine the inverse of a
matrix using elementary transformation, we convert the given matrix into an identity
matrix. Learn more about how to do elementary transformations of matrices here.

If the inverse of matrix A, A-1 exists then to determine A-1 using elementary row operations

1. Write A = IA, where I is the identity matrix of the same order as A.

2. Apply a sequence of row operations till we get an identity matrix on the LHS and use
the same elementary operations on the RHS to get I = BA. The matrix B on the RHS
is the inverse of matrix A.
3. To find the inverse of A using column operations, write A = IA and apply column
operations sequentially till I = AB is obtained, where B is the inverse matrix of A.

Click here to understand the method of finding the inverse of a matrix using elementary
operations.

1.7.2. INVERSE OF A MATRIX FORMULA

Let A=

be the 2 x 2 matrix. The inverse matrix of A is given by the formula,

A=
Let A=

be the 3 x 3 matrix. The inverse matrix is:

1.7.3. INVERSE MATRIX 2 X 2 EXAMPLE

To understand this concept better let us take a look at the following example.

Example: Find the inverse of matrix A given below:

1.7.4. INVERSE MATRIX 3 X 3 EXAMPLE

Problem:

Solution:

Determinant of the given matrix is

Let us find the minors of the given matrix as given below:

Now, find the adjoint of a matrix by taking the transpose of cofactors of the given matrix.

Now,

A-1 = (1/|A|) Adj A

Hence, the inverse of the given matrix is:

1.7.5. PROPERTIES

A few important properties of the inverse matrix are listed below.

 If A is nonsingular, then (A-1)-1 = A

 If A and B are nonsingular matrices, then AB is nonsingular. Thus, (AB)-1 = B-1A-1

 If A is nonsingular then (AT)-1 = (A-1) T
 If A is any matrix and A-1 is its inverse, then AA-1 = A-1A = In, where n is the order of
matrices