Question 1: If 𝑹 be the relation of 'congruence modulo 3' on the set 𝑰 of integers, then find the

equivalence classes of 𝑹.
Answer:
We are given the relation 𝑹 on the set of integers 𝑰 = ℤ, defined as:
𝒂 𝑹 𝒃 ⇔ 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃 (𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝟑)
This means two integers 𝒂 and 𝒃 are related under 𝑹 if and only if their difference 𝒂 − 𝒃 is divisible by 3. That is, 𝟑 ∣
(𝒂 − 𝒃).
We first note that 𝑹 is an equivalence relation on ℤ, because: ✅ Reflexive: For any integer 𝒂, 𝒂 − 𝒂 = 𝟎, which is
divisible by 3, so 𝒂 𝑹 𝒂. ✅ Symmetric: If 𝒂 − 𝒃 is divisible by 3, then 𝒃 − 𝒂 = −(𝒂 − 𝒃) is also divisible by 3, so 𝒃 𝑹 𝒂.
✅ Transitive: If 𝒂 − 𝒃 and 𝒃 − 𝒄 are both divisible by 3, then (𝒂 − 𝒃) + (𝒃 − 𝒄) = 𝒂 − 𝒄 is also divisible by 3, so 𝒂 𝑹 𝒄.
Since 𝑹 is an equivalence relation, it partitions ℤ into equivalence classes, where each class contains all integers that are
congruent to each other modulo 3.
When any integer 𝒙 is divided by 3, the possible remainders are 𝟎, 𝟏, or 𝟐. Hence, there are exactly 3 equivalence
classes, one for each remainder.
The equivalence classes are:
 The class of 𝟎 (integers divisible by 3):
[𝟎] = {𝒙 ∈ ℤ ∣ 𝒙 ≡ 𝟎 (𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝟑)} = {… , −𝟔, −𝟑, 𝟎, 𝟑, 𝟔, 𝟗, … }
 The class of 𝟏 (integers leaving remainder 1 when divided by 3):
[𝟏] = {𝒙 ∈ ℤ ∣ 𝒙 ≡ 𝟏 (𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝟑)} = {… , −𝟓, −𝟐, 𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟕, 𝟏𝟎, … }
 The class of 𝟐 (integers leaving remainder 2 when divided by 3):
[𝟐] = {𝒙 ∈ ℤ ∣ 𝒙 ≡ 𝟐 (𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝟑)} = {… , −𝟒, −𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟓, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟏, … }
Final Answer:
Therefore, the set of equivalence classes of 𝑹 is:
{[𝟎], [𝟏], [𝟐]}
where:
 [𝟎] contains all integers divisible by 3,
 [𝟏] contains all integers that give remainder 1 when divided by 3,
 [𝟐] contains all integers that give remainder 2 when divided by 3.
These three equivalence classes form a complete partition of the set of integers ℤ under the relation of congruence
modulo 3.

Question 2: Prove that relation of equivalence on a family of sets is an equivalence

relation.
Answer:
Let 𝓕 be a family of sets, and let 𝑹 be a relation defined on 𝓕 as follows: for any 𝑨, 𝑩 ∈ 𝓕,
𝑨𝑹𝑩 ⇔ 𝑨 = 𝑩
We want to prove that 𝑹 is an equivalence relation on 𝓕. By definition, a relation is an equivalence relation if it satisfies
the following three properties: reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Reflexive:
We must show that 𝑨 𝑹 𝑨 for all 𝑨 ∈ 𝓕. But clearly, 𝑨 = 𝑨, so 𝑨 𝑹 𝑨. ✅ Therefore, 𝑹 is reflexive.
 Symmetric:
We must show that if 𝑨 𝑹 𝑩, then 𝑩 𝑹 𝑨. If 𝑨 𝑹 𝑩, then 𝑨 = 𝑩. But equality is symmetric, so 𝑩 = 𝑨, which means 𝑩 𝑹 𝑨.
✅ Therefore, 𝑹 is symmetric.

Transitive:
We must show that if 𝑨 𝑹 𝑩 and 𝑩 𝑹 𝑪, then 𝑨 𝑹 𝑪. If 𝑨 𝑹 𝑩, then 𝑨 = 𝑩, and if 𝑩 𝑹 𝑪, then 𝑩 = 𝑪. By transitivity of
equality, 𝑨 = 𝑪, hence 𝑨 𝑹 𝑪. ✅ Therefore, 𝑹 is transitive.

Conclusion:
Since 𝑹 is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, 𝑹 is an equivalence relation on the family of sets 𝓕.

Question3: Define fuzzy set and explain it with two examples .

Answer:
A fuzzy set is a set in which each element has a degree of membership ranging between 𝟎 and 𝟏, instead of simply
belonging to the set (𝟏) or not (𝟎), as in classical (crisp) sets.
Formally, a fuzzy set 𝑨 in a universal set 𝑿 is defined by a membership function:
𝝁𝑨 : 𝑿 → [𝟎, 𝟏]
where 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) represents the degree of membership of 𝒙 in 𝑨.
In a crisp set, 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) can only be 𝟎 or 𝟏, but in a fuzzy set it can take any value in the interval [𝟎, 𝟏].
Fuzzy sets are useful for representing vague or imprecise concepts, like “tall,” “hot,” or “young.”

Example 1: Fuzzy set of "tall people"

Let 𝑿 be the set of people, and 𝑨 represent the fuzzy set of “tall people.” Define the membership function 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) as:
 If person 𝒙 has a height of 160 cm, then 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟐 (not very tall)
 If person 𝒙 has a height of 170 cm, then 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟔 (moderately tall)
 If person 𝒙 has a height of 190 cm, then 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝟏 (fully tall)
Here, people are partially tall to different degrees, instead of simply being tall or not.

Example 2: Fuzzy set of "hot days"

Let 𝑿 be the set of days of the year, and 𝑩 represent the fuzzy set of “hot days.” Define the membership function 𝝁𝑩 (𝒙)
based on temperature:
 If the temperature on day 𝒙 is 25°C, then 𝝁𝑩 (𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟑 (slightly hot)
 If the temperature is 30°C, then 𝝁𝑩 (𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟕 (quite hot)
 If the temperature is 40°C, then 𝝁𝑩 (𝒙) = 𝟏 (fully hot)
This shows that the concept of “hot” is gradual and subjective.

Summary:
A fuzzy set generalizes the idea of a set by allowing partial membership, making it very effective in dealing with
uncertain or imprecise data
.
Question 4: Prove that if 𝑮 is self-complementary then 𝑮 has 𝟒𝒌 or 𝟒𝒌 + 𝟏 vertices, where 𝒌 is an
integer.

Answer:
We are given a graph 𝑮 which is self-complementary, meaning:
 𝑮≅𝑮
where 𝑮 is the complement of 𝑮, and ≅ denotes graph isomorphism.
We aim to prove that if 𝑮 is self-complementary, then the number of vertices 𝒏 of 𝑮 satisfies:
𝒏 = 𝟒𝒌 or 𝒏 = 𝟒𝒌 + 𝟏, 𝒌 ∈ ℤ

Proof:
✅ Let 𝒏 be the number of vertices in 𝑮. ✅ Since 𝑮 is self-complementary, it must have the same number of edges as
its complement 𝑮. ✅ Total number of edges in a complete graph on 𝒏 vertices is:
𝒏 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)
=
𝟐 𝟐
In 𝑮, the number of edges 𝒆(𝑮) plus the number of edges in 𝑮 must equal 𝒏𝟐 . But since 𝑮 ≅ 𝑮, the number of edges in
𝑮 equals the number of edges in 𝑮, so:
𝟏 𝒏 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)
𝒆(𝑮) = 𝒆(𝑮) = =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏)
For 𝒆(𝑮) to be an integer, must be an integer. That is, 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) must be divisible by 4.
𝟒

Case Analysis:
We need to find all integers 𝒏 such that 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) is divisible by 4. Notice 𝒏 and 𝒏 − 𝟏 are consecutive integers — one is
even and the other is odd.
If 𝒏 is even: Let 𝒏 = 𝟐𝒎, then 𝒏 − 𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎 − 𝟏 (odd), so:
𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) = 𝟐𝒎(𝟐𝒎 − 𝟏)
Since 𝟐𝒎 is even, 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) is divisible by 2. But for divisibility by 4, 𝒎 must also be even, i.e., 𝒎 = 𝟐𝒌, so 𝒏 = 𝟒𝒌.
If 𝒏 is odd: Let 𝒏 = 𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏, then 𝒏 − 𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎, so:
𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) = (𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏)(𝟐𝒎) = 𝟐𝒎(𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏)
Here 𝟐𝒎 is even, but we still need divisibility by 4. 𝟐𝒎 already contributes one factor of 2, and 𝒎 must be even, i.e.,
𝒎 = 𝟐𝒌, so 𝒏 = 𝟒𝒌 + 𝟏.

Conclusion:
Therefore, 𝒏 must be of the form:
𝒏 = 𝟒𝒌 or 𝒏 = 𝟒𝒌 + 𝟏
where 𝒌 is any integer.
Thus, a self-complementary graph can only have 𝟒𝒌 or 𝟒𝒌 + 𝟏 vertices.

Question 5 : If 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑, prove that 𝒓 cannot be a rational number.

Answer:
We are given that 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑, and we want to prove that 𝒓 is not a rational number.

Proof:
𝒑
✅ Assume, for contradiction, that 𝒓 is a rational number. ✅ Then 𝒓 can be written as , where 𝒑 and 𝒒 are integers
𝒒
with no common factors (i.e., in lowest terms), and 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎.
From 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑, we have:
𝒑 𝟐
=𝟑
𝒒
 𝒑𝟐
=𝟑
𝒒𝟐
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟑𝒒𝟐
So 𝒑𝟐 is divisible by 𝟑, which implies that 𝒑 is also divisible by 𝟑 (since 𝟑 is prime). Let 𝒑 = 𝟑𝒌, where 𝒌 is some integer.
Substitute 𝒑 = 𝟑𝒌 back:
(𝟑𝒌)𝟐 = 𝟑𝒒𝟐
𝟗𝒌𝟐 = 𝟑𝒒𝟐
𝟑𝒌𝟐 = 𝒒𝟐
This shows 𝒒𝟐 is also divisible by 𝟑, so 𝒒 is divisible by 𝟑.
𝒑
But now both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are divisible by 𝟑, which contradicts the assumption that is in lowest terms.
𝒒

Conclusion:
Our assumption that 𝒓 is rational leads to a contradiction. Hence, 𝒓 cannot be a rational number.
Therefore, √𝟑 (or any number 𝒓 such that 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑) is irrational.
Here’s the full response to your two parts:

Question 6: What do you mean by 𝜶-cuts? Provide an example.

Answer:
An 𝜶-cut (also called an 𝜶-level set) is a concept from fuzzy set theory that helps convert a fuzzy set into a crisp set at a
given threshold level 𝜶, where 𝜶 ∈ [𝟎, 𝟏].

Definition:
Given a fuzzy set 𝑨 defined on a universal set 𝑿, with membership function 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙), the 𝜶-cut of 𝑨 is the crisp set of all
elements 𝒙 ∈ 𝑿 such that the membership degree of 𝒙 in 𝑨 is at least 𝜶.
Mathematically:
𝑨𝜶 = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿 ∣ 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) ≥ 𝜶}
Here 𝜶 is a fixed number between 𝟎 and 𝟏, and the 𝜶-cut 𝑨𝜶 is always a crisp (ordinary) subset of 𝑿.

Example:
Let 𝑿 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓}, and consider a fuzzy set 𝑨 on 𝑿 with membership function:
𝝁𝑨 (𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟏, 𝝁𝑨 (𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟓, 𝝁𝑨 (𝟑) = 𝟎. 𝟕, 𝝁𝑨 (𝟒) = 𝟏. 𝟎, 𝝁𝑨 (𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟑
For 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟓, the 𝟎. 𝟓-cut of 𝑨 is:
𝑨𝟎.𝟓 = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}
because these are the elements whose membership degree is at least 𝟎. 𝟓.
For 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟕, the 𝟎. 𝟕-cut of 𝑨 is:
𝑨𝟎.𝟕 = {𝟑, 𝟒}

Summary:
An 𝜶-cut of a fuzzy set is a crisp subset of elements whose membership degree is at least 𝜶. It is useful in fuzzy set
theory for representing fuzzy sets at different levels of precision.

Question 7 : State and prove Archimedean Property.

Answer:
Statement of Archimedean Property:
For any two positive real numbers 𝒙 > 𝟎 and 𝒚 > 𝟎, there exists a natural number 𝒏 ∈ ℕ such that:
𝒏𝒙 > 𝒚
In simple terms: no matter how small 𝒙 is and how large 𝒚 is, adding 𝒙 to itself sufficiently many times will eventually
exceed 𝒚.

Proof:
✅ Let 𝒙 > 𝟎 and 𝒚 > 𝟎. We want to show that there exists 𝒏 ∈ ℕ such that 𝒏𝒙 > 𝒚.

By contradiction:
Suppose no such 𝒏 exists. That means, for all 𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝒏𝒙 ≤ 𝒚.
This implies that the set:
𝑺 = {𝒏𝒙: 𝒏 ∈ ℕ}
is bounded above by 𝒚.

Completeness of ℝ:
Since 𝑺 is nonempty and bounded above, it has a least upper bound 𝒔 = 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝑺.
Now consider 𝒔 − 𝒙. Clearly, 𝒔 − 𝒙 < 𝒔. Since 𝒔 is the least upper bound, there must exist some 𝒎 ∈ ℕ such that:
𝒎𝒙 > 𝒔 − 𝒙
But then:
(𝒎 + 𝟏)𝒙 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒙 > (𝒔 − 𝒙) + 𝒙 = 𝒔
This contradicts the fact that 𝒔 is an upper bound of 𝑺.

Conclusion:
Our assumption was wrong. Therefore, there exists 𝒏 ∈ ℕ such that 𝒏𝒙 > 𝒚.
Hence, the Archimedean Property is proved.

Question 8 : What is an Eulerian Graph? Provide an example

An Eulerian graph is a graph in which it is possible to start at a vertex, traverse every edge exactly once, and return to
the starting vertex. Such a traversal is called an Eulerian circuit. For a graph to be Eulerian, it must be connected, and
every vertex must have an even degree. Eulerian graphs are named after Leonhard Euler, who studied them in the
context of the famous Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem. If a graph meets all the conditions, then it is said to have
an Eulerian circuit and is called an Eulerian graph.
Conditions (for undirected graphs):
A graph is Eulerian if:
o It is connected, and
o All vertices have even degree.

Example:
Consider a square:
Vertices: A, B, C, D Edges: AB, BC, CD, DA
Each vertex has degree 2 (even), and the graph is connected. So, this is an Eulerian graph.
Eulerian circuit: A → B → C → D → A

Question 9 : State and prove the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

✅ Answer:
Statement of Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:
Every integer 𝒏 > 𝟏 can be written as a product of prime numbers, and this factorization is unique up to the
order of the factors.
In other words: Any positive integer greater than 1 is either a prime itself or can be expressed as a product of primes,
and this prime factorization is unique (except for the order of the factors).

🔷 Proof:
We prove it in two parts — existence and uniqueness.

✍ Part 1: Existence
We need to show that every integer 𝒏 > 𝟏 can be expressed as a product of primes.
We use mathematical induction.
Base case: 𝒏 = 𝟐 Since 𝟐 is a prime number, it is already expressed as a product of itself. ✅
Inductive step: Assume that every integer 𝒌 such that 𝟐 ≤ 𝒌 < 𝒏 can be written as a product of primes. Now consider
𝒏:
 If 𝒏 is prime, then it is already expressed as a product of itself.
 If 𝒏 is composite, then it can be written as 𝒏 = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃, where 𝟏 < 𝒂 < 𝒏 and 𝟏 < 𝒃 < 𝒏. By the induction
hypothesis, both 𝒂 and 𝒃 can each be written as a product of primes. Therefore, 𝒏 itself is a product of these
primes.
Hence, by induction, every 𝒏 > 𝟏 can be expressed as a product of primes. ✅

✍ Part 2: Uniqueness
We need to show that this factorization is unique (except for the order of factors).
We prove by contradiction.
Suppose 𝒏 has two distinct prime factorizations:
𝒏 = 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 ⋯ 𝒑𝒓 = 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 ⋯ 𝒒𝒔
where 𝒑𝒊 and 𝒒𝒋 are all primes.
Since 𝒑𝟏 divides 𝒏, it must also divide the product 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 ⋯ 𝒒𝒔 . By a basic property of primes, 𝒑𝟏 must divide one of the
𝒒𝒋 . But since 𝒒𝒋 is prime, it must equal 𝒑𝟏 .
Cancel 𝒑𝟏 from both sides and repeat the process. At each step, we can pair equal primes from both sides, eventually
showing that the two factorizations are the same up to the order of factors.
Thus, the prime factorization is unique.

🔷 Conclusion:
Every integer 𝒏 > 𝟏 can be written as a product of primes in a unique way, except for the order of the primes. This is
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. ✅
Question 10: Write about simple application of fuzzy sets.
✅ Answer:
Fuzzy sets are used to model and handle situations involving imprecision, vagueness, or uncertainty, which cannot be
effectively represented using classical (crisp) sets.
Here are some simple and practical applications of fuzzy sets:

🔷 1. Control Systems
Fuzzy sets are widely used in fuzzy logic controllers, which are applied in systems where human-like reasoning is
preferred over precise mathematical models. ✅ Example: Automatic washing machines, air conditioners, and
refrigerators adjust their operation (e.g., wash time, cooling level) based on vague inputs like “dirty,” “cool,” or
“slightly hot.”

🔷 2. Decision Making
Fuzzy sets help in decision-making problems where criteria are subjective or not clearly defined. ✅ Example: In
hiring decisions, terms like “experienced,” “young,” and “skilled” can be expressed using fuzzy sets to rank candidates.

🔷 3. Pattern Recognition
Fuzzy sets are used in recognizing patterns where boundaries are not clear-cut. ✅ Example: Handwriting recognition,
speech recognition, and image processing.

🔷 4. Risk Assessment and Forecasting

Fuzzy sets help quantify and analyze uncertain risks or trends. ✅ Example: Stock market analysis, weather
prediction, and project risk assessment.

🔷 5. Medical Diagnosis
Fuzzy sets assist doctors in diagnosing diseases where symptoms are vague or overlapping. ✅ Example: Terms like
“high fever,” “moderate pain,” or “mild risk” are modeled using fuzzy sets.

🔷 Summary:
Fuzzy sets are a powerful tool to model and solve real-world problems that involve imprecision and human reasoning,
making them essential in control systems, decision making, prediction, recognition, and diagnosis.

Question 11: Write down the differences between fuzzy set and crisp set

✅ Answer:
🔷 Crisp Set (Definition in 100 words):
A crisp set, also called a classical or ordinary set, is a well-defined collection of distinct elements where membership is
binary and unambiguous. Each element of the universal set either fully belongs to the crisp set or does not belong at all.
This is expressed mathematically by a membership function 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) that takes values only 𝟎 or 𝟏. If 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝟏, the
element 𝒙 is in the set, and if 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝟎, it is not. Crisp sets are used when problems involve precise, exact, and well-
defined data without vagueness.
🔷 Fuzzy Set (Definition in 100 words):
A fuzzy set is an extension of a classical set that allows each element to have a degree of membership, representing
vagueness and imprecision. In a fuzzy set, the membership of an element is expressed using a membership function
𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) which can take any real value in the interval [𝟎, 𝟏]. A value of 𝟏 means full membership, 𝟎 means no
membership, and values between 𝟎 and 𝟏 represent partial membership. Fuzzy sets are widely used in real-life
problems, such as linguistic variables and human reasoning, where boundaries are not sharp
.
Question 12 Prove that a connected graph with 𝒏 vertices and (𝒏 − 𝟏) edges is a tree.
To prove that a connected graph with 𝒏 vertices and 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges is a tree, we’ll use definitions and logical reasoning.

Definitions to Remember:
 A tree is a connected graph with no cycles.
 A graph is connected if there is a path between every pair of vertices.
 A cycle is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex without repeating edges or vertices (except for the
start/end).
 A simple undirected graph is assumed (no multiple edges or loops).

Given:
 𝑮 is a connected graph.
 𝑮 has 𝒏 vertices.
 𝑮 has 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges.

To Prove:
 𝑮 is a tree, i.e., 𝑮 has no cycles.

Proof: (By contradiction)

1. Suppose 𝑮 has a cycle.
2. In a graph with a cycle, we can remove one edge from the cycle without breaking the connectivity of the
graph (since the rest of the cycle still connects the vertices).
3. So after removing one edge from the cycle:
o The graph is still connected.
o The number of edges becomes (𝒏 − 𝟏) − 𝟏 = 𝒏 − 𝟐.
4. But from graph theory, any connected graph must have at least 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges.
o If it has fewer than 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges, it becomes disconnected.
5. This is a contradiction because we assumed the graph remains connected after removing the edge and
still has fewer than 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges.
6. Therefore, our assumption (that the graph has a cycle) is wrong.

Conclusion:
 𝑮 has no cycles.
 Since 𝑮 is given to be connected, and we just showed it has no cycles, ⇒ 𝑮 is a tree.

✅ Hence, every connected graph with 𝒏 vertices and 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges is a tree.

Question 13 : Prove that the union of countable sets is countable .
Definitions to Remember:
 A set is countable if it is either finite or has the same cardinality as the set of natural numbers ℕ.
 A countable union means a union over a countable index set (usually ℕ), where each indexed set is countable.

Statement to Prove:
Let 𝑨𝟏 , 𝑨𝟐 , 𝑨𝟑 , … be countable sets. We want to prove that the union
𝑨 = ⋃ 𝑨𝒊
𝒊 𝟏
is countable.

Proof (Sketch Using Enumeration):

Since each 𝑨𝒊 is countable, we can list its elements (if infinite) as:
𝑨𝒊 = {𝒂𝒊𝟏 , 𝒂𝒊𝟐 , 𝒂𝒊𝟑 , … }
If any 𝑨𝒊 is finite, we can still list its elements and pad the rest with repetitions or blanks.
Now arrange all elements in an infinite table (grid form):
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 ⋯
𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ⋯
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱

Now enumerate the elements of this grid using a diagonal method (like Cantor’s diagonalization):
 First: 𝒂𝟏𝟏
 Then: 𝒂𝟏𝟐 , 𝒂𝟐𝟏
 Then: 𝒂𝟏𝟑 , 𝒂𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑𝟏
 And so on...
This enumeration gives us a single list of elements from all the sets.

Important Note:
 While listing, we skip duplicates to ensure each element appears only once in the final union.
 Even though the indexing is over an infinite number of countable sets, the process still yields a list (a sequence),
meaning the union is countable.

✅ Conclusion:
The countable union of countable sets is countable.

Question 14 If 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕, show that 𝒓 cannot be rational.

Objective:
We are given the equation 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕. We need to prove that the number 𝒓 satisfying this equation cannot be a rational
number, i.e., it must be irrational.
Key Concept:
A number is said to be rational if it can be written as the ratio of two integers. That means a rational number can be
expressed in the form:
𝒑
𝒓=
𝒒
where:
 𝒑 and 𝒒 are integers,
 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎,
𝒑
 and is in its lowest terms, i.e., 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒑, 𝒒) = 𝟏 (they have no common factor other than 1).
𝒒
We will use a proof by contradiction: We will assume 𝒓 is rational, and show that this leads to a contradiction.
Therefore, our original assumption must be false, which will imply that 𝒓 is not rational.

Proof (By Contradiction):

Assume that 𝒓 is a rational number. Then, by definition, there exist integers 𝒑 and 𝒒 (with 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎, and 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒑, 𝒒) = 𝟏)
such that:
𝒑
𝒓=
𝒒
Substitute this value into the equation 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕:
𝒑 𝟐 𝒑𝟐
=𝟕⇒ 𝟐=𝟕
𝒒 𝒒
𝟐
Now multiply both sides of the equation by 𝒒 to eliminate the denominator:
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟕𝒒𝟐
This means that 𝒑𝟐 is divisible by 7. In other words:
𝟕 ∣ 𝒑𝟐
Now, recall this important number theory result:
If a prime number divides the square of an integer, then it must also divide the integer itself.
Since 7 is a prime number, and 7 divides 𝒑𝟐 , it follows that:
𝟕 ∣ 𝒑 ⇒ 𝒑 = 𝟕𝒌 for some integer 𝒌
Now substitute 𝒑 = 𝟕𝒌 into the equation 𝒑 = 𝟕𝒒𝟐 :
𝟐

(𝟕𝒌)𝟐 = 𝟕𝒒𝟐 ⇒ 𝟒𝟗𝒌𝟐 = 𝟕𝒒𝟐

Divide both sides by 7:
𝟕𝒌𝟐 = 𝒒𝟐
This implies:
𝒒𝟐 is divisible by 𝟕 ⇒ 𝟕 ∣ 𝒒𝟐 ⇒ 𝟕 ∣ 𝒒
So both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are divisible by 7.

Contradiction:
𝒑
We earlier assumed that is in lowest terms, which means that 𝒑 and 𝒒 should not have any common factor other than
𝒒
1.
But we just proved that both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are divisible by 7, which means they have a common factor of 7.
𝒑
This contradicts our original assumption that is in lowest terms.
𝒒

Final Conclusion:
Since our assumption that 𝒓 is rational led to a contradiction, the assumption must be false.
Therefore, 𝒓 is not a rational number, i.e., 𝒓 is irrational.
✅ Hence, if 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕, then 𝒓 cannot be rational.

Question 15 : Prove that 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ⋅ lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃

Objective:
We are given two positive integers 𝒂 and 𝒃, and we need to prove that:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ⋅ lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃
This is a fundamental identity in number theory that shows a relationship between the greatest common divisor and the
least common multiple of two integers.

Definitions:
 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃): The greatest common divisor of 𝒂 and 𝒃 is the largest positive integer that divides both 𝒂 and 𝒃
without leaving a remainder.
 lcm(𝒂, 𝒃): The least common multiple of 𝒂 and 𝒃 is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both 𝒂
and 𝒃.

To Prove:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ⋅ lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃

Proof (Using Prime Factorization):

Let us write the prime factorizations of 𝒂 and 𝒃:
𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝒂 = 𝒑𝟏𝟏 ⋅ 𝒑𝟐𝟐 ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ 𝒑𝒏𝒏
𝒚 𝒚 𝒚
𝒃 = 𝒑𝟏𝟏 ⋅ 𝒑𝟐𝟐 ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ 𝒑𝒏𝒏
Where:
 𝒑𝟏 , 𝒑𝟐 , … , 𝒑𝒏 are all the prime numbers involved in the factorizations of 𝒂 and 𝒃
 If a prime does not appear in a number, its exponent is taken as zero
 𝒙𝒊 , 𝒚𝒊 ≥ 𝟎 for all 𝒊
Now:
 The gcd of 𝒂 and 𝒃 is given by:
𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝟏 ,𝒚𝟏 ) 𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝟐 ,𝒚𝟐 ) 𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝒏 ,𝒚𝒏 )
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒑𝟏 ⋅ 𝒑𝟐 ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ 𝒑𝒏
 The lcm of 𝒂 and 𝒃 is given by:
𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝒙𝟏 ,𝒚𝟏 ) 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝒙𝟐 ,𝒚𝟐 ) 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝒙𝒏 ,𝒚𝒏 )
lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒑𝟏 ⋅ 𝒑𝟐 ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ 𝒑𝒏
Now multiply 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) and lcm(𝒂, 𝒃):
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝒊 ,𝒚𝒊 ) 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝒙𝒊 ,𝒚𝒊 ) 𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝒊 ,𝒚𝒊 ) 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝒙𝒊 ,𝒚𝒊 )
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ⋅ lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒑𝒊 ⋅ 𝒑𝒊 = 𝒑𝒊
𝒊 𝟏 𝒊 𝟏 𝒊 𝟏
But:
𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝒊 , 𝒚𝒊 ) + 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝒙𝒊 , 𝒚𝒊 ) = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 (always true)
So:
𝒏
𝒙 𝒚𝒊
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ⋅ lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒑𝒊 𝒊 =𝒂⋅𝒃
𝒊 𝟏
✅ Conclusion:
We have shown that the product of the greatest common divisor and the least common multiple of two numbers is
equal to the product of the numbers themselves:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ⋅ lcm(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃
This completes the proof.

Question 1: State and prove the First Characterization Theorem of Fuzzy Complements.
Statement:
Let 𝑪: [𝟎, 𝟏] → [𝟎, 𝟏] be a function. Then 𝑪 is a fuzzy complement if and only if there exists a strictly increasing,
continuous function 𝒈: [𝟎, 𝟏] → ℝ such that 𝒈(𝟎) = 𝟎 and
𝑪(𝒂) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒂)) for all 𝒂 ∈ [𝟎, 𝟏],
𝟏
where 𝒈 is the pseudo-inverse of 𝒈.
Definitions Involved:
 A fuzzy complement 𝑪 is a function 𝑪: [𝟎, 𝟏] → [𝟎, 𝟏] satisfying:a
a. Boundary conditions: 𝑪(𝟎) = 𝟏, 𝑪(𝟏) = 𝟎
b. Monotonicity: 𝑪 is decreasing, i.e., if 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃, then 𝑪(𝒂) ≥ 𝑪(𝒃)
c. Continuity: 𝑪 is continuous
 The pseudo-inverse 𝒈 𝟏 of a strictly increasing function 𝒈 is defined as:
𝒈 𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝐬𝐮𝐩{𝒚 ∈ [𝟎, 𝟏] ∣ 𝒈(𝒚) ≤ 𝒙}

Proof:
(⇒) If 𝑪 is a fuzzy complement, then there exists such a function 𝒈:
Assume 𝑪 is a fuzzy complement. Define a function 𝒈 as:
𝒂
𝟏
𝒈(𝒂) = 𝒅𝒙,
𝟎 𝒉(𝒙)
𝒅
where 𝒉(𝒙) = − 𝑪(𝒙). Since 𝑪 is continuous and decreasing, 𝒉(𝒙) > 𝟎 almost everywhere, and 𝒈 is strictly increasing
𝒅𝒙
and continuous.
Now define:
𝑪(𝒂) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒂))
This satisfies the boundary conditions:
 𝑪(𝟎) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝟎)) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏)) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝑪(𝟎) = 𝟏
 𝑪(𝟏) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝟏)) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝟎) = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝑪(𝟏) = 𝟎
And this form maintains monotonicity and continuity due to properties of 𝒈 and its pseudo-inverse.
(⇐) If 𝑪(𝒂) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒂)), then 𝑪 is a fuzzy complement:
Assume 𝒈 is a strictly increasing, continuous function with 𝒈(𝟎) = 𝟎, and define:
𝑪(𝒂) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒂))
We verify the fuzzy complement conditions:
1. Boundary conditions:
o 𝑪(𝟎) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏)) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝑪(𝟎) = 𝟏
o 𝑪(𝟏) = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝟎) = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝑪(𝟏) = 𝟎
2. Monotonicity:
o If 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃, then 𝒈(𝒂) ≤ 𝒈(𝒃), hence 𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒂) ≥ 𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒃)
o Therefore, 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒂)) ≥ 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒈(𝟏) − 𝒈(𝒃)) ⇒ 𝑪(𝒂) ≥ 𝑪(𝒃)
3. Continuity:
 𝟏
o Since both 𝒈 and 𝒈 are continuous, 𝑪(𝒂) is also continuous.
Hence, 𝑪 is a fuzzy complement.

Conclusion:
The first characterization theorem of fuzzy complements provides a functional form for any fuzzy complement using a
strictly increasing, continuous function 𝒈. This representation ensures that all the properties of fuzzy complements—
monotonicity, boundary conditions, and continuity—are satisfied.
Question 2: State and prove Euler's formula for planar graph .
Euler’s Formula for Planar Graphs – Statement:
Let 𝑮 be a connected planar graph, i.e., a graph that can be drawn on a plane in such a way that no edges intersect
except at their endpoints. Let:
 𝑽 be the number of vertices (nodes) in the graph,
 𝑬 be the number of edges, and
 𝑭 be the number of faces (regions bounded by edges, including the outer or unbounded face),
then Euler's formula states that:
𝑽−𝑬+𝑭=𝟐
This equation holds for every finite, connected planar graph, regardless of its complexity, as long as it is drawn without
edge crossings.

Understanding the Terms:

 A vertex is a point in the graph.
 An edge is a line connecting two vertices.
 A face is a region bounded by edges. In a planar embedding, there is always one infinite (external) face that
surrounds the graph.
 A planar graph is one that can be drawn in the plane without any of its edges crossing each other.

Intuition Behind Euler’s Formula:

Euler’s formula shows a deep connection between geometry and combinatorics. Despite the wide variety of planar
graphs, the quantity 𝑽 − 𝑬 + 𝑭 is always 2, highlighting a topological invariant that is independent of the specific layout
or number of elements—as long as the graph is connected and planar.

Example:
Let’s consider a simple planar graph: a triangle.
 Vertices: 𝑽 = 𝟑
 Edges: 𝑬 = 𝟑
 Faces: 𝑭 = 𝟐 (1 interior + 1 exterior)
Then:
𝑽−𝑬+𝑭 = 𝟑−𝟑+𝟐 = 𝟐
Euler’s formula is satisfied.

Proof of Euler’s Formula:

We prove Euler’s formula by using mathematical induction on the number of edges 𝑬 in the graph.

Step 1: Base Case – Tree Graph (No Cycles)

A tree is a connected graph with no cycles. In such a graph:
 The number of edges is always 𝑬 = 𝑽 − 𝟏.
  Since there are no cycles, the graph doesn't enclose any space, hence there is only one face, the infinite (external)
face. So 𝑭 = 𝟏.
Using Euler’s formula:
𝑽 − 𝑬 + 𝑭 = 𝑽 − (𝑽 − 𝟏) + 𝟏 = 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟐
Hence, Euler’s formula holds for the simplest connected planar graphs: trees.

Step 2: Inductive Hypothesis

Assume that Euler’s formula holds for all connected planar graphs with 𝒌 edges, i.e.,
𝑽 − 𝑬 + 𝑭 = 𝟐 for 𝑬 = 𝒌

Step 3: Inductive Step – Graph with 𝒌 + 𝟏 Edges

Now consider a connected planar graph with 𝒌 + 𝟏 edges. Two cases arise:

Case 1: The graph contains a cycle

 Remove one edge from a cycle. The graph remains connected because removing an edge from a cycle doesn’t
disconnect the graph.
 The number of vertices 𝑽 remains unchanged.
 The number of edges becomes 𝑬 = 𝒌.
 Since a cycle forms a face, removing an edge merges two faces into one, so the number of faces becomes 𝑭 − 𝟏.
By the inductive hypothesis (for 𝑬 = 𝒌):
𝑽 − 𝒌 + (𝑭 − 𝟏) = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝑽 − (𝒌 + 𝟏) + 𝑭 = 𝟐
Hence, the formula holds for 𝒌 + 𝟏 edges when the graph has a cycle.

Case 2: The graph is a tree (i.e., no cycles)

This is already handled in the base case. In a tree:
 𝑬=𝑽−𝟏
 𝑭=𝟏
So again:
𝑽 − 𝑬 + 𝑭 = 𝑽 − (𝑽 − 𝟏) + 𝟏 = 𝟐
Thus, the base case and both parts of the inductive step confirm that the formula holds for all connected planar graphs.

Euler’s formula is thus a cornerstone in the study of planar graphs and geometric structures.
Question 3 : State and prove Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic .
Statement:
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that:
Every integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a product of prime numbers in a unique way, up to the order
of the factors.
That is, for every integer 𝒏 > 𝟏, there exists a factorization:
𝒏 = 𝒑𝟏 ⋅ 𝒑𝟐 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝒑𝒌
where each 𝒑𝒊 is a prime number, and this factorization is unique up to rearrangement of the primes.

Understanding the Theorem:

This theorem tells us two things:
1. Existence: Every number greater than 1 can be factored into a product of prime numbers.
2. Uniqueness: This factorization is unique, except for the order in which the primes are written.
For example:
  𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟑 ⋅ 𝟓 = 𝟐𝟐 ⋅ 𝟑 ⋅ 𝟓
 No other combination of different primes will multiply to 60.

Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

We prove the theorem in two parts: existence and uniqueness.

Part 1: Existence of Prime Factorization

We want to show that every integer 𝒏 > 𝟏 can be written as a product of primes.
We use mathematical induction on 𝒏.
Base Case:
Let 𝒏 = 𝟐.
 2 is a prime number, so the statement is true.
Inductive Step:
Assume that every number from 2 up to 𝒏 can be written as a product of primes. Now consider 𝒏 + 𝟏.
There are two cases:
 If 𝒏 + 𝟏 is prime, then it is already a product of a single prime (itself).
 If 𝒏 + 𝟏 is composite, then it can be written as 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃, where 𝟐 ≤ 𝒂, 𝒃 ≤ 𝒏. By the induction hypothesis, both 𝒂
and 𝒃 can be factored into primes. So 𝒏 + 𝟏 = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 is also a product of primes.
Thus, by induction, every integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a product of prime numbers.
Existence is proved.

Part 2: Uniqueness of Prime Factorization

We now prove that the prime factorization of a number is unique (apart from the order of the factors).
Let us suppose that there exists a number 𝒏 > 𝟏 that can be factored into two different sets of primes:
𝒏 = 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 … 𝒑𝒌 = 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 … 𝒒𝒎
where:
 All 𝒑𝒊 and 𝒒𝒋 are prime numbers
 The two factorizations are not the same, even after rearrangement.
Let’s suppose that 𝒏 is the smallest number for which this happens.
So:
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 … 𝒑𝒌 = 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 … 𝒒𝒎
Since 𝒑𝟏 divides the left-hand side, it must also divide the right-hand side. But the right-hand side is a product of
primes 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , … , 𝒒𝒎 .
From the basic property of primes:
If a prime 𝒑 divides a product 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 … 𝒒𝒎 , then it must divide at least one of the 𝒒𝒋 .
So 𝒑𝟏 ∣ 𝒒𝒋 for some 𝒋. But both 𝒑𝟏 and 𝒒𝒋 are primes, so this implies:
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒒𝒋
Now cancel 𝒑𝟏 from both sides of the equation (by dividing both sides by 𝒑𝟏 ). You are left with:
𝒑𝟐 ⋯ 𝒑𝒌 = 𝒒𝟏 ⋯ 𝒒𝒋 𝟏 𝒒𝒋 𝟏 ⋯ 𝒒𝒎
This is a smaller number than 𝒏, and has two different prime factorizations, contradicting our assumption that 𝒏 was
the smallest such number.
So, our assumption must be wrong, and the prime factorization must be unique.
Uniqueness is proved.
Question 4: Assuming Dedekinds theorem , Deduce the theorem of least upper bound
Our goal is to deduce this property assuming Dedekind's Theorem. That is, we will take Dedekind’s concept of a cut in
ℝ as an axiom and from it, derive the existence of a least upper bound for every non-empty subset of ℝ that is bounded
above.

Statement of Dedekind's Theorem (or Dedekind Cut Axiom)

Dedekind’s Theorem postulates the completeness of the real numbers in terms of "cuts." It says:
Suppose the real numbers ℝ are divided into two non-empty subsets 𝑨 and 𝑩, such that:
 Every element of 𝑨 is less than every element of 𝑩,
 𝑨 contains no greatest element,
Then there exists a real number 𝒓 ∈ ℝ such that:
 𝒓 ≥ 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨,
 𝒓 ≤ 𝒃 for all 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩, and
 This number 𝒓 is the exact “cut point” between 𝑨 and 𝑩.
This number 𝒓 fills the "gap" and guarantees there are no holes in the real line. Dedekind used this idea to construct
real numbers and prove their completeness.

. Strategy to Deduce the Least Upper Bound Property

Let us now assume Dedekind’s Theorem and deduce the Least Upper Bound Theorem.
Let 𝑺 ⊂ ℝ be non-empty and bounded above. Our goal is to find the smallest upper bound (i.e., supremum) of 𝑺.
Let us define two subsets of ℝ as follows:
 Let 𝑨 = {𝒙 ∈ ℝ ∣ 𝒙 < 𝒖 for some upper bound 𝒖 of 𝑺 and 𝒙 ∈ ℝ}
 Let 𝑩 = {𝒙 ∈ ℝ ∣ 𝒙 is an upper bound of 𝑺}
Clearly:
 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = ℝ,
 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = ∅,
 Every element of 𝑨 is less than every element of 𝑩.
Moreover, since 𝑺 is non-empty and bounded above:
 𝑩 is non-empty (because there is at least one upper bound),
 𝑨 is non-empty (since 𝑺 has members, and some numbers less than upper bounds must exist),
 𝑨 has no greatest element, because if it had, say 𝜶, then 𝜶 would not be an upper bound (since it is in 𝑨), and
there would exist 𝒔 ∈ 𝑺 such that 𝒔 > 𝜶, contradicting the assumption that 𝜶 is greatest in 𝑨.
Now, apply Dedekind’s Theorem to this cut (𝑨, 𝑩). The theorem guarantees the existence of a real number 𝜶 such that:
 𝜶 ≥ 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨
 𝜶 ≤ 𝒃 for all 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩
Thus, 𝜶 is the least upper bound of the set 𝑺.
We now confirm that 𝜶 satisfies the two required properties of the supremum:
1. 𝜶 is an upper bound: Since 𝜶 ≤ 𝒃 for all 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩, and all upper bounds of 𝑺 lie in 𝑩, 𝜶 is itself an upper bound.
2. 𝜶 is the least such bound: For any 𝜺 > 𝟎, 𝜶 − 𝜺 ∈ 𝑨, because otherwise 𝜶 − 𝜺 would be an upper bound
(i.e., in 𝑩), and hence 𝜶 wouldn’t be the least. Since 𝜶 − 𝜺 ∈ 𝑨, and 𝑨 contains numbers less than some
upper bound of 𝑺, it means there must be some 𝒔 ∈ 𝑺 such that:
𝒔>𝜶−𝜺
This shows that no smaller number than 𝜶 can bound 𝑺 from above.
Hence, 𝜶 = 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝑺.
5. Conclusion
By assuming Dedekind's Theorem, which ensures the completeness of ℝ through the existence of real numbers at every
cut between subsets, we have shown that every non-empty, bounded-above subset of real numbers has a least upper
bound in ℝ.
Thus, the Least Upper Bound Property of real numbers is logically deduced from Dedekind’s completeness axiom. This
result is crucial in real analysis and underpins many deeper theorems involving limits, continuity, and convergence.
Question 5: State and prove Division Algorithm Theorem.
Statement of the Division Algorithm Theorem:
Let 𝒂 and 𝒃 be integers such that 𝒃 > 𝟎. Then:
There exist unique integers 𝒒 (quotient) and 𝒓 (remainder) such that:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 where 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒃
In simple terms, when we divide any integer 𝒂 by a positive integer 𝒃, we can always find integers 𝒒 and 𝒓 such that the
remainder 𝒓 is non-negative and strictly less than 𝒃.

Examples to Understand the Statement:

1. Let 𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝒃 = 𝟔. Then 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟔 ⋅ 𝟑 + 𝟐. So, 𝒒 = 𝟑, 𝒓 = 𝟐, and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝟔.
2. Let 𝒂 = −𝟏𝟎, 𝒃 = 𝟑. Then −𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑 ⋅ (−𝟒) + 𝟐. So, 𝒒 = −𝟒, 𝒓 = 𝟐, and again 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝟑.
This theorem justifies why division with remainder works and ensures that the remainder is always in a predictable
range.

Proof of the Division Algorithm Theorem:

We divide the proof into two parts:
 Existence of such integers 𝒒 and 𝒓
 Uniqueness of 𝒒 and 𝒓

Part 1: Existence
Let 𝒂 ∈ ℤ, 𝒃 ∈ ℤ with 𝒃 > 𝟎. We aim to find integers 𝒒 and 𝒓 such that:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒃
We construct a set:
𝑺 = {𝒂 − 𝒃𝒌 ∣ 𝒌 ∈ ℤ, 𝒂 − 𝒃𝒌 ≥ 𝟎}
This set 𝑺 contains all non-negative integers of the form 𝒂 − 𝒃𝒌. Note:
 𝑺 is non-empty. For example, take 𝒌 sufficiently negative if 𝒂 < 𝟎, or start with 𝒌 = 𝟎 if 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎.
 𝑺 ⊆ ℤ 𝟎 , the non-negative integers.
By the Well-Ordering Principle, every non-empty subset of non-negative integers has a least element.
Let:
𝒓 = 𝒂 − 𝒃𝒒 ∈ 𝑺
be the smallest element of this set for some integer 𝒒. Then:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 with 𝒓 ≥ 𝟎
We now show that 𝒓 < 𝒃. If 𝒓 ≥ 𝒃, then:
𝒓 − 𝒃 = 𝒂 − 𝒃𝒒 − 𝒃 = 𝒂 − 𝒃(𝒒 + 𝟏)
This value is still non-negative (since 𝒓 ≥ 𝒃), and hence belongs to 𝑺. But 𝒓 − 𝒃 < 𝒓, which contradicts the minimality of
𝒓 in 𝑺.
Therefore, 𝒓 < 𝒃.
Thus, there exists 𝒒 ∈ ℤ such that:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 with 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒃
Part 2: Uniqueness
Suppose there are two pairs (𝒒, 𝒓) and (𝒒 , 𝒓 ) such that:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 with 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓, 𝒓 < 𝒃
Subtract the two equations:
𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 ⇒ 𝒃(𝒒 − 𝒒 ) = 𝒓 − 𝒓
Now, the left-hand side is divisible by 𝒃, so the right-hand side 𝒓 − 𝒓 must also be divisible by 𝒃.
But since both 𝒓 and 𝒓 lie in the interval [𝟎, 𝒃), their difference 𝒓 − 𝒓 must lie in (−𝒃, 𝒃). The only multiple of 𝒃 in this
interval is 0.
Hence,
𝒓 − 𝒓 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒓 = 𝒓 , and then 𝒒 = 𝒒
Thus, the pair (𝒒, 𝒓) is unique.

Conclusion:
For any integer 𝒂 and any positive integer 𝒃, there exist unique integers 𝒒 and 𝒓 such that:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 with 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒃
This result, called the Division Algorithm Theorem, provides the foundation for many important concepts in number
theory, such as the Euclidean algorithm, modular arithmetic, and congruences.
Question 6: Prove that there does not exist any rational number 𝒓 whose square is 7.
Statement to Prove:
We are asked to prove that:
There is no rational number 𝒓 ∈ ℚ such that 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕.
In other words, √𝟕 is irrational.

Proof by Contradiction:
We will use the method of contradiction. That is, we assume the opposite of what we want to prove and then show that
this leads to a contradiction.

Step 1: Assume √𝟕 is rational

Suppose that √𝟕 is rational. Then there exist integers 𝒑 and 𝒒 (with 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎) such that:
𝒑
√𝟕 =
𝒒
We also assume that this fraction is in its lowest terms, i.e., 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒑, 𝒒) = 𝟏 (meaning 𝒑 and 𝒒 have no common factor
other than 1).

Step 2: Square Both Sides

Squaring both sides of the equation:
𝒑 𝟐 𝒑𝟐
(√𝟕)𝟐 = ⇒𝟕=
𝒒 𝒒𝟐
Now, multiply both sides by 𝒒𝟐 :
𝟕𝒒𝟐 = 𝒑𝟐
So, 𝒑𝟐 = 𝟕𝒒𝟐
This means that 𝒑𝟐 is divisible by 7, so 7 divides 𝒑𝟐 .
Step 3: Use a Number Theory Fact
If a prime number divides the square of a number, it must also divide the number itself. So, since 7 divides 𝒑𝟐 , it
follows that 7 divides 𝒑.
Hence, we can write:
𝒑 = 𝟕𝒌 for some integer 𝒌

Step 4: Substitute Back into Equation

Now substitute 𝒑 = 𝟕𝒌 into the equation 𝟕𝒒𝟐 = 𝒑𝟐 :
𝟕𝒒𝟐 = (𝟕𝒌)𝟐 = 𝟒𝟗𝒌𝟐 ⇒ 𝒒𝟐 = 𝟕𝒌𝟐
So 𝒒𝟐 is also divisible by 7, meaning 7 divides 𝒒𝟐 . Again, using the same reasoning as before, this implies 7 divides 𝒒.

Step 5: Reach a Contradiction

So we have shown that both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are divisible by 7. That means they have a common factor of 7, contradicting our
𝒑
assumption that was in lowest terms.
𝒒
This contradiction shows that our original assumption—that √𝟕 is rational—is false.

Conclusion:
There does not exist any rational number 𝒓 such that 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕. Thus, √𝟕 is irrational.
Question 7: Write GCD of 7 and 131 as their linear combination.
Objective:
We are required to express the greatest common divisor (GCD) of the two integers 7 and 131 as a linear combination of
these numbers.
In other words, we want to find integers 𝒙 and 𝒚 such that:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟕, 𝟏𝟑𝟏) = 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝒚
This is a standard result in number theory and can be solved using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, which allows us
to find such integers 𝒙 and 𝒚 for any two integers 𝒂 and 𝒃.

Step 1: Apply the Euclidean Algorithm to find the GCD

We begin with the Euclidean Algorithm, which is used to compute the GCD of two integers by successive divisions.
Start with the two numbers: 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏, 𝒃 = 𝟕
We divide the larger number by the smaller and find the remainder:
1. 𝟏𝟑𝟏 = 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟓 ⇒ Quotient = 18, Remainder = 5
2. 𝟕 = 𝟓 × 𝟏 + 𝟐 ⇒ Quotient = 1, Remainder = 2
3. 𝟓 = 𝟐 × 𝟐 + 𝟏 ⇒ Quotient = 2, Remainder = 1
4. 𝟐 = 𝟏 × 𝟐 + 𝟎 ⇒ Remainder = 0, algorithm stops
Since the last non-zero remainder is 1, we conclude:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟕, 𝟏𝟑𝟏) = 𝟏

Step 2: Apply the Extended Euclidean Algorithm

Now that we know 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟕, 𝟏𝟑𝟏) = 𝟏, we want to express 1 as a linear combination of 7 and 131, i.e., find integers 𝒙 and
𝒚 such that:
𝟏 = 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝒚
To do this, we work backward through the equations obtained during the Euclidean Algorithm.
Start with the last non-zero remainder:
From step 3:
𝟏= 𝟓−𝟐×𝟐
From step 2, we know:
𝟐= 𝟕−𝟓×𝟏
Substitute this into the previous expression:
𝟏 = 𝟓 − 𝟐 × (𝟕 − 𝟓 × 𝟏) = 𝟓 − 𝟐 × 𝟕 + 𝟐 × 𝟓
𝟏= 𝟑×𝟓−𝟐×𝟕
Now, from step 1:
𝟓 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟖
Substitute into the expression for 1:
𝟏 = 𝟑 × (𝟏𝟑𝟏 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟖) − 𝟐 × 𝟕
𝟏 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟑𝟏 − 𝟑 × 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟖 − 𝟐 × 𝟕
𝟏 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟑𝟏 − 𝟕 × (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟐)
𝟏 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟑𝟏 − 𝟕 × 𝟓𝟔

Step 3: Final Expression

Thus, we have found the integers 𝒙 = −𝟓𝟔 and 𝒚 = 𝟑 such that:
𝟏 = 𝟕 ⋅ (−𝟓𝟔) + 𝟏𝟑𝟏 ⋅ 𝟑
Or written more cleanly:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟕, 𝟏𝟑𝟏) = 𝟏 = −𝟓𝟔 ⋅ 𝟕 + 𝟑 ⋅ 𝟏𝟑𝟏

Conclusion:
Using the Euclidean Algorithm and its extended form, we have shown that the greatest common divisor of 7 and 131 is
1, and it can be expressed as a linear combination of these two numbers:
𝟏 = −𝟓𝟔 ⋅ 𝟕 + 𝟑 ⋅ 𝟏𝟑𝟏
This result illustrates a key theorem in number theory: The GCD of any two integers can always be written as a linear
combination of those integers.
This theorem is one of the cornerstones of number theory and forms the basis for much of elementary mathematics,
cryptography, and the structure of integers.
Question 8: State and prove a decomposition theorem on Fuzzy sets.
Introduction:
Fuzzy set theory extends classical set theory by allowing elements to belong to sets with varying degrees of membership,
rather than just full inclusion or exclusion. One powerful concept in fuzzy set theory is the decomposition theorem,
which allows a fuzzy set to be expressed as a collection (or union) of its level sets or α-cuts.
This theorem is foundational in analyzing, visualizing, and reconstructing fuzzy sets using crisp sets.

Decomposition Theorem (Level-Set Decomposition):

Let 𝑨 be a fuzzy set defined on a universal set 𝑿, i.e.,
𝑨 = {(𝒙, 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙)) ∣ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑿}
Then the decomposition theorem states:
Every fuzzy set 𝑨 can be represented as the union of its α-level cuts multiplied by α, i.e.,
𝑨 = ⋃ 𝜶𝑨𝜶
𝜶∈(𝟎,𝟏]
where:
 𝑨𝜶 is the α-level set (α-cut) of the fuzzy set 𝑨, defined as:
𝑨𝜶 = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿 ∣ 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) ≥ 𝜶}
  𝜶𝑨𝜶 is a fuzzy set with:
𝜶, 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨𝜶
𝝁𝜶𝑨𝜶 (𝒙) =
𝟎, otherwise
This decomposition expresses 𝑨 as a supremum (maximum) over many fuzzy sets with constant membership grades on
their respective α-cuts.

Intuition Behind the Decomposition Theorem:

The idea is that we can "slice" the fuzzy set 𝑨 horizontally at different levels 𝜶 ∈ (𝟎, 𝟏], forming crisp sets 𝑨𝜶 at each
level. By assigning each of these sets a constant membership value 𝜶, and then taking their union, we can reconstruct
the original fuzzy set.
Just like how a three-dimensional object can be reconstructed from its cross-sectional slices, a fuzzy set can be rebuilt
from its α-cuts.

Proof of the Decomposition Theorem:

Let us prove that:
∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑿, 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝐬𝐮𝐩 𝝁𝜶𝑨𝜶 (𝒙)
𝜶∈(𝟎,𝟏]
Step 1: For fixed 𝒙 ∈ 𝑿, consider the right-hand side
From the definition of 𝜶𝑨𝜶 :
𝜶, if 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) ≥ 𝜶
𝝁𝜶𝑨𝜶 (𝒙) =
𝟎, if 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) < 𝜶
So for fixed 𝒙, the set of all 𝜶 ∈ (𝟎, 𝟏] such that 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) ≥ 𝜶 is the interval (𝟎, 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙)]. Therefore:
𝐬𝐮𝐩 𝝁𝜶𝑨𝜶 (𝒙) = 𝐬𝐮𝐩 𝜶 = 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙)
𝜶∈(𝟎,𝟏] 𝜶 𝝁𝑨 (𝒙)
This shows that:
𝝁𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝐬𝐮𝐩 𝝁𝜶𝑨𝜶 (𝒙)
𝜶∈(𝟎,𝟏]
Which implies:
𝑨= ⋃ 𝜶𝑨𝜶
𝜶∈(𝟎,𝟏]
Hence, the fuzzy set 𝑨 can be exactly reconstructed as the union (supremum) of these fuzzy sets.

Conclusion:
The Decomposition Theorem for fuzzy sets states that any fuzzy set can be expressed as a union of its α-level sets scaled
by α. This provides an elegant and powerful way to analyze and reconstruct fuzzy sets using crisp components. It is a
key theoretical tool in fuzzy set theory, useful in computation, decision-making, and fuzzy inference systems.
Question 9 : What are bipartite graphs? Provide an example of a bipartite graph which is
not a tree.
Definition of Bipartite Graph:
A bipartite graph is a type of graph whose set of vertices can be divided into two disjoint subsets 𝑼 and 𝑽 such that:
Every edge connects a vertex in 𝑼 to a vertex in 𝑽 — that is, no two vertices within the same subset are
adjacent.
Formally, a graph 𝑮 = (𝑽, 𝑬) is bipartite if:
 The vertex set 𝑽 can be partitioned into two sets 𝑼 and 𝑾 such that:
𝑽 = 𝑼 ∪ 𝑾 and 𝑼 ∩ 𝑾 = ∅
 For every edge (𝒖, 𝒗) ∈ 𝑬, either 𝒖 ∈ 𝑼 and 𝒗 ∈ 𝑾, or vice versa.
Bipartite graphs are used in many applications such as matching problems, scheduling, and network flows.
Key Properties:
 A graph is bipartite if and only if it contains no odd-length cycles.
 All trees are bipartite, because they are acyclic and therefore contain no odd cycles.

Example of a Bipartite Graph that is Not a Tree:

Let’s construct a simple bipartite graph that is not a tree.
Consider the graph 𝑮 with vertex sets:
 𝑼 = {𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 }
 𝑽 = {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 }
And the edge set:
 𝑬 = {(𝒖𝟏 , 𝒗𝟏 ), (𝒖𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 ), (𝒖𝟐 , 𝒗𝟏 ), (𝒖𝟐 , 𝒗𝟐 )}
This graph is called the complete bipartite graph 𝑲𝟐,𝟐 .
Properties of this graph:
 All edges go between vertices in 𝑼 and vertices in 𝑽.
 It does not contain any edge connecting vertices within 𝑼 or within 𝑽, so it is bipartite.
 It contains cycles, for example: 𝒖𝟏 → 𝒗𝟏 → 𝒖𝟐 → 𝒗𝟐 → 𝒖𝟏 is a cycle of length 4.
 Since it contains cycles, it is not a tree.

Conclusion:
A bipartite graph is a graph whose vertex set can be divided into two disjoint sets such that no two vertices within the
same set are adjacent. An example of a bipartite graph that is not a tree is the complete bipartite graph 𝑲𝟐,𝟐 , which has
cycles and hence fails to be a tree.
Question 10: State and prove the solvability condition for a Diophantine equation 𝒂𝒙 +
𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄.
Introduction:
A linear Diophantine equation is an equation of the form:
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄
where:
 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 are given integers,
 𝒙 and 𝒚 are unknowns to be solved in integers.
The central question is: Under what conditions does this equation have integer solutions?

Solvability Condition:
The linear Diophantine equation 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄 has integer solutions if and only if:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ∣ 𝒄
That is, the greatest common divisor of 𝒂 and 𝒃 must divide 𝒄.

Proof:
We will prove this theorem in two parts:

Part 1: Necessity (If the equation has a solution, then 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ∣ 𝒄)

Assume that the equation:
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄
has a solution for some integers 𝒙 and 𝒚.
Let 𝒅 = 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃). Then by definition of gcd, 𝒅 divides both 𝒂 and 𝒃.
Therefore, there exist integers 𝒎 and 𝒏 such that:
𝒂 = 𝒅𝒎, 𝒃 = 𝒅𝒏
Substitute into the equation:
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = (𝒅𝒎)𝒙 + (𝒅𝒏)𝒚 = 𝒅(𝒎𝒙 + 𝒏𝒚)
So:
𝒄 = 𝒅(𝒎𝒙 + 𝒏𝒚) ⇒ 𝒅 ∣ 𝒄
Thus, if the equation has a solution, then 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ∣ 𝒄.
Necessity is proved.

Part 2: Sufficiency (If 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) ∣ 𝒄, then the equation has a solution)

Now assume that 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝒅 and that 𝒅 ∣ 𝒄.
Since 𝒅 = 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃), by the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, there exist integers 𝒙𝟎 and 𝒚𝟎 such that:
𝒂𝒙𝟎 + 𝒃𝒚𝟎 = 𝒅
𝒄
Now multiply both sides by 𝒌 = , which is an integer (since 𝒅 ∣ 𝒄):
𝒅
𝒂(𝒌𝒙𝟎 ) + 𝒃(𝒌𝒚𝟎 ) = 𝒅𝒌 = 𝒄
So the pair 𝒙 = 𝒌𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚𝟎 is an integer solution to the equation:
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄
Sufficiency is proved.

General Solution:
Once a particular solution (𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 ) is found to 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄, all solutions can be expressed as:
𝒃 𝒂
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + ⋅ 𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 − ⋅ 𝒕, for all 𝒕 ∈ ℤ
𝒅 𝒅
Where:
 𝒅 = 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃)
 𝒕 is any integer

Example:
Solve the equation:
𝟏𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐𝟓𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
 First, 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟏𝟓, 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟓
 Check if 𝟓 ∣ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 → Yes
So the equation has integer solutions.
Using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟏𝟓, 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓(𝟐) + 𝟐𝟓(−𝟏) ⇒ 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓(𝟐) − 𝟐𝟓(𝟏)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Multiply both sides by = 𝟐𝟎:
𝟓
𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓(𝟒𝟎) − 𝟐𝟓(𝟐𝟎)
So one particular solution is 𝒙 = 𝟒𝟎, 𝒚 = −𝟐𝟎

Conclusion:
The linear Diophantine equation 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄 has integer solutions if and only if 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) divides 𝒄. This condition not
only tells us when solutions exist, but also allows us to construct all solutions using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
Question 11: Prove that the set of real numbers is uncountable .
Introduction:
In set theory, a set is called countable if its elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the natural
numbers ℕ. A set that cannot be listed in this way is called uncountable.
We are to prove that the set of real numbers ℝ is uncountable.
To do this, we will use a classical method introduced by the mathematician Georg Cantor, called Cantor’s diagonal
argument.

Goal:
We will prove that the set of real numbers in the interval (0, 1) is uncountable. Since this interval is a subset of ℝ, and
even it is uncountable, it follows that the entire set ℝ is also uncountable.

Proof Using Cantor’s Diagonal Argument:

We proceed by contradiction.
Step 1: Assume the contrary — that real numbers in (0, 1) are countable
Suppose all real numbers in the interval (𝟎, 𝟏) can be listed as an infinite sequence:
𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 , 𝒓𝟑 , …
Where each real number is written in its decimal expansion (excluding representations ending in all 9s for uniqueness):
$$r_1 = 0.a_{11}a_{12}a_{13}a_{14}\dots \\ r_2 = 0.a_{21}a_{22}a_{23}a_{24}\dots \\ r_3 =
0.a_{31}a_{32}a_{33}a_{34}\dots \\ \vdots$$
Where each 𝒂𝒊𝒋 is a digit from 0 to 9.

Step 2: Construct a new number that is not in the list

We now construct a real number 𝒓 in (𝟎, 𝟏) such that 𝒓 is not equal to any 𝒓𝒊 .
We define 𝒓 by changing the diagonal digits of the list:
Let:
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 𝒃𝟒 …
Where:
𝟓, if 𝒂𝒊𝒊 ≠ 𝟓
𝒃𝒊 =
𝟔, if 𝒂𝒊𝒊 = 𝟓
This ensures that for each 𝒊, 𝒃𝒊 ≠ 𝒂𝒊𝒊 . That is, the digit 𝒃𝒊 differs from the 𝒊th digit of the 𝒊th number in the list.
Hence, the number 𝒓 differs from:
 𝒓𝟏 in the first digit,
 𝒓𝟐 in the second digit,
 𝒓𝟑 in the third digit, and so on.
Thus, 𝒓 ≠ 𝒓𝒊 for any 𝒊 ∈ ℕ.

Step 3: Contradiction
This contradicts the assumption that all real numbers in (𝟎, 𝟏) were listed in the sequence 𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 , 𝒓𝟑 , ….
Therefore, the set of real numbers in (𝟎, 𝟏) is not countable.

Conclusion:
Since even the subset (𝟎, 𝟏) ⊂ ℝ is uncountable, the entire set of real numbers ℝ is uncountable. This result shows that
not all infinities are equal — while the set of natural numbers is infinite and countable, the real numbers form a larger
type of infinity.
Question 12: Prove that a connected planar graph with 𝒏 vertices and 𝒆 edges has 𝒆 +
𝟐 − 𝒏 regions.
Introduction:
In graph theory, a planar graph is a graph that can be drawn on a plane such that no edges cross each other. A region
(or face) in a planar drawing of a graph is a maximal area bounded by edges, including the infinite outer region.
We are to prove that for a connected planar graph with 𝒏 vertices and 𝒆 edges, the number of regions 𝒓 satisfies:
𝒓=𝒆+𝟐−𝒏
This result is known as Euler’s Formula for connected planar graphs.

Statement to Prove:
Let 𝑮 be a connected planar graph with:
 𝒏 vertices,
 𝒆 edges,
 𝒓 regions (faces),
Then:
𝒓=𝒆+𝟐−𝒏
Equivalently:
𝒏−𝒆+𝒓=𝟐
This is known as Euler's characteristic of a planar graph.

Proof by Induction on the Number of Edges 𝒆:

We will prove the formula using mathematical induction on the number of edges 𝒆 in a connected planar graph.

Base Case:
Consider a connected planar graph with:
 𝒏 = 𝟏 vertex
 𝒆 = 𝟎 edges
This is a trivial graph — just a single point.
 Number of regions 𝒓 = 𝟏 (the whole plane)
Now check the formula:
𝒓=𝒆+𝟐−𝒏=𝟎+𝟐−𝟏=𝟏
True for base case.

Inductive Step:
Assume that any connected planar graph with fewer than 𝒆 edges satisfies the formula 𝒓 = 𝒆 + 𝟐 − 𝒏.
We now consider a connected planar graph with 𝒏 vertices and 𝒆 edges.
We consider two cases:

Case 1: The graph is a tree (i.e., it has no cycles)

For a tree with 𝒏 vertices:
 It has exactly 𝒆 = 𝒏 − 𝟏 edges
 It has only one region (the whole plane), i.e., 𝒓 = 𝟏
Now check:
𝒓 = 𝒆 + 𝟐 − 𝒏 = (𝒏 − 𝟏) + 𝟐 − 𝒏 = 𝟏
Formula holds for trees.

Case 2: The graph has at least one cycle

If the graph has at least one cycle, then removing one edge from a cycle will:
 Not disconnect the graph (since cycles are redundant for connectivity),
  Reduce the number of edges by 1,
 Reduce the number of regions by 1 (since removing an edge from a cycle merges two regions into one),
 Keep the number of vertices unchanged.
Let the new graph have:
 𝒆 = 𝒆 − 𝟏 edges,
 𝒓 = 𝒓 − 𝟏 regions,
 𝒏 vertices (unchanged)
By the induction hypothesis, the reduced graph satisfies Euler's formula:
𝒓 =𝒆 +𝟐−𝒏
Substitute:
𝒓 − 𝟏 = (𝒆 − 𝟏) + 𝟐 − 𝒏 ⇒ 𝒓 = 𝒆 + 𝟐 − 𝒏
So the original graph also satisfies Euler's formula.

Conclusion:
By mathematical induction, we have proved that for any connected planar graph with 𝒏 vertices and 𝒆 edges, the
number of regions 𝒓 in its planar drawing is given by:
𝒓=𝒆+𝟐−𝒏
This is a fundamental result in graph theory and plays a crucial role in understanding the structure of planar graphs.
Question 13: Prove that the real number system is a complete ordered field.
Introduction:
In mathematics, particularly in analysis and algebra, the real number system ℝ is foundational. It is defined by a
unique combination of algebraic and order properties, along with a crucial property called completeness. Our aim is to
prove that ℝ satisfies all the properties required to be called a complete ordered field.

Definitions:
To understand and prove this, we break the statement into three parts:
1. Field:
A field is a set equipped with two operations — addition and multiplication — satisfying the following:
 Closure under addition and multiplication
 Associativity of both operations
 Commutativity of both operations
 Existence of additive and multiplicative identities
 Existence of additive inverses and multiplicative inverses (except for zero)
 Distributivity of multiplication over addition
2. Ordered Field:
A field 𝑭 is an ordered field if there exists a total order ≤ on 𝑭 such that:
 If 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃, then 𝒂 + 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 + 𝒄 for all 𝒄 ∈ 𝑭
 If 𝟎 ≤ 𝒂 and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒃, then 𝟎 ≤ 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃
This allows meaningful comparison between elements (e.g., positivity, inequalities).
3. Completeness:
An ordered field 𝑭 is complete if:
Every non-empty subset of 𝑭 that is bounded above has a least upper bound (supremum) in 𝑭.
This property does not hold in ℚ (rationals), but does hold in ℝ.

Proof That ℝ is a Complete Ordered Field:

We verify each part:
Step 1: ℝ is a Field
The set ℝ satisfies all field axioms:
 Closure: ℝ is closed under addition and multiplication
 Associativity: Both operations are associative
 Commutativity: Addition and multiplication are commutative
 Identities: 𝟎 is the additive identity, 𝟏 is the multiplicative identity
 Inverses: Every 𝒂 ∈ ℝ has −𝒂 ∈ ℝ, and if 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎, then 𝒂 𝟏 ∈ ℝ
 Distributivity: 𝒂(𝒃 + 𝒄) = 𝒂𝒃 + 𝒂𝒄
Hence, ℝ is a field.

Step 2: ℝ is an Ordered Field

There exists a total order ≤ on ℝ such that:
 For any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℝ, either 𝒂 < 𝒃, 𝒂 = 𝒃, or 𝒂 > 𝒃
 If 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃, then 𝒂 + 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 + 𝒄
 If 𝟎 ≤ 𝒂 and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒃, then 𝟎 ≤ 𝒂𝒃
This order is compatible with the algebraic operations. Hence, ℝ is an ordered field.

Step 3: ℝ is Complete
This is the crucial property that distinguishes ℝ from ℚ.
Let 𝑺 ⊆ ℝ be a non-empty set that is bounded above. That is, there exists some 𝑴 ∈ ℝ such that 𝒔 ≤ 𝑴 for all 𝒔 ∈ 𝑺.
Then the Least Upper Bound Property (also called the Supremum Property) says:
There exists a least upper bound 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝑺 ∈ ℝ
This property is built into the construction of real numbers (e.g., via Dedekind cuts or Cauchy sequences).
Example:
Let 𝑺 = {𝒙 ∈ ℚ ∣ 𝒙𝟐 < 𝟐}. This set is bounded above (e.g., by 2), and though 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝑺 = √𝟐 ∉ ℚ, it is in ℝ. So ℝ fills in all
such “gaps,” making it complete.

Conclusion:
We have verified that the real number system ℝ:
1. Satisfies all field axioms (algebraic structure)
2. Has a total order compatible with operations (ordered field)
3. Possesses the least upper bound property (completeness)
Hence, the set of real numbers forms a complete ordered field, and it is the unique (up to isomorphism) complete
ordered field in mathematics.
Question 14: Explain Euclidean Algorithm and Division Algorithm with the best suitable example.

Introduction:
The Euclidean Algorithm and the Division Algorithm are two important tools in number theory, especially for working
with integers and computing the greatest common divisor (GCD).
 The Division Algorithm is a method of expressing any integer in terms of a quotient and a remainder when
divided by another integer.
 The Euclidean Algorithm builds on the division algorithm to efficiently compute the GCD of two integers.
Let’s explain both of these in detail with a clear example.
1. Division Algorithm
Statement:
Let 𝒂 and 𝒃 be integers with 𝒃 > 𝟎. Then there exist unique integers 𝒒 (quotient) and 𝒓 (remainder) such that:
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓 where 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒃
This is not a true “algorithm” but a foundational theorem — it tells us that division with remainder is always possible
and unique.
Example:
Let 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏, 𝒃 = 𝟕
We divide 131 by 7:
 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟖 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔
 Remainder 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐𝟔 = 𝟓
So, by the Division Algorithm:
𝟏𝟑𝟏 = 𝟕 ⋅ 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟓
Here:
 𝒒 = 𝟏𝟖 (quotient)
 𝒓 = 𝟓 (remainder)
This expression will help us in the Euclidean Algorithm.

2. Euclidean Algorithm
Goal:
To find the GCD (greatest common divisor) of two positive integers 𝒂 and 𝒃, denoted 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃).
Idea:
Keep applying the Division Algorithm repeatedly:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒃, 𝒓)
until the remainder becomes 0. The last non-zero remainder is the GCD.

Example: Find 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝟏𝟑𝟏, 𝟕)

We will use the Euclidean Algorithm:
1. 𝟏𝟑𝟏 = 𝟕 ⋅ 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟓
2. 𝟕 = 𝟓 ⋅ 𝟏 + 𝟐
3. 𝟓 = 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟐 + 𝟏
4. 𝟐 = 𝟏 ⋅ 𝟐 + 𝟎
Since the remainder becomes 0, the last non-zero remainder is:
𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟏𝟑𝟏, 𝟕) = 𝟏
Hence, 131 and 7 are coprime (they have no common divisors except 1).

Why are these algorithms important?

 The Division Algorithm gives a foundational way of expressing one number in terms of another.
 The Euclidean Algorithm provides an efficient method for finding the GCD, which is fundamental in simplifying
fractions, solving Diophantine equations, and cryptography.

Conclusion:
 The Division Algorithm allows any integer to be written as 𝒂 = 𝒃𝒒 + 𝒓, with 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒃.
 The Euclidean Algorithm uses this process repeatedly to compute the GCD of two numbers.
 Example used: 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏, 𝒃 = 𝟕; result: 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝟏𝟑𝟏, 𝟕) = 𝟏
These concepts are cornerstones of elementary number theory and have wide-ranging applications in both pure and
applied mathematics.
Question 15 : If 𝒇 is a decreasing generator, then a function 𝒈 defined by 𝒈(𝒂) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒂); 𝒂 ∈
[𝟎, 𝟏], is an increasing generator with 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝒈(𝟎), and 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂) = 𝒇 𝟏 (𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂). Prove it.

Given:
 𝒇: [𝟎, 𝟏] → ℝ is a decreasing generator, i.e., 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟏, 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟎, and 𝒇 is continuous and strictly decreasing on
[𝟎, 𝟏].
 Define 𝒈(𝒂) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒂) for 𝒂 ∈ [𝟎, 𝟏]
We are to prove that:
5. 𝒈 is an increasing generator
6. 𝒈(𝟎) = 𝟎, 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟏
7. 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂) = 𝒇 𝟏 (𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂)

Step 1: Show that 𝒈 is increasing

Since 𝒇 is decreasing, for 𝒂𝟏 < 𝒂𝟐 , we have:
𝒇(𝒂𝟏 ) > 𝒇(𝒂𝟐 ) ⇒ 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒂𝟏 ) < 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒂𝟐 ) ⇒ 𝒈(𝒂𝟏 ) < 𝒈(𝒂𝟐 )
Hence, 𝒈 is strictly increasing on [𝟎, 𝟏].

Step 2: Show that 𝒈 is a generator

We must verify:
 𝒈(𝟎) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟎
 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝟎 = 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟏
So 𝒈 maps [𝟎, 𝟏] → [𝟎, 𝟏], is strictly increasing, continuous, and satisfies 𝒈(𝟎) = 𝟎, 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝟏. Thus, 𝒈 is an increasing
generator.

Step 3: Find and verify 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂)

We are to prove:
𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂) = 𝒇 𝟏 (𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂)
Let’s denote:
 𝒙 = 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂) ⇒ 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒂
 But 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒙) So:
𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂 ⇒ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝒇 𝟏 (𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂)
Hence:
𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂) = 𝒇 𝟏 (𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂)
Proven.

Conclusion:
 If 𝒇 is a decreasing generator, then 𝒈(𝒂) = 𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒇(𝒂) defines an increasing generator.
 It satisfies:
𝒈(𝟎) = 𝟎, 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝟏, and 𝒈 𝟏 (𝒂) = 𝒇 𝟏 (𝒇(𝟎) − 𝒂)
This transformation is often used in fuzzy logic and t-norm theory to construct dual operations.

1. Countable union of countable sets is enumerable. = True

2. The unit interval [𝟎, 𝟏] contains finite number of real numbers. = False
3. A set in which supremum & infimum are the same. = False
4. Fuzzy set theory is a tool to handle the uncertainty arising due to vagueness. = True
5. ‾ | is defined as |𝑨
The cardinality |𝑨 ‾ | = ∑𝒙∈𝑿 𝝁𝑨‾ (𝒙). = True
6. Maximum number of vertices in a graph with 35 edges and all vertices are of degree at least 3 is 23. = True
7. If a tree has 100 vertices then the number of edges is 101. = False
8. Countable union of countable sets is enumerable. = True
9. The unit interval [𝟎, 𝟏] contains finite number of real numbers. = False
10. A set in which supremum & infimum are the same. = False
11. Fuzzy set theory is a tool to handle the uncertainty arising due to vagueness. = True
12. The cardinality |𝑨‾ | is defined as |𝑨
‾ | = ∑𝒙∈𝑿 𝝁𝑨‾ (𝒙). = True
13. Maximum number of vertices in a graph with 35 edges and all vertices are of degree at least 3 is 23. = True
14. If a tree has 100 vertices then the number of edges is 101. = False
15. Every Platonic graph is an Euler graph. = False
16. A Diophantine equation is not a polynomial equation. = False
17. Every tree is bipartite graph. = True

11. ℚ is an uncountable set. = False

12. The interval [𝟎, 𝟏] is an uncountable set. = True
13. A set can be bounded without having infimum. = True
14. Fuzzy sets equips us to deal with uncertainty. = True
15. The cardinality of set of irrational numbers is a real number. = True
16. Maximum number of vertices in a graph with 30 edges and all vertices are of degree 2 at least is 34. = True
17. If a chain has 20 vertices then number of edges is 21. = False
18. Every Euler graph is a Platonic graph. = False
19. Division algorithm is only applicable for positive integers. = False
20. 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 is a prime number for some 𝒏. = True

21. If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are countable then 𝑨 × 𝑩 is also countable. = True

22. A bounded set has a supremum. = True
23. The crisp set satisfies involute property. = True
24. Extension principle in fuzzy set is used for fuzzyfying crisp function. = True
25. A tree is connected path without any circuit. = True
26. A binary tree has exactly one vertex of degree 2. = False
27. For odd integers 𝒂 + 𝒃, 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 is divisible by 8. = True
28. Any connected graph with 𝒏 vertices and (𝒏 − 𝟏) edges is a tree. = True
29. There is a unique path between every pair of vertices in a tree. = True
𝒏
30. For odd integer 𝒏, we have 𝒏 − 𝟏. = False
𝟐