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The Universe's Building Blocks

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🔬 States of Matter
The Universe's Building Blocks

The universe is composed of 118 known elements, some naturally occurring in stars and
others artificially created. These elements serve as the fundamental building blocks of
everything around us. What's remarkable is that:

Each atom is made up of just three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons
Only about a quarter of these elements are common in everyday objects

Chemistry studies how these atoms combine to form everything from trees to
skyscrapers

Three States of Matter

All matter exists in one of three states: solids, liquids, or gases. These states differ in the
arrangement, movement, and energy of their particles.

Arrangement of Particles

Forces Between Kinetic

State Particle Arrangement Movement
Particles Energy

Vibrate about fixed Strong attractive

Solid Regular, closely packed Lowest
positions forces

Random, mostly touching Can move around Moderate

Liquid Medium
with some gaps each other attractive forces

Move at high speed Almost no

Gas Random, far apart Highest
in all directions attractive forces

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This particle arrangement explains why you can't walk through a brick wall (solid), can
move through water with resistance (liquid), and can easily move through air (gas).

Properties Based on Particle Arrangement

Solids: Maintain fixed shape due to strong forces between particles
Liquids: Take the shape of their container but maintain volume; usually less dense than
their solid form

Gases: Fill their container completely; a small volume of liquid can expand to a much
larger volume as gas (e.g., 5 cm³ of water becomes enough steam to fill a bucket)

Changes of State

Solid ↔ Liquid

Melting (solid → liquid)

Heat causes particles to vibrate faster

Eventually particles vibrate so much that forces can't hold them in fixed positions
Particles gain enough energy to move around each other
Occurs at the melting point

Requires energy input (heat)

Freezing (liquid → solid)

Cooling causes particles to move more slowly

Forces of attraction become strong enough to hold particles in fixed positions

Particles pack more closely together
Occurs at the freezing point (same temperature as melting point)

Releases energy

Liquid ↔ Gas
There are two different processes for this change:

1. Boiling (liquid → gas)

Occurs at a specific temperature (boiling point)

Requires strong heating
Particles gain enough energy to completely overcome forces of attraction

Visible bubbling occurs

Stronger forces between particles result in higher boiling points

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2. Evaporation (liquid → gas)

Occurs at any temperature

Fast-moving particles at the liquid surface escape into the gas phase

No bubbling visible; liquid slowly disappears

In closed containers, evaporation and condensation occur simultaneously

Condensation (gas → liquid)

Cooling causes gas particles to move slowly enough for attractive forces to form

Particles come together to form a liquid

Releases energy

Solid ↔ Gas

Sublimation (solid → gas)

Direct change from solid to gas without becoming liquid

Requires energy input

Occurs with only a few substances at normal pressure

Deposition (gas → solid)

Direct change from gas to solid

Releases energy

Also called "de-sublimation" by some

Key Point: Evaporation occurs at any temperature (like puddles drying at 5°C), while
boiling only occurs at one specific temperature (water boils at 100°C).

🧪 States of Matter
Sublimation

Sublimation is the process where a solid turns directly into a gas without passing through the
liquid state.

Carbon dioxide is an example of a substance that sublimes:

At ordinary pressures, liquid carbon dioxide does not exist

Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) turns directly from solid to gas at -78.5°C

When dry ice sublimes, it creates a white cloud as the cold carbon dioxide gas causes
water vapor in the air to condense (the carbon dioxide gas itself is invisible)

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Determining Physical States at Different Temperatures

To determine a substance's physical state at a particular temperature:

A substance is a solid at temperatures below its melting point

A substance is a liquid between its melting point and boiling point

A substance is a gas above its boiling point

Key Point: In science, room temperature is typically considered to be between 20°C and
25°C. Because there isn't a single fixed value, we must be careful when making
comparisons for substances that change state near room temperature.

Examples Using Temperature Lines

By comparing room temperature with melting and boiling points on a temperature line:

Melting Boiling State at Room

Substance Explanation
Point Point Temperature

Below Below
Room temperature is above
Oxygen room room Gas
oxygen's boiling point
temp temp

Room temperature falls

Bromine -7°C 59°C Liquid between bromine's melting
and boiling points

Above Above
Room temperature is below
Lithium room room Solid
lithium's melting point
temp temp

Example: Heating Bromine

When bromine is heated from -100°C to 100°C:

At -100°C: Solid (below melting point)

At -7°C: Begins to melt and become liquid

Between -7°C and 59°C: Remains liquid

At 59°C: Begins to boil and become gas

Above 59°C: Gas

Diffusion

Definition: Diffusion is the spreading out of particles from where they are at a high
concentration to where they are at a low concentration.

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Diffusion in Gases
When a gas like ammonia is released in a lab:

Ammonia particles travel at approximately 600 meters per second

Despite this speed, it takes time for the smell to spread throughout the room
This is because gas particles don't travel in straight lines but bounce off other air
particles

In the time it takes for the smell to reach all corners of the lab, each ammonia particle
may have traveled 30+ kilometers!

Demonstration of Diffusion in Gases

Example 1: Bromine and Air

Lower gas jar contains bromine gas (brown)

Upper jar contains air

When lids are removed, the brown color diffuses upward until both jars are uniformly
brown
Air particles also diffuse downward, resulting in an even mixture

Example 2: Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride This demonstration shows that particles of
different gases travel at different speeds:

Cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia solution is placed at one end of a glass
tube

Cotton wool soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid is placed at the other end

The gases diffuse along the tube and react to form white solid ammonium chloride:

NH3 (g) + HCl(g) → NH4 Cl(s)

​ ​

The white ring forms closer to the hydrochloric acid end because:

Ammonia particles (relative molecular mass 17) are lighter than hydrogen chloride
particles (relative molecular mass 36.5)
Lighter particles move faster

Ammonia particles travel further in the same amount of time

Diffusion in Liquids
Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases:

If a small jar of colored solution (e.g., potassium manganate(VII)) is placed in a gas jar
of water, it can take days for the color to diffuse throughout

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This slower diffusion occurs because:

1. Particles in liquids move more slowly than particles in gases

2. Particles in liquids are much closer together, leaving less space for movement
without collisions

The Dilution of Colored Solutions

When diluting a colored solution:

Example: 0.01g of potassium manganate(VII) in 1cm³ of water creates a deep purple

solution

If 1 drop = 0.05cm³, then 1cm³ contains 20 drops

Each drop contains 0.0005g of potassium manganate(VII)

When diluted to 10,000cm³, the purple color is just barely visible

This diluted solution contains 200,000 drops

For the color to be visible, each drop must contain at least one "particle" of potassium
manganate(VII)
This suggests there must be at least 200,000 particles in 0.01g

However, the actual number is much larger:

A potassium manganate(VII) particle weighs about 0.00000000000000000000026g

There are approximately 38,000,000,000,000,000,000 particles in 0.01g

Many particles per drop are needed to see the color

Solubility of Solids

Solutes, Solvents and Solutions

When a solid dissolves in a liquid:

The substance that dissolves is called the solute

The liquid it dissolves in is called the solvent

The liquid formed is called a solution

The dissolution process involves:

Breaking the attractive forces between particles in the solute

Forming new attractive forces between solvent particles and solute particles
Whether a solid dissolves depends on if the new attractive forces can overcome the
original ones

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Measuring Solubility (Chemistry Only)

The solubility of a solid in a solvent at a particular temperature is defined as "the mass of

solute which must dissolve in 100g of solvent at that temperature to form a saturated
solution."

In other words, solubility is the maximum mass of solute that can dissolve in 100g of solvent
at a specific temperature.

📊 Solubility and Solutions

Saturated Solutions
A saturated solution is a solution which contains as much dissolved solid as possible at a
particular temperature. There must be some undissolved solute present.

For example, the solubility of sodium chloride (common salt) in water at 25°C is about 36 g
per 100 g of water.

Investigating Solubility

Practical Procedure for Measuring Solubility

To measure the solubility of a solid in water (e.g., potassium nitrate at 40°C):

1. Weigh an evaporating basin

2. Heat water to just above the target temperature (40°C)

3. Add the solid (potassium nitrate) until no more dissolves (excess solid remains)
4. Cool to exactly the target temperature (40°C)
5. Pour off some solution into the evaporating basin (without any undissolved solid)

6. Weigh the evaporating basin with solution

7. Heat gently to evaporate all water
8. Weigh the evaporating basin with dry solid

9. Heat again and reweigh to ensure constant mass

Safety Note:

Wear eye protection

Heat gently to avoid burns from hot solid 'spitting' out

Calculating Solubility
The formula for calculating solubility:

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mass of solute
solubility (g/100 g) = × 100
mass of solvent
​

Example calculation:

Mass of evaporating basin: 25.72 g

Mass of basin + solution: 58.00 g
Mass of basin + dry crystals: 38.00 g

Therefore:

Mass of crystals = 38.00 - 25.72 = 12.28 g

Mass of water = 58.00 - 38.00 = 20.00 g

Solubility = (12.28 ÷ 20.00) × 100 = 61.4 g per 100 g of water

Solubility Curves
Solubility curves show how the solubility of a substance changes with temperature. For most
solids:

Solubility increases with temperature

The rate of increase varies between substances

Using Solubility Curves

Solubility curves can be used to:

1. Determine solubility at specific temperatures

2. Calculate the mass of crystals formed when a solution cools

3. Find the temperature at which crystallization begins

Example: For potassium nitrate (KNO₃)

At 90°C: 200 g dissolves in 100 g water

At 30°C: 50 g dissolves in 100 g water

If a saturated solution at 90°C cools to 30°C, 150 g of KNO₃ will crystallize out

Working with Solubility Curves - Example

For potassium chloride (KCl):

Temperature/°C Solubility/g per 100 g of water

10 31.2

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Temperature/°C Solubility/g per 100 g of water

30 37.2

40 40.0

70 48.5

90 53.9

From the solubility curve:

1. Finding solubility at a specific temperature:

At 50°C, solubility is 42.5 g per 100 g water

2. Finding maximum dissolved mass in a specific amount of water:

At 40°C, solubility is 40 g per 100 g water

In 50 g water, maximum mass = (50 ÷ 100) × 40 = 20 g

General formula:

mass of water (g)

maximum mass that dissolves (g) = × solubility (g per 100 g)
100 (g)
​

1. Finding crystallization temperature:

For a solution with 51.0 g KCl in 100 g water, crystals appear when temperature drops
below 80°C

2. Calculating mass of crystals formed:

If solution with 51.0 g KCl in 100 g water cools to 10°C

At 10°C, solubility is 31.2 g per 100 g water
Mass of crystals formed = 51.0 - 31.2 = 19.8 g

Important Notes

Always quote temperature with solubility since solubility varies with temperature
When a solution becomes saturated and cools further, excess solute "crystallizes out" or
"precipitates out" of the solution
Supersaturated solutions contain more dissolved solid than expected at a particular
temperature (not required for International GCSE)

🧪 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

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Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified into three main categories:

1. Elements: Substances that cannot be split into anything simpler by chemical means
2. Compounds: Formed when two or more elements chemically combine
3. Mixtures: Various substances mixed together without chemical reactions occurring

Elements
Elements are substances that can't be split into anything simpler by chemical means. An
element contains only one type of atom.

Key characteristics of elements:

Contain only one type of atom (with the same atomic number)
There are 118 elements shown in the Periodic Table
Examples include:

Pure metals (e.g., magnesium)

Oxygen gas
Diamond (a form of carbon)

Gold

Important note: While elements consist of one type of atom, most elements consist of
mixtures of isotopes, which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers due
to different numbers of neutrons.

Compounds

Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine. The elements
always combine in fixed proportions.

Key characteristics of compounds:

Formed by chemical combination of two or more elements

Elements combine in fixed proportions
Examples include:

Water (H₂O)
Silicon dioxide (SiO₂)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Hydrogen fluoride (HF)

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Magnesium fluoride (MgF₂)

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Methane (CH₄)

Mixtures
In a mixture, the various substances are mixed together and no chemical reaction
occurs.

Key characteristics of mixtures:

Components can be in any proportion

Made from elements and/or compounds

No chemical reaction occurs between components
Examples include:

Air (mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases)

Food and drinks
Mixture of gases like nitrogen and oxygen

Mixture of compounds like carbon dioxide and water vapor

Mixture of an element with a compound like carbon dioxide and nitrogen

Differences Between Mixtures and Compounds

1. Proportions
Compounds:

Elements combine in fixed proportions

Example: In water (H₂O), every molecule has exactly two hydrogen atoms combined with
one oxygen atom

Mixtures:

Components can be mixed in any proportion

Example: Hydrogen and oxygen gases can be mixed in any ratio

2. Properties
Compounds:

Properties are different from those of the constituent elements

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Example: Iron sulfide (FeS) reacts with acids to produce hydrogen sulfide gas, unlike
either iron or sulfur alone

Mixtures:

Each component retains its own properties

Example: In a mixture of iron and sulfur, iron remains grey and magnetic while sulfur
remains yellow

3. Ease of Separation
Compounds:

Cannot be separated by physical means

Require chemical reactions to separate the elements

Example: Water requires electrolysis to separate into hydrogen and oxygen

Mixtures:

Can be separated by physical means

Example: Iron and sulfur mixture can be separated using a magnet

Melting and Boiling Points

Pure substances (elements and pure compounds):

Melt and boil at fixed temperatures

Example: Pure water melts at 0°C and boils at 100°C

Mixtures:

Melt or boil over a range of temperatures

Impurities lower the melting point and raise the boiling point

Example: Adding 10g of salt to 1 liter of water lowers the melting point to about -0.6°C and
raises the boiling point to about 100.2°C

Important application: Melting point can be very useful in determining whether a substance
is pure.

🔬 Determining Purity and Separation of

Mixtures

Determining Purity Using Melting Points

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When synthesizing compounds like aspirin, melting point determination is a crucial method
to assess purity:

Record the temperature at which the sample starts to melt

Record the temperature at which it completely becomes liquid

Pure aspirin (a white powder) melts at 138°C

An impure sample might melt over a range of temperatures (e.g., 128-134°C)

A wide melting range and a melting point below the expected value indicate impurities in
the sample.

Separation of Mixtures
Separation techniques are fundamental in chemistry with applications in:

Processing crude oil

Producing fresh water from salt water

Uranium enrichment

Forensic science analysis

A mixture is not a pure substance. Small amounts of unwanted substances in a sample

are called impurities.

Filtration
Filtration separates a solid from a liquid using filter paper.

Components:

Filter paper in a funnel

Beaker to collect filtrate

Terminology:

Residue: Solid left in the filter paper

Filtrate: Liquid that passes through

Applications:

Separating sand from water

Separating two solids if only one is water-soluble

Crystallisation

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Crystallisation separates a solute from a solution.

Process:

1. Heat the solution in an evaporating basin to evaporate some water

2. Continue until an almost saturated solution forms (test by dipping a glass rod to see if
crystals form quickly)

3. Turn off heat and allow crystals to form as solution cools and more water evaporates

4. Remove crystals by filtration

Equipment needed:

Evaporating basin

Tripod and gauze

Heat source
Glass rod for testing

Making Pure Salt from Rock Salt

Rock salt contains salt contaminated with insoluble earthy/rocky impurities. The purification
process combines filtration and crystallisation:

1. Crush rock salt and mix with hot water

2. Salt dissolves but impurities remain undissolved

3. Filter the mixture - impurities remain on filter paper

4. Collect salt solution (filtrate)

5. Crystallise the solution to obtain pure salt

This method works for separating any mixture of two solids where one is water-soluble
and the other is not.

Simple Distillation
Simple distillation separates components of a solution, collecting both the solvent and
solute.

Process for separating salt water:

1. Salt solution is heated in a flask

2. Water boils and vaporizes

3. Water vapor passes through a condenser where it returns to liquid state

4. Pure water is collected as distillate

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5. Salt remains in the flask

Equipment:

Side-arm flask

Condenser with water inlet/outlet

Collection vessel

Heat source and gauze

If distillation continues, the salt solution becomes concentrated enough that salt will
crystallize out.

Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation separates miscible liquids with different boiling points.

Example: Separating ethanol and water

Water boils at 100°C

Ethanol boils at 78°C

Both liquids vaporize, but careful temperature control causes water to condense in the
fractionating column

Only ethanol vapor reaches the condenser

Equipment:

Flask containing mixture

Fractionating column (sometimes packed with glass beads)

Thermometer

Condenser

Collection vessel

Water is always fed into the lower end of the condenser to ensure it fills the condenser
jacket properly.

Note: The ethanol produced is approximately 96% pure, as it's impossible to remove the last
4% of water by distillation.

Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography separates mixtures of substances, particularly colored inks or food
colorings.

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Process:

1. Draw a pencil line ~1cm from bottom of chromatography paper

2. Place a spot of mixture on the line using a teat pipette or capillary tube

3. Suspend paper in a beaker with solvent below the pencil line

4. Cover beaker with a lid (e.g., watch glass) to saturate atmosphere with solvent

5. Allow solvent to rise up the paper

6. Remove paper when solvent nears top and mark the solvent front
7. Let paper dry

Factors affecting separation:

Affinity of substances for the paper

Solubility of substances in the solvent

Results interpretation:

Substances that don't move have high affinity for paper or low solubility

Substances that move with solvent front have low affinity for paper or high solubility
The pattern produced is called a chromatogram

If a dye doesn't move from the pencil line, it's insoluble in the chosen solvent. If it moves
with the solvent front, it's too soluble. In both cases, a different solvent should be tried.

📊 Paper Chromatography in Analysis

Understanding Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is an analytical technique used to separate and identify
components in a mixture. The technique works based on the principle that different
components in a mixture travel at different rates when carried by a solvent through paper.

Key Components in Paper Chromatography:

Stationary phase: The chromatography paper

Mobile phase: The solvent that moves up the paper

Sample: The mixture being analyzed (often dyes or inks)

Analyzing Mixtures Using Paper Chromatography

To identify specific dyes in a mixture using paper chromatography:

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1. Draw a pencil line near the bottom of the chromatography paper

2. Place spots of the unknown mixture and known reference dyes along this line

3. Place the paper in a solvent

4. Allow the solvent to travel up the paper, carrying the components at different rates
5. Compare the spots from the unknown mixture with those of the known dyes

Example Analysis:
In the example shown in Figure 2.13, a mixture (m) was analyzed alongside four known dyes
(d1, d2, d3, and d4). The mixture showed spots that corresponded to dyes d1, d3, and d4 in
both color and distance traveled.

Retardation Factor (Rf)

The Rf value is a quantitative measure used to describe how far spots move in paper
chromatography.

The Rf value is calculated using the formula:

distance moved by a spot (from the pencil line)

Rf =
distance moved by the solvent front (from the pencil line)
​

Key Points About Rf Values:

Rf values are always between 0 and 1
Rf values have no units

Rf values depend on:

The solvent used

The type of paper used

The specific compound being analyzed

Example Calculation:
For dye d3 in Figure 2.13:

2.9 cm
Rf = = 0.81
3.6 cm
​

Rf Values in the Example:

Component Rf Value

Blue spot in mixture m 0.25

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Component Rf Value

Orange spot in mixture m 0.56

Green spot in mixture m 0.81

Dye d1 0.56

Dye d2 0.36

Dye d3 0.81

Dye d4 0.25

Important: When measuring spots for Rf calculation, measure to the center of the spot.

Using Rf Values for Identification

By comparing Rf values of the unknown mixture with those of known dyes, we can identify the
components in the mixture:

The mixture contains dyes d1, d3, and d4 because their Rf values match those of spots in
the mixture

Dye d2 is not present in the mixture because its Rf value (0.36) doesn't match any spot in
the mixture

Considerations When Using Rf Values

For direct comparison, it's best to run the unknown mixture and reference compounds on
the same piece of paper

If using separate pieces of paper, ensure you use:

The same type of paper

The same solvent

The same experimental conditions

🧪 Atoms and Molecules

Definition of Atoms

An atom is the smallest piece of an element that can still be recognized as that element.

If you divide copper into smaller and smaller pieces, you would eventually reach an
individual copper atom. While an atom can be further split into protons, neutrons, and
electrons, the resulting particles would no longer be recognizable as copper.

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Molecules
A molecule consists of two or more atoms chemically bonded together (by covalent bonds).
Molecules can be formed from:

Atoms of the same element (e.g., H₂)

Atoms of different elements (e.g., H₂O)

Examples:
A hydrogen (H₂) molecule consists of 2 hydrogen atoms chemically bonded together
A water (H₂O) molecule consists of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom chemically
bonded together

Structure of the Atom

Atoms are composed of three fundamental subatomic particles:

Protons

Neutrons
Electrons

Arrangement of Subatomic Particles:

Nucleus: Contains protons and neutrons at the center of the atom
Electron cloud: Electrons are found at relatively large distances from the nucleus

Properties of Subatomic Particles:

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0

Electron 1/1836 -1

Note: Most of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus because electrons have a
much smaller mass than protons and neutrons.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

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Atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. This
determines which element the atom is.

Atomic Structure

Elements and Atomic Numbers

Each of the 118 different elements has a unique number of protons, which defines the
element's identity:

atomic number = number of protons

For example, if an atom has 8 protons, it must be an oxygen atom.

The mass number (also called the nucleon number) counts the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus:

mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

This information can be represented in notation as:

mass number
atomic number Element
​
symbol
59
For example: 27 Co ​

This cobalt atom contains 27 protons and 32 neutrons (59 - 27 = 32).

Therefore:

number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

Atomic Model
Important note about atomic models: While atoms are sometimes depicted with electrons
orbiting the nucleus like planets around the sun, this is misleading. Electrons are constantly
moving, and we cannot know their exact position at any moment. Instead, we can only
identify:

Their energy level

The region of space where they are likely to be found

Their approximate distance from the nucleus

Electrons with different energies are found at different distances from the nucleus.

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Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same atomic number) but with different mass
numbers due to different numbers of neutrons.

For example, carbon has three isotopes:

Carbon-12: 6 protons, 6 neutrons (12

6 C) ​

Carbon-13: 6 protons, 7 neutrons (13

6 C) ​

Carbon-14: 6 protons, 8 neutrons (14

6 C) ​

Despite having different numbers of neutrons, isotopes of the same element have identical
chemical properties because:

Chemical properties are determined by electrons

All isotopes of an element have the same number and arrangement of electrons

Relative Atomic Mass

The relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of an atom, accounting for the natural
abundance of each isotope. This is why some elements in the Periodic Table show decimal
values (like chlorine at 35.5).

Chlorine consists of two isotopes, 35 Cl and 37 Cl, with the former being more abundant (since
the relative atomic mass is closer to 35 than to 37).

To calculate relative atomic mass:

1. Determine the percentage abundance of each isotope

2. Calculate a weighted average of their masses

Example Calculation:
Boron contains 20% 10 B and 80% 11 B. To calculate its relative atomic mass:

For 100 atoms:

20 atoms have mass 10: 20 × 10 = 200

80 atoms have mass 11: 80 × 11 = 880
Total mass: 200 + 880 = 1080
1080
Average mass (relative atomic mass): 100 ​ = 10.8

Therefore, boron's relative atomic mass is 10.8.

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Electrons in Atoms

Since atoms are electrically neutral, the number of negatively charged electrons must equal
the number of positively charged protons:

number of electrons = number of protons

For example:

Oxygen (atomic number 8): 8 protons and 8 electrons

Chlorine (atomic number 17): 17 protons and 17 electrons

The atomic number is defined by the number of protons (not electrons) because the
number of electrons can change during chemical reactions, such as when atoms form ions.

Using the Periodic Table

The Periodic Table arranges atoms in order of increasing atomic number. When using the
Periodic Table:

The atomic number is the smaller number shown with each element

The other number is either the mass number of the most common isotope or the relative
atomic mass

Example:
For uranium shown as 238
92 U: ​

Atomic number = 92, so there are 92 protons

Since atoms are neutral, there are also 92 electrons

Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number = 238 - 92 = 146

Important Reminders
When writing element symbols with two letters:

First letter is capitalized

Second letter must be lowercase

Example: Co (cobalt) is different from CO (carbon monoxide)

The numbers in the International GCSE Periodic Table are relative atomic masses, not mass
numbers (with chlorine at 35.5 and copper at 63.5 being exceptions to the general pattern).

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