Kingdom Plantae

Plant Structure & Growth

Plants have evolved two systems:
• subterranean root system
• aerial shoot system of stems
and leaves.
shoots

roots
 Primary Function of Organs

Three organs in plants:

• Stem
Shoot system
• Leaves
• Root
 Roots
• Roots anchor the plant in
the soil
• Store food
• Absorb minerals and
water
• Most absorption of water
and minerals in occurs
near the root tips.
Proproots
Black Mangrove with Pneumatophore
 Shoots consist of stems and leaves.
• Stem: Raises leaves and flowers above
ground (safer from herbivores and allow
leaves to better photosynthesize). Path by
which water, minerals, and food are
transported.
• Leaves: Site of photosynthesis, i.e. food
production
Shoots System: stems and leaves
• Stems
– May be vegetative (leaf bearing) or
reproductive (flower bearing).
– Node- area of stem where leaf is born
– Internodes- stem area between nodes
– Buds: Stem elongation. Embryonic tissue of
leaves and stem (not flower bud)
–Terminal bud-Located at tip of stems or
branches.
–Axillary bud- Gives rise to branches
– Apical Dominance: Prevention of branch
formation by terminal bud
Shoots System:

• Leaves:Photosynthesis
– Petiole: Stalk of leaf, joins leaf to node of stem
– Blade: Flattened, expanded portion of leaf.
Site of photosynthesis
Shoot System
• Modified shoots:
– Include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs, are
often mistaken for roots.
– Stolons: allow plants to colonize large area and
to reproduce asexually

Pohuehue
– Rhizomes: horizontal stems that grow
underground.
– Tubers: are the swollen ends of rhizomes
specialized for food storage.
– Bulbs: vertical, underground shoots consisting
mostly of the swollen bases of leaves that store
food.

rhizomes
tubers bulbs
Classification of Leaves

• Arrangement on the stem

• Simple vs. compound
• Overall leaf shape
• Leaf margin shape
• Leaf venation
Leaf Taxonomy
Leaf Arrangement on the Stem

Opposite: 2 leaves at a node,

on opposite sides of the stem

Spiral: 1 leaf per node, with the

second leaf being above the first
but attached on the opposite side
of the stem

Whorled: 3 or more leaves at a

node
 Leaf Modifications

• Tendrils
• Spines
• Storage
• Petal-like
• Insectivorous
leaves
 Leaf Modifications
tendrils spines

storage petal-like
 Plant organs are composed of
three tissue systems:

1. Dermal tissue
2. Vascular tissue
3. Ground tissue
 Dermal Tissue
• The dermal tissue, or epidermis, is
generally a single layer of tightly packed
cells that covers and protects all young
parts of the plant.
• Other specialized characteristics :
– Root hairs: increased absorption
– Cuticle: waxy coating, prevents water loss
Plant Cell Structure
cell wall

chloroplast

nucleus

central vacuole
Cell Wall Structure

secondary cell wall

primary cell wall

middle lamella
 Cell Wall Structure

plasmodesmata
Plant Cell Types
• Xylem
–Tracheids
–Vessel elements
• Phloem
–Sieve-tube
members
–Companion cell
 Vascular Tissue
Vascular tissue:
• runs continuous throughout the plant
• transports materials between roots and
shoots.
– Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals
upward from roots into the shoots.
(water the xylem)
– Phloem transports food from the leaves to the
roots and to non-photosynthetic parts of the
shoot system.
(feed the phloem)
 Xylem

The water conducting elements

of xylem are the tracheids and
vessel elements.
 Xylem
• Tracheids
– Characteristics
• tapered elongated cells
• connect to each other through pits
• secondary cell walls strengthened with
lignin
• dead at functional maturity
– Functions
• transport of water plus dissolved minerals
• support
 Xylem
• Vessel Elements
– Characteristics
• shorter and wider than tracheids
• possess thinner cell walls than tracheids
• Aligned end-to-end to form long micropipes
• dead at functional maturity
– Functions
• transport of water plus dissolved minerals
• support
Water conducting cells of the xylem
 Phloem
• Food and minerals move through
tubes formed by chains of cells,
sieve-tube members.
–sieve plates
–companion cell
 Phloem
• Sieve-tube Members
– Characteristics
• living cells arranged end-to-end to form food-
conducting cells of the phloem
• lack lignin in their cell walls
• mature cells lack nuclei and other cellular
organelles
• alive at functional maturity
– Functions
• transport products of photosynthesis
 Phloem
• Companion Cells
– Characteristics
• living cells adjacent to sieve-tube members
• connected to sieve-tube members via
plasmodesmata
– Functions
• support sieve-tube members
• may assist in sugar loading into sieve-tube
members
Food conducting cells of the phloem
 Ground Tissue
Ground tissue fills the interior of the plant. It
contains three basic cell types:
– Parenchyma cells Dermal tissue

– Collenchyma cells
– Sclerenchyma cells

Ground tissue

Vascular tissue
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 Parenchyma
• Characteristics
– least specialized cell type
– only thin primary cell wall is present
– possess large central vacuole
– generally alive at functional maturity
• Functions
– make up most of the ground tissues of the plant
– storage
– photosynthesis
– can help repair and replace damaged organs by
proliferation and specialization into other cells
Parenchyma
 Collenchyma
• Characteristics
– possess thicker primary cell walls the that of
parenchyma
– no secondary cell wall present
– generally alive at functional maturity
• Functions
– provide support without restraining growth
Collenchyma
 Sclerenchyma
• Characteristics
– have secondary cell walls strengthened by lignin
– often are dead at functional maturity
– two forms: fibers and sclereids
• Functions
– rigid cells providing support and strength to
tissues
• Two other sclerenchyma cells, fibers and
sclereids, are specialized entirely in
support.
– Fibers are long, slender and tapered, and
usually occur in groups.
• Those from hemp fibers are used for making rope
and those from flax for weaving into linen.
– Sclereids, shorter than fibers and irregular in
shape, impart the hardness to nutshells and
seed coats and the gritty texture to pear fruits.
Fiber Cells
Sclereids
Plant Growth & Development
–Growth is the irreversible increase in
mass that results from cell division
and cell expansion.
–Development is the sum of all the
changes that progressively elaborate
an organism’s body.
 Meristems generate cells for new
organs throughout the lifetime of a
plant: an overview of plant growth
• Most plants demonstrate indeterminate
growth, growing as long as the plant lives.
• In contrast, most animals and certain plant
organs, such as flowers and leaves, undergo
determinate growth, ceasing to grow after
they reach a certain size.
– Indeterminate growth does not mean immortality.
 Plant Lifecycle:
Germination  flowering  seed production
death
• Annual- in a single year or less.
– Many wildflowers and important food crops,
such as cereals and legumes, are annuals.
• Biennial- spans two years.
– Often, there is an intervening cold period
between the vegetative growth season and the
flowering season.
• Perennials- Plants that live many years,
- Includes trees, shrubs, and some grasses.
– These often die not from old age, but from an
infection or some environmental trauma.
• Meristems– embryonic tissue.
– These cells divide to generate additional cells.
– Initials- generative cells that remain in the
meristem.
– Derivatives- Those that are displaced from the
meristem,and continue to divide for some time
until the cells they produce begin to specialize
within developing tissues.
• The pattern of plant growth depends on the
location of meristems.

Fig. 35.12
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Locations of Meristematic Tissues
• Apical meristems: located at the tips of
roots and in the buds of shoots, supply
cells for the plant to grow in length.

–Primary growth
• initial root and shoot growth
• produced by apical meristem
• elongation occurs
• restricted to youngest parts of the
plant, i.e, tips of roots & shoots
Locations of Meristematic Tissues
• Lateral meristems: allow the plant to
increase in girth
–Secondary growth: thickening of
roots and shoots.
• Produced by lateral meristems
• Develop in slightly older regions of
roots and shoots
• Examples: vascular and cork cambium.
Meristems
 Types of Primary Meristems

• Protoderm: forms dermal tissue

system
• Procambium: forms vascular tissue
system
• Ground Meristem: forms ground
tissue system
 Primary Growth in Roots
• Root Cap: covers root tip & protects the
meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive
soil during primary growth.
– The cap also secretes a lubricating slime.
• Growth in length is concentrated near the root’s
tip, where three zones of cells at successive
stages of primary growth are located.
– zone of cell division
– zone of elongation
– zone of maturation

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Primary Growth of the Root
• The zone of cell division includes the
apical meristem and its derivatives, primary
meristems.
• Near the middle is the quiescent center,
cells that divide more slowly than other
meristematic cells.
– These cells are relatively resistant to damage
from radiation and toxic chemicals.
– They may act as a reserve that can restore the
meristem if it becomes damaged.
 Fig. 35.14
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The zone of cell division blends into the
zone of elongation where cells elongate,
sometimes to more than ten times their
original length.
– It is this elongation of cells that is mainly
responsible for pushing the root tip, including
the meristem, ahead.
– The meristem sustains growth by continuously
adding cells to the youngest end of the zone of
elongation.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• In the zone of maturation, cells begin to
specialize in structure and function.
– In this root region, the three tissue systems
produced by primary growth complete their
differentiation, their cells becoming functionally
mature.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Three primary meristems give rise to the
three primary tissues of roots.
– The epidermis develops from the dermal
tissues.
– The ground tissue produces the endodermis
and cortex.
– The vascular tissue produces the stele, the
pericycle, pith, xylem, and phloem.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The protoderm, the outermost primary
meristem, produces the single cell layer of
the epidermis.
– Water and minerals absorbed by the plant
must enter through the epidermis.
– Root hairs enhance absorption by greatly
increasing the surface area.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The procambium gives rise to the stele,
which in roots is a central cylinder of
vascular tissue where both xylem and
phloem develop.

Stele

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The ground tissue between the protoderm
and procambium gives rise to the ground
tissue system.
– These are mostly parenchyma cells between
the stele and epidermis.
– They store food and are active in the uptake of
minerals that enter the root with the soil
solution.
• The innermost layer of the cortex, the
endodermis, is a cylinder one cell thick
that forms a boundary between the cortex
and stele.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Dicot Monocot

Fig. 35.15
 Monocot epidermis
Root
cortex
Anatomy
endodermis
cortex
pericycle
stele
pith

phloem
xylem
pith
 cortex
Dicot Root endodermis
pericycle
Anatomy
epidermis
cortex

stele
xylem
phloem
Each growing season, primary
growth produces young extensions of
roots and shoots, while secondary
growth thickens and strengthens the
older part of the plant.
Organization of Primary Tissues in Young Stems

Fig. 35.18
 Primary
Growth of
the Shoot
Monocot
Stem phloem
Anatomy
epidermis
vascular
bundles

ground
tissue
xylem
 epidermis
Dicot Stem
phloem
Anatomy
cortex
vascular
bundle
pith vascular
cambium

xylem
• The meristematic bands make a continuous
cylinder of dividing cells surrounding the
primary xylem and pith of the stem.

Fig. 35.21

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• This ring of vascular
cambium consists of
regions of ray initials
and fusiform initials.
• Ray initials (xylem rays
and phloem rays) that
transfer water and
nutrients laterally
• Fusiform initials form 2o
xylem to the inside of the
vascular cambium and 2o
phloem to the outside.

Fig. 35.21
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• As secondary growth continues over the
years, layer upon layer of secondary xylem
accumulates, producing the tissue we call
wood.
– Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel
elements (in angiosperms), and fibers.
– These cells, dead at functional maturity, have
thick, lignified walls that give wood its hardness
and strength.
Secondary Growth of a Stem
 Production of Secondary Xylem
and Phloem
– The accumulation of this tissue over the years accounts
for most of the increase in diameter of a woody plant.
– Secondary xylem forms to the interior and secondary
phloem to the exterior of the vascular cambium.

C=cambium cell
X=2o xylem
P=2o phloem
D=derivative
 Anatomy of a Tree Trunk
• After several years
of secondary
growth, several
zones are visible
in a stem.
Primary and Secondary Growth
in a Woody Stem
 The Leaf
• The leaf epidermis is composed of cells
tightly locked together like pieces of a
puzzle.
– It is the first line of defense against physical
damage and pathogenic organisms
– The waxy cuticle prevents desiccation.
Leaf Anatomy
 Typical Dicot Leaf X-Section

Cuticle
Epidermis
Palisade
Parenchyma

Vascular
bundles

Guard
Spongy
Cells
Parenchyma
Stoma
 Typical Monocot Leaf X-Section

Midvein Bundle
Vein Epidermis
sheath cell
Phloem

Xylem

Bulliform
Stoma
Cells
 Leaf Stomata: Allow Gas Exchange

Guard cells
with
chloroplasts

Stomata in
Zebrina leaf
epidermis
Stoma

Subsidiary
cells
• Mesophyll- the ground tissue of the leaf,
located between the upper and lower
epidermis.
– mainly of parenchyma cells equipped with
chloroplasts and specialized for
photosynthesis.
• CO2 and O2 circulate through the air spaces
• The air spaces are particularly large near stomata,
where gas exchange with the outside air occurs.
• The vascular tissue of a leaf is continuous
with the xylem and phloem of the stem.
– Leaf traces, branches of vascular bundles in
the stem, pass through petioles and into
leaves.
– Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and
branch throughout the mesophyll.
• xylem brings water and minerals
• phloem carries sugars
• the vascular infrastructure reinforces the shape of
the leaf.
 Molecular Biology and Plants

• Plants have tremendous developmental

plasticity.
– Environmental factors can influence growth and
development, and reproductive output
– A broad range of morphologies can result from
the same genotype as the plant undergoes three
developmental processes: growth,
morphogenesis, and differentiation.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Molecular biology is revolutionizing
the study of plants
Much plant research has focused on Arabidopsis
thaliana, a small weed in the mustard family.

– Ideal research subject:

• Cultivates quickly
• Requires little lab space
• Generation time 6 weeks

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Arabidopsis
• first plant genome sequenced, taking six
years to complete.
• Arabidopsis has a total of about 26,000
genes, with fewer than 15,000 different
types of genes.
– The functions of only
about 45% of the
Arabidopsis genes
are unknown.

Fig. 35.25
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Now plant biologists work to identify the
functions of every gene and track every
chemical pathway to establish a blueprint
for how plants are built.
– One key task is to identify which cells are
manufacturing which gene products and at
what stages in the plant’s life.
– Potential to develop a designer plant from a
computer model.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings