Subject: EDUC 2: FACILITATING LEARNING Instructor: Adoracion P.

Quitoras, EdD

Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2 and Filipino 2

Chapter 1: Introduction

LESSON 1: Metacognition

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain metacognition in your own words.

 Apply metacognition strategies in your own quest for learning as novice or an expert learner.

Introduction:

Human being is created by God with body, soul and spirit. We have the capacity to think and feel,
higher than animals. Our ability to think and learn in different ways makes us unique individuals. Metacognition
will be introduced in this topic. What does it mean?

Let’s explore:
Research has shown that everyone’s brain works a bit
differently, often due to past experiences and genetic predisposition.
Thus, students have different style preferences for how they learn.
Their brains are predominantly oriented to learn in a visual, auditory,
or kinesthetic manner, depending on the type of categories
measured.
Metacognition is the ability to think about and regulate one’s
own thoughts. Teaching metacognitive strategies can improve

Metacognition: Thinking learners’ performance at school. This makes it a good, evidence-

about Thinking based target for intervention.
A simplified definition of metacognition is “thinking about
thinking”, but metacognition also encompasses the regulation of these
thoughts – the ability to change them.
It is a step further than simple awareness of thought processes, incorporating the ability to alter
thoughts and behaviors. Explicitly teaching learners strategies for metacognition has been shown to lead to
improvements in attainment.
Encouraging metacognition is therefore a relatively straightforward and cheap way to improve
learning. The Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) describes metacognition approaches as having
“consistently high levels of impact”, while acknowledging that they can also be a challenge to implement.
What is metacognition? The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell,
metacognition consists of both metacognition knowledge and metacognition experiences or regulation.
Metacognition, simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”. Metacognition knowledge
refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive
processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person
variables, task variables and strategy variables.

1 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 Person variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. This refers to
knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s
own learning processes.
Task variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well
as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs
to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you.
Strategy variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn
a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. Terms like meta-attention and meta-memory are
related to strategy variables. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work
best for you.
Metacognition Strategies

Research has shown that metacognitive

strategies had a “significant, positive, and direct
effect on cognitive strategy use” (Purpura, 1999).
That means, if we want to teach students to
successfully learn by using cognitive strategies,
then we must concurrently teach them
metacognitive strategies. In practical terms, this
means students know how they learn best, and they
are able to adjust their methods and environment
as needed. Here are few simple examples of
metacognition in action:
 identifying one’s own learning style and
needs
 planning for a task
 gathering and organizing materials
 arranging a study space and schedule
 monitoring mistakes
 evaluating task success
 evaluating the success of any learning strategy and
adjusting
With this in mind, there are four ways that teachers can teach metacognitive strategies—learning style
assessments, modeling with think-alouds, meta-discussions, and guidance in self-questioning.
Novice and Expert Learners
In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologist have studied the distinctions among learners in the
manner they absorb or process information. They are able to differentiate expert learners from novice learners.
A very important factor that separates these two types mentioned in metacognition. Expert learners monitor
their learning and consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.

2 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and expert learner.
Differences between Novice and Expert Learners
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners
Knowledge in different Have limited knowledge in the Have a deeper knowledge in different
subject areas different subject areas subject areas because they look for
interrelationships in the things they
learn
Problem solving Satisfied at just scratching the First try to understand the problem,
surface; hurried gives a look for boundaries and create a
solution to the task at hand mental picture of the problem
Learning/thinking strategies Attempt to process all Design new strategies that would be
information they receive appropriate to the task at hand
Selectivity in processing Select important information to
process; able to breakdown
information to manageable chunks
Production of output Do not examine the quality of Check their errors and reflect their
their work, nor stop to make efforts to maintain quality output
revisions.

References:

Lucas, Maria Rita D., and Corpuz, Brenda B., (2014). “Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process: 4 th
edition OBE and K to 12”.Lorimar Publishing, Inc., 776 Aurora Blvd, cor. Boston street, Cubao, Quezon
City, Metro Manila

BOLD-Blog on Learning & Development. www.Blog.expert/the-learning-individual/

Whytock, Ken.” Education Postcard: Metacognition Strategies for Reading” www. Creativecommons.org/ph

How To Learn Better: Part 5 – Metacognitive. www. https://dataworks-ed.com/blog/2016/03/how-to-learn-

better-part-5-metacognitive/

3 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD

Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, Filipino 2

Name:_________________________________________________________ Course:_______________

Activity 1

Application:

1. Conduct a metacognitive observation based on the procedure below.( Source: Prof. Joanna M.
Grymes, Phd of Arkansas State University)
Tell the child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to remember the
words and you’ll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while. Remind the child to listen closely,
and then say the list slowly (about one word every second or two).
Ask the child the following series of questions:
How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do to remember the
words? Are good at remembering? What kinds of things do you do to help you remember things?
Does your teacher give you ideas to help you remember things? What different ideas has your
teacher given you? Do you remember some specific examples of things you have learned in
school to help you remember things? Do you use them? Do you think they are helpful?

Assessment:

1. Explain metacognition in your own understanding?

2. Differentiate novice from expert learner?

4 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD
Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, and Filipino 2

Topic 2: Learner-Center Psychological Principles

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the 14 principles.

 Advocate the importance of Learner-Center Psychological Principles.
Introduction:

There are many factors that affect the teaching and learnings

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Learner-Centred-Psychological-Principles-A-Framework-for-School-
Reform-Redesign-APA_fig1_327667468

Let’s explore:

The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process*. They focus
on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external
environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations.
Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational
and affective, developmental and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners -- from children, to teachers, to administrators, to
parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process.

5 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience. There are different types of learning processes, for
example, habit formation in motor learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or
cognitive skills and learning strategies.
Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to
construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are
active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
The principles set forth in this document focus on this type of learning.
2. Goals of the learning process.
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. The strategic nature of learning requires students to be
goal directed. To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue
personally relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over
time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals. Educators can
assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and educational
aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge.
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and experiences
and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to,
modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in
different subject areas, and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new
knowledge becomes integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge
remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been
shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing. This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).
4. Strategic thinking.
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,
problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to
expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by
receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning
outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic
learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking.

6 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking. Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance
goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these
goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient
or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these
higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional
practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major interactive role with both the learner and
the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional
practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and
thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also
have significant impacts on student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.
What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is
influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. The rich
internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere the
learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the
nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation.
Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information
processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally
enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and
performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g.,
anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about
failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with
learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and
providing for personal choice and control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major
indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs
to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners
perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks
that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage

7 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners'
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice.
Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. Effort is
another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the
investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators
need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective strategies include
purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to
learn, and methods that increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning.
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains
is taken into account. Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies across intellectual,
social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness--such as reading readiness, for example--may
preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive,
emotional, and social development of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected
by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in
schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children
can influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among
children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal
learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning.
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with
others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity,
encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts,
individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of
cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide
stability, trust, and caring can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and
provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about
competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue
pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of

8 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the
learning process, and create a learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning.
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition,
through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn
and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in
helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help students examine their learning
preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and
curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to
be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree
to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.
13. Learning and diversity.
Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account. The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective
instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can
influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
designing and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual
differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected,
and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment.
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral parts of the learning
process. Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately
high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current
knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty.
Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to
both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner
progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both within
and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments
can provide other sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of
learning progress can also improve students self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed
learning. The development of each principle involved thorough discussions of the research supporting that
principle. The multidisciplinary research expertise of the Task Force and Work Group members facilitated an
examination of each principle from a number of different research perspectives.
References:

9 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Learner-Centred-Psychological-Principles-A-Framework-for-School-
Reform-Redesign-APA_fig1_327667468This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task
force (revised in 1997).
Center for Psychology in Schools and Education APA Education Directorate 750 First Street, N.E.
Washington, DC 20002 Phone: (202) 336-5855
www. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf

Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P, Quitoras, EdD

Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, Filipino 2

Name:_________________________________________________________ Course:_______________

Activity 2

Let’s evaluate:
I. Identify these statement that describe each of the Learner-Centered principles. Write your answer
before the number.
1. Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities a. Standard & Assessment
for learning that are a function of prior experience. b. Strategic Thinking
2. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity c. Learning and diversity.
all contribute to motivation to learn. d. Context of Learning
3. The learning of a complete subject matter is most effective when it is e. Developmental influences on
an intentional process of constructing meaning from information learning.
and experience. f. Thinking about thinking
4. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations g. Nature of the Learner
and communication with others. h. Individual differences in
5. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking learning
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. i. Social Influences of learning
6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, j. Intrinsic motivation to learn
technology and instructional practices. k.Effects of motivation on effort.
7. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by individual’s emotional l. Motivational and emotional
states, beliefs, interest and goals and habits of thinking. Influences on learning
8. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing m. Goals of the learning process
the learner as well as learning progress- including diagnostic process
and outcome assessment-are integral parts of the learning process.

II. Why is it important to understand the principles of learner-Centered of learning?

10 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD
Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, and Filipino 2
Chapter 2: Individual Diversity
Topic 3: Individual Differences

Learning Outcomes:
 Explain individual differences and factors that influence these diversity.
 Cite different strategies in managing individual differences inside the classroom.

Introduction:
Each individual has a characteristic that is unique from others. What would happen if all of us have the
same abilities, character, physical attributes, ect. Life would be boring. Do you see the beauty of our
differences between other people? God design our differences so that we can complement with one another.
So we must learn to know our strength and weakness which makes you special and unique individual in order
to serve the purpose of your existence.

Let’s explore:
How individuals differ in traits such as skills, aptitudes, and abilities to learn and perform. Learners
may vary in their personalities, motivations, and attributions for their successes and failures when learning—all
of which may affect how and why they learn.

What is Individual Differences?

These are different concept about individual differences:
1. Many of a learner’s personal characteristics can affect how he or she learns. Individual differences are
often explanations for differences in learning and performance among learners. The study of individual
differences among learners’ permits is done with the idea that results can help educators design instruction
that better meets the needs of each learner’s needs.
2. Each learner is unique like by the age, gender, aptitude, attitude etc. The differences among the learners
are considered individual differences.
3. Individuals follow different paths as they progress toward expert understanding because they learn
differently based on their gender, ethnicity, learning styles, previous knowledge and experience with content,
strategies, and technology.
4. Individual differences refers to the extent and type of distinctions among individuals on some of the
significant psychological traits, personal characteristics, cognitive and emotional components
5. The study of variations in psychological variables of among different people.
6. The demographic and psychological characteristics of people that distinguish one person from another.

11 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
7. Differences among people as a result of their behaviors, attitudes, traits and personality characteristics,
and circumstances.
9. Stable patterns of behavior or tendencies, which are independent of each other.
8. Stand for different variables ranging from gender and educational background to perceptions and
proficiency levels that leave an explicit or implicit impact on individual’s behavior.
9. The characteristics that distinguish human beings. Learner’s variability in terms of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes. In a computer-based training environment,
10. Individual differences play a potential mediating role between training manipulations and learning.
11. The aspects of people’s personalities that make them fundamentally different from others (e.g.,
neuroticism, openness, extraversion, conscientiousness and agreeableness).
12. How behavior and psychological abilities (both cognitive and psycho-social) vary from one person to
another.
13. They are deviations and differences from the average group in certain traits such as physical attributes,
mental and psychological.
14. The investigation of behavioral differences between individuals.
15. The cognitive, emotional, social, and physical characteristics, interests and preferences of all learners are
different from each other.

Factors affecting individual differences

Socioeconomic status- The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle income or lower income
group.
Thinking/learning style- Some of you learn better by seeing something; others by just listening; and still
others by manipulating something.
Exceptionalities- In class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension or in
seeing, hearing, etc.

How will you facilitate and manage individual differences inside the classroom?
The following are some creative teaching strategies you can use to teach students with different needs in the
ways they learn best. It summarizes some of these methods that help to better understand and respond to
these students
1. Differentiate instruction. It’s important to recognize that “fairness” in education doesn’t mean that all
children are taught in the exact same way. Instead it means accounting for the needs of individual students
and adjusting the curriculum accordingly. Differentiation allows you to provide individualized instruction by
changing the pace, level, or style of teaching to engage student strengths and interests. Students with mental
health and learning disorders are not the only children who benefit from this instructional philosophy—all
children in your classroom can achieve at higher levels when you are conscientious about providing
instruction that fits how they learn best. Differentiating instruction includes, when appropriate, reducing
assignments or extending deadlines to accommodate a child’s abilities.

12 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
2. Capitalize on learning styles. Students learn in a number of different ways. Visual learners learn most
effectively from visual information, while auditory learners learn best from verbal or audio
presentations. Tactile-kinesthetic learners do well when touching or moving in some way as they take in
information (experiential learning). While students can often learn to some degree in all of these different ways,
many excel in one area so that instruction based on a particular style is much more effective than that of
another. Deficits in one or more areas of learning can be particularly common in students with learning
disabilities.
3. Incorporate multiple intelligences into curriculum. Students often have areas of learning in which they
are particularly strong. These learning strengths can be engaged to help students succeed in the classroom
and reach their full potential. The multiple intelligences are a framework of strengths outlined by Harvard
psychologist Howard Gardner. They are linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual- spatial, musical-rhythmic,
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Most students have strengths in one or two of
these areas.
4. Capitalize on student interests. One of the best ways to motivate students is to incorporate their interests
into the curriculum. As much as possible, allow students to choose the topics they’ll report on in a paper or
project. Also look to include interests in other smaller ways—such as in math word problems. Tying learning to
interests is a potentially powerful way to reinforce core curriculum concepts.
5. Involve students in educational goals. Students perform best when they feel they are active participants,
as opposed to passive subjects, in learning. Try to involve students in creating goals related to learning
activities. Children with mental health and learning disorders may have a negative attitude toward schoolwork
so incentives are required at the outset. Your goal ultimately should be to have students genuinely engaged in
learning so that rewards become less important.
6. Use computerized instruction. Most students enjoy working with computers, which can stimulate their
interest in schoolwork. A wide assortment of available programs from reading instruction to voice recognition
software makes computerized instruction very relevant in helping students with special needs. Activities and
games that incorporate material from content themes can reinforce concepts for visual and tactile learners.
7. Group students effectively. Group projects provide great opportunities for you to put together the talents
of students in complementary ways. A child who struggles in one aspect of a subject may excel in another.
Group students so that they can both showcase strengths and learn from peers. Also give careful
consideration to the social dynamics of groups. Children who have mental health and learning disorders
benefit from working with students who are especially kind, patient, and empathetic.
8. Consider outside placement options. Some children may have needs you simply cannot meet in the
regular classroom. At these times, work with your school’s specialists to ensure skills are developed in other
settings. A child with a communication disorder might require intensive work with a speech language
pathologist. An extremely disruptive student may need to spend part of the day in a program set up for children
with serious emotional disorders.

References:

13 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Lucas, Maria Rita D., and Corpuz, Brenda B., (2014). “Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process: 4 th
edition OBE and K to 12”.Lorimar Publishing, Inc., 776 Aurora Blvd, cor. Boston street, Cubao, Quezon City,
Metro Manila
https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/individual-differences/14143

Amer, Emran.,(2015) Effective Teaching Strategies That Mind Individual Differences. Learning and
Development Coordinator at Ministry of Education – Dubai https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/effective-teaching-
strategies-mind-individual-amer-emran/

Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD

Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, Filipino 2

Name:_________________________________________________________ Course:_______________

Activity 3

Let’s evaluate:
Write a reaction/reflection on individual differences/diversity. Cite researches that talks about this topic.

14 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD
Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, and Filipino 2

Topic 4: Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning Outcomes:
 Identify ones learning style and Multiple Intelligences.
 Differentiate learning styles from Multiple Intelligences.
Introduction:
The Education Department (1994) suggests that teachers may cater for individual differences by the following:
Providing pupils with a different amount of input or support. Providing additional support for less able pupils.
Using graded worksheets suited to different learning styles or abilities.
Let’s engage:
Do know what type of learning styles do you belong?
Are you familiar with Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences?
How would these following concept help you improve learning potentials?
Let’s explore:
It is important to discover your learning styles. This will help you to know how to learn better according
to your learning styles.
Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual process information. They describe a
person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered
to bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking styles would lie at a points in a continuum.
Having a particular learning/thinking usually described as personality dimension which influences your
attitudes values and social interaction.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. We should focus on sensory input and maintain
a dominance in one of the following types:
Visual Learners- Theses learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial expressions to fully understand
the content of a lesson. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed
notes to absorb the information.
Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:

15 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic
displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning.
Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as
mathematical formula or written word.

Auditory learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to
what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to
tone of voice, pitch, speed and others nuances.
Auditory learners also fall into two categories:
The Listeners- This is the more common type. They likely do well in school. Out of school too, they remember
things said to them and make the information their own.
The Talkers- They are ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves talking to those around
them.
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from hands-on approach, actively
exploring the physical world around them. They find hard to sit still for long period. They may not benefit so
much from the discussion or the written materials, and may distracted by their need for activity and exploration.

Global – Analytic Continuum

Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step processes of learning. They tend to see finite
elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers”. They are more comfortable in a world of
details and hierarchies of information.
Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle
elements. They are called “forest seers” who give attention only to the overall structure and ignore details.

Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences is a theory
proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 in his
book “Frames of Mind”. He believed that
each individual may possess
abilities/intelligences different from others.
These are categorized in nine (9) Multiple
Intelligences. Gardner believes that different
intelligences may be independent abilities – a
person can be low in one domain area but
high in another. For example, the child who
takes more time to master multiplication may
best learn to multiply through a different
approach, may excel in a field outside
Source : Adapted from mathematics, or may be looking at and
https://aventislearning.com/course/multiple-
16intelligences-mit/
| EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 understanding the multiplication process at a
fundamentally deeper level.

1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas spatially. Seeing
concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in planning to create a
product or solve a problem.
2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) - learning through spoken and written word. This intelligence is always
valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievement.
3. Mathematical/ Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) – learning through reasoning and problem solving.
Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are ask to adapt to logically sequenced delivery
the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes understanding through concrete experience.
4. Bodily/ Kinesthetic (Body Smart) - learning through interaction with one’s environment. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
5. Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only auditory
learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses.
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a decidedly affective
component of learning through which student place value on what they learn and take ownership for their
learning.
7. Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with others. Not the domain of children who are
simply talkative or overly special. This intelligence promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with
others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification, categories and hierarchies. The naturalist
intelligence pick up on subtle differences in meaning.
9. Existential (Spirit Smart) – learning by seeing a big pictures. This intelligence seeks connections to real
world understanding and application of new learning.
References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences#
https://www.institute4learning.com/resources/articles/multiple-intelligences/
https://www.mbaea.org/media/documents/learningstyleinventory_survey_1F84C345CE750.pdf
https://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html

17 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD

Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, Filipino 2

Name:_________________________________________________________ Course:_______________

Activity 4

Let’s evaluate:
Part 1: Learning Style Inventory
To better understand how you prefer to learn and process information, place a check in the appropriate space
after each statement below, then use the scoring directions at the bottom of the page to evaluate your
responses. Use what you learn from your scores to better develop learning strategies that are best suited to
your particular learning style. This 24-item survey is not timed. Respond to each statement as
honestly as you can.

Often Sometimes Seldom

(5pts) (3pts) (1pts)
1. I can remember best about a subject by listening to a lecture that includes
information, explanations and discussions.
2. I prefer to see information written on a chalkboard and supplemented by visual
aids and assigned readings.
3. I like to write things down or to take notes for visual review.
4. I prefer to use posters, models, or actual practice and other activities in class.
5. I require explanations of diagrams, graphs, or visual directions.
6. I enjoy working with my hands or making things.
7. I am skillful with and enjoy developing and making graphs and charts.
8. I can tell if sounds match when presented with pairs of sounds.
9. I can remember best by writing things down.
10. I can easily understand and follow directions on a map.
11. I do best in academic subjects by listening to lectures and tapes.
12. I listen to music while studying.
13. I learn to spell better by repeating words out loud than by writing the words on
paper.
14. I can understand a news article better by reading about it in a newspaper than
by listening to a report about it on the radio.
15. I chew gum or snack while studying.
16. I think the best way to remember something is to picture it in your head.
17. I learn the spelling of words by “finger spelling” them.
18. I would rather listen to a good lecture or speech than read about the same
material in a textbook.
18 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 19. I am good at working and solving jigsaw puzzles and mazes.
20. I grip objects in my hands during learning periods.
21. I prefer listening to the news on the radio rather than reading the paper.
22. I prefer obtaining information about an interesting subject by reading about it.
23. I feel very comfortable touching others, hugging, handshaking, etc.
24. I follow oral directions better than written ones.
Scoring Procedures

Directions: Place the point value on the line next to the corresponding item below.
Add the points in each column to obtain the preference score under each heading.
OFTEN = 5 points SOMETIMES = 3 points SELDOM = 1 points
VISUAL AUDITORY TACTILE
Number Points Number Points Number Points
2 1 4
3 5 6
7 8 9
10 11 12
14 13 15
16 18 17
19 21 20
22 24 23
VPS= APS= TPS=
VPS = Visual Preference APS = Audio Preference TPS = Tactile Preference
(Retrieved from: https://www.mbaea.org/media/documents/learningstyleinventory_survey_1F84C345CE750.pdf)

Part II. Find out your Multiple Intelligences.

This form can help you determine which intelligences are strongest for you. If you're a teacher or tutor, you can also use it
to find out which intelligences your learner uses most often. Many thanks to Dr. Terry Armstrong for graciously allowing us
to use his questionnaire.

Instructions: Read each statement carefully. Choose one of the five buttons for each statement indicating how
well that statement describes you.

1 = Statement does not describe you at all

2 = Statement describes you very little
3 = Statement describes you somewhat
4 = Statement describes you pretty well
5 = Statement describes you exactly

1 2 3 4 5
1. I pride myself on having a large vocabulary.
2. Using numbers and numerical symbols is easy for me.
3. Music is very important to me in daily life.
4. I always know where I am in relation to my home.
5. I consider myself an athlete.
6. I feel like people of all ages like me.
7. I often look for weaknesses in myself that I see in others.
8. The world of plants and animals is important to me.
9. I enjoy learning new words and do so easily.
10. I often develop equations to describe relationships and/or to explain my
observations.
11. I have wide and varied musical interests including both classical and
contemporary.
12. I do not get lost easily and can orient myself with either maps or landmarks.
13. I feel really good about being physically fit.
14. I like to be with all different types of people.
15. I often think about the influence I have on others.
16. I enjoy my pets.
17. I love to read and do so daily.
18. I often see mathematical ratios in the world around me.
19. I have a very good sense of pitch, tempo, and rhythm.
20. Knowing directions is easy for me.
21. I have good balance and eye-hand coordination and enjoy sports which use a
ball.

19 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
 22. I respond to all people enthusiastically, free of bias or prejudice.
23. I believe that I am responsible for my actions and who I am.
24. I like learning about nature.
25. I enjoy hearing challenging lectures.
26. Math has always been one of my favorite classes.
27. My music education began when I was younger and still continues today.
28. I have the ability to represent what I see by drawing or painting.
29. My outstanding coordination and balance let me excel in high-speed activities.
30. I enjoy new or unique social situations.
31. I try not to waste my time on trivial pursuits.
32. I enjoy caring for my house plants.
33. I like to keep a daily journal of my daily experiences.
34. I like to think about numerical issues and examine statistics.
35. I am good at playing an instrument and singing.
36. My ability to draw is recognized and complimented by others.
37. I like being outdoors, enjoy the change in seasons, and look forward to different
physical activities each season.
38. I enjoy complimenting others when they have done well.
39. I often think about the problems in my community, state, and/or world and what I
can do to help rectify any of them.
40. I enjoy hunting and fishing.
41. I read and enjoy poetry and occasionally write my own.
42. I seem to understand things around me through a mathematical sense.
43. I can remember the tune of a song when asked.
44. I can easily duplicate color, form, shading, and texture in my work.
45. I like the excitement of personal and team competition
46. I am quick to sense in others dishonesty and desire to control me.
47. I am always totally honest with myself.
48. I enjoy hiking in natural places.
49. I talk a lot and enjoy telling stories.
50. I enjoy doing puzzles.
51. I take pride in my musical accomplishments.
52. Seeing things in three dimensions is easy for me, and I like to make things in
three dimensions.
53. I like to move around a lot.
54. I feel safe when I am with strangers.
55. I enjoy being alone and thinking about my life and myself.
56. I look forward to visiting the zoo.
57. Most often I ponder on the question “Why am I here in this world.
58. I often reflect on why innocent people suffer?
59. I spend my time reading inspirational books.
60. I want to live my live meaningfully.
61. What’s my mission in life?
62. Is there such a thing as hell?
63. Where can I find happiness?
https://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html
Interpretation
The following items in the questionnaire can be categorized into the intelligences:
1. Linguistic -1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 41, 49
2. Mathematical -2, 10, 18, 26, 34, 42, 50
3. Musical -3, 11, 19, 27, 35, 43, 51
4. Spatial - 4, 12, 20, 28, 36, 44, 52
5. Kinesthetic - 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53
6. Interpersonal - 6, 14, 22, 30, 38, 46, 54
7. Intrapersonal - 7, 15, 23, 31, 39, 47, 55
8. Naturalist - 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56
9. Existentialist - 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63
Add your scores per intelligence. You will so the result on what intelligence do you belong and good at.

Part III. After you have identify your Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences. Can you now
differentiate the two concept? Write your answer on a separate paper.
20 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD
Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, and Filipino 2

Topic 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Learning Outcomes:
 Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.
 Define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap.
 Describe special and Inclusive Education.
Introduction:
Teachers will encounter different types of learners, with different learning styles and skills. To deliver
the curriculum is one of the teaching goals considering these factors, their needs and individual
differences/diversities. In addition to learners’ diversity, we will discuss about learners with exceptionalities.
These are learners that needs much attention because of their condition. Before, parents with exceptional
children use to hide their child in public because they are afraid of criticism and bullying. Children with special
needs in this new generation are expose through media and other activities, where they can interact with other
people which would help them cope and overcome their disabilities. Furthermore, most of our schools is
offering Special Education to cater these type students. This is in response to 1987 Philippine Constitution,
Article XIV, sec 2 to “provide citizens, the disabled and out –of –school youth with training.

Let’s explore:
Let us look at the definition. The term learners with exceptionalities refers to individuals whose
physical, behavioral, or cognitive performance is so different from the norm that additional services are
required to meet the individual’s needs. Disability and handicap are not interchangeable terms. Let us
differentiate these terms. Disability refers to a functional limitation a person has that interferes with the
person’s physical or cognitive performance. According to Schiefelbusch (1996), it may refer to a physical,
sensory, or mental condition. Disability has become more acceptable term than handicap. On the other hand,
handicap refers to a limitation imposed upon a person with a disability by society. It is a disadvantage that
occurs as a result of disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent
the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment therefore,
the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have the same
disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing impairment,
one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual would not have as much
handicap as the second one. Another example, two persons who move around on a wheelchair, the one
studying in a school campus with wheelchair accessibility in all areas would be less handicapped than one in a
school without wheelchair accessibility.

21 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
The Categories of Exceptionalities
 Mental retardation: Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning
characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual performance and limitations in a number (two or
more) of adaptive living skills, such as home living or social skills.
 Giftedness: Gifted children possess demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high
performance capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, academic, or leadership ability or
visual or performing art. For that reason, these children require activities or services not provided
ordinarily by schools. Gifted and talented children tend to be highly motivated, learn to read early, and
perform well academically.
 Physical disabilities: This can include any of a number of disabilities, such as orthopedic
impairments (e.g., clubfoot or cerebral palsy) or other health impairments like asthma, hemophilia, or
lead poisoning.
 Visual disabilities: Visual disabilities can be divided into low vision and blindness. Individuals with
low vision can function but with assistance of optical or non-optical devices and environmental
modifications and/or techniques. Blindness refers to being without functional use of vision and reliance
on other sensory systems for education.
 Hearing disabilities: Hearing disability can be sub-divided into hard of hearing or profoundly hard of
hearing or deaf. People in the latter two groups cannot rely on audition as a primary avenue for
assessing information, even with the use of hearing aids. Those classified under the former rubric can
process auditory information, usually with help of a hearing aid. Hearing loss is measured in decibels
(amplitude of sound waves, a measure of loudness), ranging from mild hearing loss (inability to hear a
whispered conversation in a quiet atmosphere, 15-40 dB) to profound hearing loss (cannot hear
speech and perhaps hears only extremely loud noises such as a chain saw).
 Learning disabilities: Learning disability refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes in the understanding or using of language, written or spoken, which may manifest itself in
difficulty performing basic tasks like arithmetic, reading, writing, spelling, or attention. Causes can
include brain damage, dyslexia, or perceptual difficulties. However, the term learning disabilities does
not include problems resulting from conditions like mental retardation, environmental disadvantage, or
motor, visual, or hearing disabilities.
 Emotional/behavioral disorders: The term emotional/behavioral disorder refers to a condition lasting
an extended period of time and to a marked degree adversely affects a child’s educational
performance. It has the characteristics of an inability to learn, inexplicable by health, intellectual, or
sensory factors; inability to build or sustain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers or
teachers; inappropriate behaviors displayed under normal circumstances; pervasive mood of
unhappiness or depression; and a tendency to develop physical (sympathetic) symptoms of fears
associated with personal and school problems. Schizophrenia is one example, as are anxiety and
mood disorders.
 Speech disorders: People with speech problems can understand language code (rules governing
word construction, meaning, grouping, and pragmatics) but are nevertheless unable to communicate
with clarity due to stuttering or rough, hoarse, or nasal-sounding voices.
 Language problems relate to language code. They are either expressive or receptive. Students
with receptive language problems cannot understand language code (e.g., semantics or grammar). A
person with expressive language problems has not mastered language code substantially to
communicate thoughts, ideas, or feelings completely.
 Autism: Autism refers to a developmental disability affecting verbal and non-verbal communication
and social interaction. Autism is generally apparent prior to the age of three and is characterized by
repetitive behaviors, difficulty adapting to new environments, and unusual responses to sensory
stimulation.
What is Special and Inclusive Education?
Special education is the practice of educating students in a way that addresses their individual
differences and special needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically
monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. Its
goal is to provide access to basic education among children with special needs, namely, the gifted/talented,
the mentally retarded, the visually impaired, the hearing impaired, the orthopedically handicapped, the learning
disabled, the speech defectives and the children with behavior problems (DO 26, S. 1997 –
INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF SPED PROGRAMS IN ALL SCHOOLS).
Inclusive Education is a learning environment where children with and without disabilities are taught
together, as equals. This approach is different to more traditional approaches to the education of children with

22 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
disabilities, such as the SPED model used in the Philippines that involve segregating CWDs into separate
classes or even separate schools. Inclusive Education is recognized by teachers, families and policy makers to
be a more beneficial way of ensuring that children with and without disabilities achieve their full educational
potential. The Department of Education (DepED) has organized the urgency to address this problem and
therefore, guarantees the right for these children to receive appropriate education within the regular or
inclusive classroom setting. Inclusive education embraces the philosophy of accepting all children regardless
of race, size, shape, color, ability or disability with support from school staff, students, parents and the
community (Dep Ed Order 72, s. 2009 “Inclusive Education as Strategy for Increasing Participation Rate of
Children”).

Reference:

Lucas, Maria Rita D., and Corpuz, Brenda B., (2014). “Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process: 4 th
edition OBE and K to 12”.Lorimar Publishing, Inc., 776 Aurora Blvd, cor. Boston street, Cubao, Quezon
City, Metro Manila

Learner with exceptionalities and their category

https://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_8/38/9954/2548262.cw/-/2548265/index.html

Inclusive Education https://www.lcdphilippinesfoundation.org/inclusive-education/

Special and Inclusive Education-https://www.deped.gov.ph
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD

Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, Filipino 2

Name:_________________________________________________________ Course:_______________

Activity 5

Let’s evaluate:

I. Try to view one of these movies: Every child is special, I am Sam, Wonder
After watching the movie. Try to answer these from questions.
a. What is your reflection about the movie?
b. Is it easy for children with exceptionalities to associate with other children/people?
c. How will you help children/people with exceptionalities?

II. Interview a teacher in your locality who is teaching in a regular class mix with learners with
exceptionalities. Get their profile (Name, Address, Age, Sex, Rank, Length of service, Trainings on
Special And Inclusive Education) What were their experiences in managing their class? How did they
cope up with the challenges they have encountered?

23 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
Subject: EDUC 2 “Facilitating Learning” Instructor: Adoracion P. Quitoras, EdD
Course: BSEd English 2, Math 2, and Filipino 2

Topic 6: Behaviorist Perspective

Learning Outcomes:
 Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.
 Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
 Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.
Introduction:
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment).
It does not give much attention to the mind and possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and
Skinner.
Let’s Explore:
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was
measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical
conditioning.
Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from
the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response).

24 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After
conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response).
This is classical conditioning.
Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So at present, when
you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical conditioning.
Pavlov also had the following findings:
Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at th3 sound of the bell, it will salivate at other
similar sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished response can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will soon
extinguished again if dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would
result in the presentation of food and which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another
unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the
dog will salivate at f lash of the light without the sound of the bell.
Edward L Thorndike
Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred
years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He
explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such
associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more
than others because of rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that
learning could be adequate explained without considering any unobservable internal states.
Thordike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond
between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:
Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the
response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he
found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds and that some seemingly
pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the stronger
it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the
law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to
respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite
and then the teacher asks the question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not

25 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”
ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say the question first,
and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.
John Watson
John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially
involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior research.
He considered that human are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage.
All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He believed in the
power of conditioning so much that he said that if you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-
response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a
young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud
noise each time Albert touched the rat

26 | EDUC 2 ” F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n i n g ”