Lesson 1: PLANT BODY are distinguished by the relative distribution

Plants are living organisms belonging to the vegetal of the vascular and ground tissues.
kingdom that can live
on land and water. Plant body is composed The vascular system of the stem is
of organs and tissues necessary to maintain found between the epidermis and the center
life. Stems, roots, and leaves are the main of the axis.
types of plant organs others are flowers, The primary vascular tissues are
fruits, and seeds. commonly being arranged in the form of a
ring of bundles as seen in transverse
The axis of a plant body is section of stem. In the leaf, the vascular
composed of two parts: system consists of many interconnected
1. Aerial portion – the stem strands (bundles) are found in the ground
2. Subterranean portion – tissue. The ground tissue of a leaf consists
the roots of photosynthetic parenchyma known as
mesophyll.
Three types of appendages arising During secondary growth, the
from the axis: original primary vascular system may be
1. Leaves - are found to be obscured by secondary vascular tissues
arranged on the stem in a between the primary xylem and the primary
definite manner, and bear phloem.
an intimate structural In the root, the pith may be absent,
relation to the skeleton of and the cortex is generally shed during
the axis. The leaf is the secondary growth.
lateral expansion of the
stem. All fundamental
parts of the stem are LESSON 2: ROOTS
concerned with the The plant root system performs
formation of the leaf.
various functions which are essential to
2. Emergences - are the
second rank of the growth and development of the plant.
appendages. These are The functions of the plant root system
found at the outermost includes (1) anchorage of the plant in the
layers of stem usually soil, (2) conduction of water and minerals
present as the cortex and upward to the stem, (3) reproduction in the
the epidermis. form of plant propagation, and (4)
3. Hairs – are the absorption of water.
appendages of the third
rank. These are
projections of the TWO MAIN TYPES OF ROOT SYSTEMS:
outermost layer of the 1. Fibrous root system (monocot plants)
cells.
2. Tap root system (dicot plants).
The emergences and hairs occur on
both axis and leaves, usually without
definite arrangement. FOUR REGIONS OF A TYPICAL ROOT
TIP:
The plant body of a vascular plant is 1. Root cap - thimble-shaped mass of cells
composed of three systems of tissues: that covers
(1) The dermal, the apex of the root thus protects the
(2) The vascular and growing root tip.
(3) The fundamental or ground 2. Meristematic region – the location of
system cell division.
3. Region of elongation is the area of root
The three vegetative organs of a lengthening.
plant body, such as the stem, root and leaf,
The cell produced from the meristematic
region
 grow in the elongation region. above water, increase oxygen
4. Region of maturation – this is where the supply to roots.
cells that 5. Parasitic roots – penetrate host plants to
grew in the elongation region fully parasitize them
develop and 6. Storage roots – branch roots of plants
become adult cells. like sweet potatoes produce
extra parenchyma cells for
carbohydrate storage
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT: 7. Buttress roots – produced by certain
1. Primary root – first root of a plant, varieties of fig and tropical trees
originating in the embryo. for support.
2. Secondary roots – produced on the
primary root LESSON 3: STEM
3. Tertiary roots – grow in various
directions and help in fixing the plant firmly The stem is the aerial part of the plant. It is
into the soil. the axis of the shoot system which provides
mechanical support to the plant. It is the site
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT: where leaves and reproductive shoots get attached.
1. Epidermis is the outermost layer with A stem exposes the leaves for photosynthesis and
root hairs and a single layer of cells positions the reproductive shoots for optimal
composed of pectic substances and access to pollinators and dispersal agents. It also
cellulose. It functions primarily for the conducts water and minerals from roots to the
absorption of water and dissolved leaves and solutes from leaves to storage and use
material from the soil, and it also sites.
protects the inner tissue of the root.
2. Cortex is found inside the epidermis,
which is composed of parenchyma cells TYPES OF STEM:
with large intercellular spaces, 1. Herbaceous stems – thin, soft and green in
secretory cells, resin ducts, and colour except those that grow
endodermis. underground. Plants with herbaceous stems
3. Endodermis is the innermost cell layer are also known as herbs.
that regulates ion movement into the 2. Woody stems – taller, thicker, and harder than
xylem. The Casparian strip herbaceous stems.
embedded in the cell wall inhibits
mineral movement through the wall.
4. Vascular cylinder – is the innermost EXTERNAL PARTS OF STEM
layer with the xylem and phloem cells for 1. Bud – stem's primary
the conduction of materials, growing point.
parenchyma cells for food storage and 2. Terminal bud – single bud
support of the other tissues found at the apex of the stem
3. Bud scales – modified leaf
TYPES OF MODIFIED ROOTS: protecting and covering a bud.
1. Adventitious roots – arise along stem or 4. Terminal bud scale scars
locations other than base of plant. – marks leaves on the stem
2. Aerial roots – roots that extend out into from the previous years
the air, unconnected to the ground. which serve as external
3. Prop roots – located on lower part of measure of annual
stem of some monocots like corn, grow growth.
down into ground, anchor against 5. Lateral buds/Axillary buds
wind – buds that occur in the leaf axils on the side of a
4. Pneumatophores – spongy outgrowths stem.
from underwater roots, may extend
6. Leaf scar - mark that leaves on the stem after
the leaf STEM MODIFICATION
falls down Some plant species have modified stems
7. Lenticel – pores that allow for gas exchange that are especially suited to a particular habitat and
8. Node – segment of stem where leaves and environment.
lateral buds 1. Rhizome – modified stem that grows horizontally
are attached. underground; it has nodes and internodes.
9. Internode – section of a stem between two 2. Corms – contain stored food that enables some
nodes. plants to survive the winter.
10. Bundle scar – used in the identification of the
3. Stolons – stems that run almost parallel to the
woody
ground, or below the surface, and can give rise to
plants and it is a mark left in the leaf scar
from the new plants at the nodes.
vascular tissue attachment. 4. Runners – type of stolon that runs above the
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEM: ground and produces new clone plants at nodes at
1. Epidermis – covers the outer surface of the varying intervals.
stem and usually functions to 5. Tubers – modified stems that may store starch.
waterproof, protect and control gas Tubers arise as swollen ends of stolons, and
exchange. contain many adventitious or unusual buds.
2. Cortex – lies below the epidermis, it consist of 6. Bulb – a modification of a stem that has the
hypodermis, parenchyma cell, appearance of enlarged fleshy leaves emerging
and endodermis. from the stem or surrounding the base of the stem.
` a. Hypodermis – outermost layer of cells in
the plant cortex, found below Lesson 4: LEAF
the epidermis. It gives additional
Leaf is a flattened or expanded lateral
structural support or to store food
projection on a stem at a node and
materials or water.
subtending a bud. The leaves and stem together
*Collenchyma – specific for dicot
form the shoot. The following are the essential
plants.
functions of leaves: (1) photosynthesis, (2)
*Sclerenchyma– specific for
transpiration, (3) guttation, (4) storage, and (5)
monocot plants.
defense.
b. Parenchyma cells – are found below the
hypodermis. It has air space
within the cell that permits gases
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
diffuse to and from the surface of
Leaves have two main parts: the blade
all the living cells of the stem.
and the petiole. The blade or also known as
c. Endodermis – it is the innermost layer of
lamina, it is the broad
the cortex. It has a single layer of
portion of the leaf.
rectangular shaped cells which are
It consist of apex, margin,
closely packed without intracellular
vein, midrib, and base.
spaces.
Petiole is a thin stalk that
3. Vascular bundles – comprises of phloem and
attaches the leaf to
xylem. The phloem is separated from
a stem. Some plants also
the xylem by the cambium layer.
have a third part,
a. Phloem – conducts food to all parts of the
called the stipules. It is
plant
the leaf-like structures
b. Xylem – conducts water and dissolved
at the leaf base.
substances from the root to leaves.

TYPES OF LEAVES
1. Simple leaves consist of a single blade
2. Compound leaves have a blade that is 1. Entire - even line, without teeth, notches, or
separated into two or more parts on a lobes
common petiole 2. Serrate - cut into sharp, saw-like teeth pointing
a. Palmately compound – the leaflets are forward
attached directly to the end 3. Undulate - margin of the leaf forms a wavy line,
of the petiole and extend outward much bending slightly inward and outward
in succession
like fingers in a palm.
4. Sinuate - like undulate, margin is very wavy
b. Pinnately compound – leaflets or (sinuous)
pinnae are arranged on the sides 5. Crenate - teeth are short and rounded; also
of the main leaf stalk called scalloped
6. Crenulate – very finely notched with rounded
LEAF SHAPES projections
1. Linear – narrow and long with approximately 7. Dentate - teeth point outward
parallel sides 8. Denticulate – leaf having a finely toothed margin
2. Oblong – longer than broad with nearly parallel 9. Doubly crenate – coarsely crenate, the teeth
sides and with a rounded base margins again crenated
and apex 10. Doubly serrate – coarsely serrate, the teeth
margins again serrated
3. Lanceolate – widest below and tapers toward
11. Doubly dentate – coarsely dentate, the teeth
both ends margins again dentated
4. Oblanceolate – reverse of lanceolate, broadest 12. Lobed - incisions do not extend deeper than
above middle and tapering downward halfway between the margin and the
5. Cuneate - wedge-shaped, broad at the tip and center of the blade and are rounded
tapering by nearly straight lines to an
acute angle at the base
6. Spatulate – broadely rounded above and long
and narrow below
7. Ovate – broadest part below the middle; more or
less narrow, narrowed toward the tip;
egg-shaped
8. Obovate – broader part above the middle; the
reverse of ovate
9. Elliptical – broadest at the middle tapering more
or less equally to the base and apex
10. Rhomboid – diamond-shaped, with equal sides
but unequal angles
11. Deltoid – triangular
12. Orbicular – more or less circular in outline; flat
13. Reniform – kidney-shaped LEAF BASES
14. Cordate – heart-shaped 1. Cuneate – wedge-shaped, tapering evenly to a
narrow point
2. Cordate - heart-shaped
3. Oblique - slanting, unequal-sided
4. Acuminate – prolonged apex tapering to a long,
narrow point
5. Acute – forming an acute angle of less than 90
degrees
6. Obtuse – blunt; the sides forming an angle of
more than 90 degrees
7. Rounded – forming an arc
8. Truncate – abruptly cut off transversely at the
base
LEAF MARGINS
9. Sagittate – arrow-shaped, the auricles turned
inwards.
10. Hastate – halberd-shaped; lobes at base
pointed and narrow and nearly at right
angles to petiole
11. Auriculate – small pair of projections, or ears,
usually at the base

LEAF VENATION
Venation is the pattern of veins in
the blade of a leaf. The venation pattern of a
leaf has three main types:
1. Parallel or Closed – characteristic of the
monocotyledons. Veins running
nearly parallel to each other from
base to apex and are connected by
transverse veinlets.
2. Netted or Open – characteristic of the
dicotyledons. Veins anastomosing
some of which are running out and
end blindly in the leaf tissue.
a. Palmately veined. When three or
more secondary veins branch
radially from the base of the leaf.
b. Pinnately veined. When the
secondary veins branch off at
intervals from a prominent midrib.
c. Arcuate type. When the
secondary veins curve and run
LEAF APEX
almost parallel to the leaf margin for
1. Mucronate - abruptly tipped with a small, short
some distance
point; like a mere projection of
the midrib
2. Cuspidate - tipped with an elongated sharp or
rigid point
3. Retuse – with a rounded sinus at the tip
4. Emarginate - indented or notched
5. Truncate - square end that looks cut off
6. Acuminate - prolonged into a narrowed or
tapering point
7. Acute - ending in an acute angle, but not a ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES
prolonged point Phyllotaxy is the mode of arrangement of
8. Obtuse - blunt or rounded apex leaves on the stem. It can be classified either
9. Rounded – broad and semi-circular in outline alternate, spiral, opposite, or whorled.
1. Alternate – only one leaf per node, it is placed
alternate on each side of the stem in a
flat plane
2. Opposite – two leaves arise at the same point,
with the leaves connecting opposite
each other along the branch
3. Spiral – one leaf per node, but it is arranged in
a spiral along the stem
4. Whorled – three or more leaves connected at a to form the zygote. Parts of a flower can be
node grouped into two categories: accessory and
essential parts.

Accessory parts are also called as

vegetative whorls, these are structures
that are not involved in the reproductive process
such as receptacle, sepals and petals.

Essential parts are also called as

reproductive whorls which includes stamens and
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF pistil. Stamen
1. Epidermis - outermost layer of the leaf is the male
2. Mesophyll - contains two arrangements of reproductive
parenchyma cells: the palisade parts of the
parenchyma and spongy parenchyma. flower. It is
3. Stomata - air space found between the spongy made up of
parenchyma cells allows gaseous filament and
exchange between the leaf and the outside an anther,
atmosphere which
4. Vascular bundles - composed of xylem and produces
phloem pollen. Pistil is the female reproductive part of a
flower. It is made up of ovary, style, and stigma.
LEAF MODIFICATIONS The ovary produces ovules which are the female
1. Needle – seen in plants like pins, firs, spruce. reproductive egg cells. Style is a tube on top of the
2. Scale – thin, dry, membranous, stalk-less. This ovary, it allows pollen grain to travel from stigma to
modification is evolved in order ovule. Stigma receives the male pollen grains
to minimize the rate of transpiration. during fertilization.
3. Spines – act as defensive structures.
4. Succulents –for producing food and act as
water storage tissue as it appear fleshy. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERS
5. Tendrils – slender, spring like structures that are A. Based on the presence of accessory parts
coiled spirally. They are sensitive to 1. Complete – possess all the four whorls
contact, when comes in contact with any 2. Incomplete – do not possess any one or
support, they coil around the support like more of the four whorls
stem twiners.
6. Phyllodes – modified petiole or rachis of a leaf. B. Based on the presence of essential parts
It is modified into a green flat 1. Perfect – with both male and female
structure for the purpose of photosynthesis. reproductive organs.
The lamina of such leaves are poorly 2. Imperfect – with only one reproductive
developed. organ, either male or female.
*Pistillate – only the pistil is
Lesson 5: FLOWER present
Flower is the most attractive part of the *Staminate – only the stamen
plant. It is the reproductive part of a plant. is present
The biological function of flower is to mediate the 3. Monoecious –with male and female
union of male sperm with female ovum in order to flowers in separate structure on
produce seeds. The process begins with the same plant.
pollination, it is a process in which the pollen grains 4. Dioecious – with male and female
from the flower anther is transferred to the stigma. flowers on different plants.
After pollination, fertilization takes place, it is a 5. Polygamous – with male and female in
process of fusion of the pollen grains with the ovum the same flower on the same plant.
 Mature fruit has three identifiable
C. Based on the location of the ovary regions namely exocarp, endocarp,
1. Hypogynous – with superior ovary and mesocarp.
2. Perigynous – with a half-inferior ovary
3. Epigynous – with an inferior ovary
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
D. Based on the symmetry A. Simple Fruit is develop from a single
1. Regular – wheel-like form or radially matured ovary in a single flower and for
fruits consisting of more than just the
symmetric flower
ovary it is called accessory fruit.
2. Irregular – form which can be divided
into two equal halves. 1. Fleshy Fruits are classified as
berry, drupe, pome, and hip.
E. Based on the inflorescence 2. Dry Fruits are classified as
1. Catkin – spike with only pistillate or dehiscent and indehiscent fruits.
staminate flowers Dehiscent fruits are sub-
2. Composite or Head – daisy-type flower classified into follicle,
composed of ray flowers around legume, capsule, silique
the edge and disc flowers that while in indehiscent fruits are
develop into seed in center of the flat head. sub-classified into achene,
3. Corymb – stemlets arranged along main caryopsis, samara,
stem. Outer florets have longer schizocarp, loment, and nut.
pedicals than inner florets giving the
display a flat top. B. Aggregate Fruit is consist of a number
4. Cyme – determinate, flat or convex of matured ovaries formed in a single
flower, with inner floret opening first. flower and arranged over the surface
5. Panicle – indeterminate flower with of a single receptacle. Individual
repeated branching. It can be made up ovaries are called fruitlets.
of racemes, spikes, corymbs, or
umbels. C. Multiple Fruit is consist of the matured
6. Raceme – modification of a spike with ovaries of several to many flowers more
flowers attached to a main stem by or less united into a mass. Multiple
stemlets. fruits are almost invariably accessory
7. Solitary (or single) – one flower per stem fruits.
8. Spadix – showy part is a bract or spathe,
partially surrounding the male and
female flowers inside. LESSON 8: SEEDS
9. Spike – flowers attached to main stem,
Seed is an embryotic plant enclosed in a
without stemlets, bottom florets open
first. protective outer covering. It performs essential
10. Umbel – forets with stemlets attached to functions such as reproduction, covering the
main stem at one central point, embryo, storage of food, dispersal to a new location
forming a flat or rounded top. and dormancy during unfavourable conditions.
Seed germination is the beginning or the process of
LESSON 7: FRUITS development of a seed.
Fruits are matured ovaries usually
SEED STRUCTURE
containing seeds. Fruits are important in
seed dispersal. The process of fruit A. External
fertilization initiates both seed and fruit 1. Seed coat – outer protective covering
development. While seeds develop from the 2. Hilum – scar from the seed being
ovules, the ovary tissue undergoes a series attached to the parent plant.
of complex changes which result in the
development of the fruit. At maturity, the B. Embryo
ovaries swell and become fleshy ("juicy"), or 1. Cotyledon – the first leaf that germinates
the ovary wall shrivels and becomes dry. Figure 1
 2. Epicotyl and Hypocotyl – the portion of
axis above Dicot Seed structure
and lower portion of the cotyledon
respectively.
3. Plumule – the first apical bud of shoot
4. Radicle – part of the seed where the root
develops
5. Coleorhiza - the protective sheath
investing the
radicle in some monocotyledonous
plants
through which the roots emerge.
6. Coleoptile – covering the young shoot

LESSON 9: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process by

which green plants manufacture their own food
when they absorb light energy. It causes the
carbon dioxide and water to chemically
combine, forming a simple sugar and free
oxygen into the atmosphere. The process
requires a chemical called chlorophyll, which
gives plants their green color and allows them
to absorb light. Glucose is the primary product
of photosynthesis. It also produces fats,
proteins, and water-soluble sugars such as
maltose and sucrose. All the living creatures on
the earth depend on fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates to derive their energy, and thus,
have a direct dependence on this process for
their survival. The presence of starch in parts of
plants that is usually synthesized from glucose
indicates that photosynthesis is occurring or has
taken place. In most plants, carbon dioxide
enters the leaves through the stomata.