FACILITATING LEARNING (LUCAS & CORPUZ, 2ND EDITION 2011)  Meta-attention – is the awareness of specific strategies so that you
the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
Reference:
Lucas, M., et.al., Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, 2nd Edition,
Philippine Copyright 2011. LORIMAR Publishing, Inc. 776 Aurora Blvd., cor. Boston
Street, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila ISBN: 971-08-6078-X. Lifted by Dominic James
M. Lasco,. BEEd. – Generalist (TW)/7/13/2014…pages 1 – 179
“if you teach the person what to learn, you are preparing the person for the past, if you
teach the person how to learn you are preparing the person for the future”
- Cyril Houle
Teaching strategies to develop metacognition
 Have students monitor their own learning and thinking
 Have students learn study strategies
 Have students make predictions (about information to be presented next based
on what they have read)
 Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures
 Have students develop questions; (ask question by themselves about what’s
going on around them)
 Help students to know when to ask for help
 Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other
situations or task.
Metacognition – beyond knowledge, “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”, it
refers to a higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive processes.
Metacognition was coined by John Flavell, according to him metacognition consist of both
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences.
Flavell divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories;
1. Knowledge of person variables – how one’s view himself as a learner and thinker,
refers to knowledge about how human being learn and process information
2. Knowledge of task variables – includes knowledge about the nature of the task as
well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual,
KNOWING WHAT EXACTLY NEEDS TO BE ACCOMPLISHED
3. Knowledge of strategy variables - involves awareness of the strategy you are using
to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective,
Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist
attention focused
 Metamemory – is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you
These are variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition ( Omrod)
- Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacity.
- Knowing what learning task one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount
of time.
- Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
- Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
- Using effective learning strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
- Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in purposeful manner to
ensure that a goal is met.
Learner-centered psychological principles
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal but also
acknowledge external environmental factors.
 Intended to deal holistically with learners in context situations.
 Principles are intended to apply to all learners.
Cognitive and Metacognitive factors
1. Nature of the learning process – the learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience. (there’s a purpose of doing something)
2. Goals of the learning process – the successful learner, over time and with support
and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.()
3. Construction of knowledge – the successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking – the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. (depends on
the students)
5. Thinking about thinking – higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. ()
6. Context of learning – learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning – what and how much is
learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn is
 influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals and 2. Metacognition knowledge variables
habits of thinking. - Person variables – refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn – the learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and information
natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is - Task variables – includes the knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual.
and providing for personal choice and control. - Strategy variables – involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn the
9. Effects of motivation of effort – acquisition of complex knowledge and skills topic.
requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation  Meta-attention – awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. attention focused.
 Metamemory – awareness of memory strategies that works best for you.
Developmental and Social factors 3. Application of metacognition leads one to be an expert learner
- Characteristics of expert learners
10. Developmental influences of learning – as individual develop, there are different 4. Learners who do not use metacognition remain to be novice learners
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when - Characteristics of novice learners
differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account. Aspect of learning Novice learners Expert learners
11. Social influences of learning – learning is influenced by social interactions, Knowledge in Have limited Have deeper knowledge in different
interpersonal relations, and communication. different subject knowledge in the areas because they look for the
areas different subject interrelationship in the things they
Individuals Differences factors
areas learn
12. Individual differences of learning – learners have different strategies, approaches Problem solving Satisfied at just First try to understand the problem,
and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. scratching the look for boundaries, and create a
13. Learning and diversity – learning is most effective when differences in learners’ surface; hurriedly mental picture of the problem
linguistics, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. give the solution to
14. Standards and assessment – setting appropriately high and challenging standards the problem
and assessing the learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic, Learning and Employ rigid Design new strategies that would be
process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts the learning process. thinking strategies strategies that may appropriate to the task
 Ongoing assessment – not be appropriate
 Standardized assessment – to the task at hand
 Performance assessment – Selectivity in the Attempt to process Select important information to
 Self-assessment – processing all the information process; able to breakdown
that they received information to manageable chunks
Summary of the 14 principles (Alexander and Murphy) Production of Do not examine the Check their errors and redirect their
output quality of their efforts to maintain quality output
a. The knowledge base work, nor stop to
b. Strategic processing and control make revisions
c. Motivation and affect
d. Development and individual differences
e. Situation or context

Metacognition “thinking about thinking”

1. Metacognition and development

- Teaching strategies to develop metacognition
Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist

“The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.”
- Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud’s psychotherapy – biological factors play an important part in the
human’s personality
Psychosexual Stages of Development
1. Oral stage (birth to 1 y.o.) – eating is the major source of satisfaction.
2. Anal stage (1 to 3 y.o.) – the influencing factor at this stage is toilet training.
3. Phallic stage (3 to 6 y.o.) – greatest source of pleasure comes from sex organs
- Oedipus Complex – boys desire their mother
- Electra Complex – girls desire their father
4. Latency period (6 y.o. to adolescence) – children turn their attention to people
outside
5. Genital Stage (adolescence and beyond) – sexual impulses are active again.
MODEL OF PERSONALITY
 id – human beings basic needs which are unconscious and demands
satisfaction
Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist
 ego – the conscious attempt to balance the innate pleasure seeking drives
the human organism and the demands of the society
 super ego – may be thought of as our understanding of why we can’t have
everything we want, (ego-ided: standard of good behavior that we aspire ,
conscience: inner voice
Jean Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development
“The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are
capable of doing new things not simply repeating what other generations have done.”
- Jean Piaget
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for constructing a
highly influential model of child development and learning.
Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children
progress through them.
- Schema – Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment
- Assimilation – this is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structur or schema.
- Accommodation – this is the process of creating a new schema.
- Equilibration – is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. If our experiences did not match our schemata, we experiences
cognitive disequilibrium.
Stages of cognitive development
1. Sensori-motor stage – focuses on the senses and muscle movement corresponds from
birth to infancy. (reflexive in grasping, sucking. )
a. object permanence – ability of the child to know that an object still exist even when out
of sight.
2. Pre-operational stage - (2 to 7 y.o.) the child can now make mental representation and
its able to pretend (use of symbols).
a. symbolic function – ability to represent objects and events.
b. egocentrism – tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has some point.
c. centration – tendency of the child that focus on one aspect of a thing and exclude
others aspect.
d. irreversibility – inability to reverse their thinking. ex. 2+3=5 but can’t understand that
5-2=3.
e. animism – to attribute human like traits to the objects. 1. Attention
f. transductive reasoning – (inductive or deductive) refers to the pre-operational child’s 2. Sensation
type of reasoning (if A causes B, then B causes A) 3. Perception
4. Memory
3. Concrete-operational stage – (8 to 11 y.o.) ability of the child to think logically, only in
terms of concrete objects. Vygotsky’s term

a. decentering – ability of the child to think logically, only in terms of concrete objects. I. MKO = more knowledgeable others
(more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations) II. ZPD = zone of proximal development – it is the link between what the child
b. reversibility – the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. can do and cannot where it is sensitive for instructions that allows the learner
c. conversation - ability to know that certain properties of object like number, mass, to develop the skill that they already have and use it for learning new things.
volume, or area don’t change. And involves interactions
d. seriation – ability to order or arrange things in series based on one dimension (weight, III. Zone of actual development – area where the child don’t need the assistance
volume, time, color and size) of the literate adult.
IV. Language = is the main means by which adults transmit information to
4. Formal-operational stage – (12 to 15 y.o.) final stage, thinking becomes more logical, the children, and also very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Language is
can now solved more abstract problems and can hypothesize. therefore an accelerator for thinking and understanding.
 Thought is the result of language
a. hypothetical reasoning – ability to come up with different answer about the problem  Private speech/ internal speech – children who usually engaged on
and to gather and weigh data in order to (with the absence of concrete object) large amount of private speech is actually much more socially
b. analogical reasoning – ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that competent than those who do not.
to narrow down the possible answer.
c. deductive reasoning – ability to think logically by applying a general rule to particular Support from the literate adult and others
instance or situation.
a. Little independence – parents, siblings, teachers, other literate adults
b. Gradual independence – parents, teachers, other literate adults
NOTE: FOR ERIKSON’S THEORY PLEASE REFER TO FILE “erikson summary” c. Increasing independence – parents, teachers, peers
d. Towards independent reading and writing – teachers and learners
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory e. Totally independent reading and writing – learner
“The teacher must orient his work not yesterday’s development in the child but on Kholberg’s Stages of Moral Developmen
tomorrow’s.”
“Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that
- Lev Vygotsky have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”
Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development - Lawrence Kohlberg
- Scaffolding is a systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner that helps
the learner to effectively acquire the skill.
- Guidance from more knowledgeable others (MKO) would lead a learner to a higher
level performance.

Social interacton cognition

Elementary mental function higher mental function

Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist

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Brofenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory

“We as a nation need to be reeducated about the necessary and sufficient conditions for
making human beings human. We need to be educated not as parents – but as workers,
neighbors, and friends; and as member s of organizations, committees, boards – and,
especially, the informal networks that control our social institutions and thereby determine
the conditions of life for our families and their children.”

- Urie Bronfenbrenner

Microsystem - is a pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations

experienced by developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular
physical and material features, and containing other persons with distinctive
Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist
characteristics of temperament, personality, and systems of belief. The child
directly interacts with family, school, and neighborhood. It covers the basic
relationship and interactions his/her immediate environment.
Mesosytem – this layer serves as a connection between the structures of the
child’s microsystem. It comprises the linkages and processes taking place between
two or more settings containing the developing person (e.g., the relations between
home and school, school and workplace etc.). In other wards, a mesosystem is a
system of microsystems.
Exosystem – It refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not
function directly. Encompasses the linkage and processes taking place between
two or more settings, at least one of which does not ordinarily contain the
developing person, but in which events occur that influence processes within the
immediate settings that does contain that person (e.g. for a child, relation between
the home and the parent’s work place; for a parent, the relations between the
school and the neighborhood group).
Macrosystem - consists of the overarching pattern of micro-, meso-, and
exosystems characteristic of a given culture, subculture, or other broader social
context, with particular reference to the developmentally-instigative belief
systems, resources, hazards, life styles, opportunity structures, life course options,
and patterns of social interchange that are embedded in each of these systems.
Chronosystem - is a description of the evolution, development or stream of
development of the external systems in time. The chronosystem models can cover
either a short or long period of time. It covers he element of time as it relates to a
child’s environment. This involves patterns of stability
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Learning/ Thinking Styles – refer to the preferred way an individual process information.
Styles are also considered to be bipolar dimension. There are several perspective about
learning-thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory preferences and the global-analytic
continuum.

Sensory Preferences


Visual learners –
 Visual-iconic – interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays
or pictures in order to solidify to solidify learning.
 Visual—symbolic – prefer this form of input feel comfortable with
abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word.
Auditory learners – learns best through verbal lectures.

Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist

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 Listeners – they remember things said to them and make information
their own/ they learn by reviewing in their heads what they heard other
says.
 Talkers – prefers to talk and discuss/ auditory learners tend to whisper
comments to themselves.
Tactile/ kinesthetic - prefers a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical
world around them/ they benefit much from “learning-by-doing” and has good
motor skill and motor coordination.

Global-Analytic Continuum
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format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of the skill.

Verbal
(left brain) left-brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear verbal,
mathematical thinker and Tends;
 Toward the linear, step-by-step process of learning.
 To see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole.
 They are “”tree seers”.
 They are more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of
information.
Global thinkers – A simultaneous processor prefers to learn beginning with the
general concept and then going to specifics. right-brained person is one who is
global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences and Tends;
 To lean towards non-collinear thoughts
 To see the whole pattern rather than the particle elements
 They are the “forest seers”
 To give information to the overall structures and ignore details.

LEFT BRAIN (ANALYTIC): successive

hemispheric styles

Responds to word meaning

Sequential
Process information linearly
Responds to logic
Plans ahead
Recalls people’s name
Speaks with few gestures
Punctual
RIGHT BRAIN (GLOBAL): simultaneous

Visual
hemispheric styles

Responds to tone of voice

Random
Process information in varied order
Responds to emotion
Impulsive
Recalls people’s faces
Speaks with gestures
Less punctual
 Prefers formal study design

Prefers bright lights while studying

2.

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5.

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relationships.
Prefers sound/music background while
studying
Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner: He defined intelligence as “ an ability or set of

abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion product that is valued in one or
more cultures”

1. Verbal-Linguistic–The ability to use words and language

Logical-Mathematical–The capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and
reasoning, as well as the use of numbers and the recognition of abstract patterns
3. Visual-Spatial–The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create
internal images and pictures
4. Body-Kinesthetic–The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical
motion
5. Musical-Rhythmic–The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds, as well as a
sensitivity to rhythms and beats
6. Interpersonal–The capacity for person-to-person communications and

7. Intrapersonal–The spiritual, inner states of being, self-reflection, and awareness.

8. Naturalist- nature lover, someone that cares for the environment and love science.
9. Existential/ spirit smart – learning through seeing bigger picture, seeks connections
to the real world.
Teaching Strategies guided by thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.

Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling
factual information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
Provide a general overview of material to be learned i.e., structured overviews,
advance organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with
new ideas.
Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both
the right- and left-brain hemispheres.
Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experience.
Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction,
etc.
Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.
Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning.
Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising.

Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist

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MODULE 6: Learners with Exceptionalities (Department of Physical Medicine
Rehabilitation, Schiefelbusch Institute 1996)

As a teacher it is necessary that you have both the right information and proper attitude in
dealing with special learners. The IDEA (Individual with Disabilities Education Act) is the law
that provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners. On our 1987
Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec.2 uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5)
“Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training…

Disability – it is a measureable impairment or limitations that “interferes with a person’s

ability, for example, to walk, to lift, hear or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or
mental condition.

Handicap – it is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The

degree of disadvantage is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and
his environment.

Categories of exceptionalities

1. Specific cognitive or academic difficulties

 Learning disabilities – involve difficulties in specific cognitive process like
perception, language, memory or metacognition. Examples of this learning
disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations),
dysgraphia (writing), dysarthia (stuttering), auditory agnosia (hearing),
olfactory agnosia (hearing), motor aphasia (speaking) and visual agnosia
(sight).
  Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – (1) difficulty in focusing and Ivan Pavlov – a Russian physiologist is well known of his work in “classical conditioning or
maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior. stimulus substitution”
 Speech and Communication Disorder – inability to produce the sounds
correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension. Pavlov’s experiment: Classical Conditioning
 Autism – it is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social 1st Stage – before conditioning
interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interest.
They usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable environment. o Bell (neutral stimulus) No response
 Mental Retardation – it refers to significant sub-average intelligence and
deficits in adaptive behavior. 2nd Stage – During conditioning
 Emotional/ conduct Disorders – this involves the presence of emotional states
o Bell (neutral stimulus)
like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they
notably disturb learning performance in school.
Paired with
2. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
o Meat (unconditioned stimulus) Salivation (unconditioned response)
 Physical and health impairments – it involves physical or medical conditions
such as (1) limited energy and strength (2) reduced mental alertness and (3) 3rd Stage - After conditioning
muscle control.
 Severe and multiple disabilities – it refers to the presence of two or more o Bell (conditioned stimulus) Salivation (condition response)
different types of disability.
 Sensory Impairments Pavlov’s following findings:
- Visual impairments – these are conditions when there is malfunction of
 Stimulus generalization – once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the
the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision.
bell, it will salivate at the other similar sounds.
- Hearing impairments – malfunction of the auditory nerves that hinder
 Extinction – if you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually
perception of sounds.
cease in response to the bell.
 Giftedness – this involves a high level of cognitive development.
 Spontaneous recovery – extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an
3. People-First Language – the term would imply that putting the name of the person
elapsed time, but it will extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
then their disability. (person with AIDS, instead AIDS victim)
 Discrimination – The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli)
 Avoiding generic labels – people with mental retardation is preferable to the and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would
mentally retarded not.
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations – for instance, “uses a wheelchair” is  Higher-order Conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the
preferable “to confined in a wheelchair” bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus such as a light may be flashed at
 Avoiding euphemisms- (such as “physically challenged”) which are regarded as the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of
condescending and avoid the real issue that result from a disability the light without the sound of the bell.
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering – “had polio” is preferable to is “a polio
victim “ and “has multiple sclerosis” is preferable to “suffer from a multiple Edward Lee Thorndike – His “connectionism theory” (learning has taken place when strong
sclerosis” connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed/ learning could be
adequately explained without considering any unobservable internal states) gave us the
Module 7 Behaviorist Perspective (Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner)

Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist

original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. He explained that learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli and responses.
Primary Laws of connectionism theory
 Law of Effect – connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when
the consequence is positive, and it is weakened if the result is negative.
 Law of Exercise – the more S-R bond is practiced the stronger it will become.
 Law of Readiness – the more readiness the learner ha to respond to the stimulus
the stronger the bond between them.
Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism
1. Learing requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/ exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a functions of the number of connections learned.
John Watson – an American psychologist that work with Pavlov’s brainchild.
Experiment on Albert: In the beginning Alfred was not afraid of the rat. Then Watson
applied strange sounds every time Albert touches the rat. Eventually Albert was scared of
the rat.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner – known for his “operant conditioning”
- Reinforcement – is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is
anything the strengthens the desired response
Operant Conditioning
 Positive Reinforcement - a stimulus that is given or added to increase the
response
 Negative Reinforcement - is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency
of a response when it is withdrawn or remove
B.F. Skinner’s Terms:
o Punishment – is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses.
Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist
o Extinction/ non-reinforcment – Ignoring responses so that it will not be repeated.
o Shaping of behavior – successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded
until the person learns.
o Behavioral chaining – series of steps that are needed to be learn.
Reinforcement schedules:
o Fixed interval schedules – maintaining the time for reinforcement
o Variables interval schedules – anytime of the day will be given an reinforcement (it
produces steadier and more persistent rates of responses)
o Fixed ratio schedule – responses must occur before the reinforcement much like
the fixed interval schedules
o Variable ratio schedules – number of correct responses for reinforcement varies
much like variables interval schedules. (it produces steadier and more persistent
rates of responses)
Implication of Operant Conditioning (programmed for instruction)
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames
which expose the students to the subject gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate
feedback.
3. Try to arranged the difficulty of the questions so that response is always correct
and hence, a positive reinforcement
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers
such as the verbal praise, prizes and good grades.
Principle Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
a. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective.
b. Information should be presented in small amount so that responses can be
reinforce (“shaping”).
c. Reinforcement will generalize across similar stimuli “stimuli generalization”
producing secondary conditioning.
Module 8: Neo Behaviorism – Edward Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Albert
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Module 9: Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Theory – was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism, this term means a - Capacity – STM can hold chunks of information sometimes called 7+ / -2.
“form” or “configuration”. Psychologist Max Wertheimer Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka It is called working memory because it is where new information is
studied perception and concluded that perceivers (learners) were not passive but rather temporarily placed while it is mentally processed.
active. - Duration – around 18 seconds or less
 Long term memory – it is a final or permanent storing house for memory
Module 10: Information Processing Theory – relating how the mind and the computer is a information. It holds the stored information until needed again.
powerful analogy. - Capacity – LTM has unlimited capacity
- Duration – duration of LTM is definite
Cognitive psychologist believed that cognitive processes influenced the nature of what is
learned and also they look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information Executive Control Processes – also referred as the metacognitive skills
Types of Knowledge:  Forgetting – is the ability to retrieve or access information when needed
- Decay – information is not attended to, and eventually fades away.
a. General vs. specific: this involves whether the knowledge useful in many tasks, or
- Interference – new or old information blocks access to the information in
only in one.
question.
b. Declarative: this refers to factual knowledge; they may be in form of a word or an
image.  Methods for increasing retrieval of information
c. Procedural – includes knowledge on how to do things. - Rehearsal – this is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or
d. Episodic – includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation. aloud.
e. Conditional – this is about knowing when and why to apply declarative or - Meaningful learning – this is making connections between new
procedural strategies information and prior knowledge.
- Organizations – it is making connections among various pieces of
Sensory Register information. Info should be organized efficiently should be recalled.
- Elaboration – this is adding additional ideas to new information based on
1. Capacity – our mind receives amount of information but it is more than what are what one already knows. It is connecting new info with old, to gain
minds can hold or perceive. meaning.
2. Duration – the sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief – - Visual Imagery – this means forming a picture of the information.
in the order of 1 to 3 seconds. - Generation – things we produce are easier to remember than things we
3. Difference of duration based on modality – auditory memory is more persistent hear.
than visual. - Context – remembering the situation helps recover information.
- Personalization – it is making the information relevant to the individual.
Stages
 Other memory methods
 encoding - information is sensed, perceived, and attend to - Serial position effect (recency and primacy) – you will remember the
 storage - the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time beginning and end of list most readily.
 retrieval - the information is brought back at the appropriate time, and reactivated - Part learning – break up “list” or chunk the information to increase
for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory memorization
- Distributed practice – break up learning sessions, rather than cramming
The role of attention
all the info in at once. (massed practice)
 Short term memory
Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist
 - Mnemonic aids – these are memory techniques that learners may employ
to help them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This
includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word
and association techniques, among others.

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Information is received through the senses and goes through the sensory memory for a very
brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and
if given attention and it perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not
properly encoded forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the
information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.
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Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist
Jerome Bruner was born in New York.

“Learners are encouraged to discover facts and relationships for themselves”

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 Gagne’s principle;

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne named five
categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,

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Learning hierarchies define what intelecctual skills are to be learned and a
sequence of instruction;
a. Stimulus recognition
b. Response generation
c. Procedure following

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f. Concept information
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h. Problem solving

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David Ausebel’s Meaningful Learning Theory:

Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:

A. Derivative subsumption
B. Correlative assumption
C. Superordinate learning
D. Combinatorial learning

Application of Principles

1. Progressive differentation – this increase the stability and clarity of anchoring

ideas.

Lifted by: Dominic James M. Lasco, BEEd - Generalist

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