2.

2 Type Animal : The Grasshopper

What we will learn from this chapter Lesson plan
>Structure of grasshopper Lesson 1: External structure of grasshopper
>Digestive system of grasshopper Lesson 2: Digestive system of grasshopper
>Practical: Identification and drawing of Lesson 3: Practical: Observation of mouth appendages
mouth appendages of grasshopper/cockroach of grasshopper/cockroach
>Identification of different parts of digestive Lesson 4: Practical: Dissection and observation of
system of grasshopper/cockroach digestive system and glands of grasshopper/cockroach
>Circulation of grasshopper Lesson 5: Circulation of grasshopper
>Respiration of grasshopper Lesson 6: Respiration of grasshopper
>Excretory system of grasshopper Lesson 7: Sensory organs of grasshopper
>Reproduction and metamorphosis of Lesson 8: Excretory system of grasshopper
grasshopper Lesson 9: Reproductive system of grasshopper
>Structure of compound eye of grasshopper Lesson 10: Reproduction and metamorphosis of
and mechanism of vision grasshopper

The grasshopper is a common animal belonging to the class Insecta of the phylum Arthropoda. Different types
of grasshoppers roam alone or in groups in green crop-fields or vegetable gardens all over the world including
Bangladesh. Some species of the grasshoppers are known as locusts. These are medium-sized brown insects
and swarm from one area to other areas. Sometimes their numbers increase so much that they can devour all
the crops of a field in an instant. Locusts pose a serious threat to crop-fields of tropical countries.
It lives and moves by jumping in grass and herbs, hence the name "grasshopper". In the recent (2021)
classification, all grasshoppers and locusts, including Poekilocerus pictus, have been classified on the basis of
shape and genetic characteristics. As a result, family of Poekilocerus pictus is named Pyrgomorphidae
(formerly Acrididae). If this classification is widely accepted, it can be added to books of Bangladesh too
hopefully.
About twenty thousand species of grasshoppers have been identified in the world. The twenty species of
grasshoppers that have been found in Bangladesh so far are: Acrida exaltata, Phlaeoba infumata, Choroedocus
robustus, Xenocatantops humilis, Chondracris rosea, Cyrtacanthacris tatarica, Eyprepocnemis rosea,
Aulacobothrus luteipes, Hieroglyphs banian, Gastrimargus marmoratus, Oedaleus abruptus, Sphingonotus
longipennis, Trilophidia annulata, Gesonula punctifrons, Oxya fuscovittata, Spathosternum prasiniferum,
Atractomorpha crenulata, Chrotogonus trachypterus, and Poekilocerus pictus.
[Reference: Srinivasan, G. and Prabakar, D. 2013. A Pictorial Handbook on Grasshoppers of Western
Himalaya]
Why do grasshoppers belong to class Insecta or 'Insect' class?
1. Grasshoppers, like other insects, have their bodies covered with chitin-made exoskeletons.
2. The body is divided into three regions - head, thorax and abdomen.
3. The head has a pair of compound eyes and a pair of antennas.
4. Thorax has three pairs of articulated legs and one pair of wings.
5. Respiration takes place through a branched air duct called the trachea.
6. Open blood circulatory system is present.
7. Excretion is done with the help of Malpighian ductules.
Taxonomical classification
Phylum: Arthropoda (arthropod, chitin-formed exoskeleton)
Class: Insecta (body divided into head, thorax and abdomen)
Subclass: Pterygota (winged insect)
Order: Orthoptera (two pairs of wing)
Family: Pyrgomorphidae (Colored grasshopper)
Genus: Poekilocerus
Species: Poekilocerus pictus

ZOOLOGY 66
Habitat
Grasshoppers like low settlements because they feed on grass, leaves, grains and leaves of crops. Different
species of grasshoppers can be found in almost all types of habitats (grasslands, pastures, fields, deserts,
wetlands, etc.). Grasshoppers live less in freshwater and mangrove reservoirs due to high fluctuation of water
levels and flooding of grounds for laying eggs. Grasshoppers migrate in large numbers in unfavorable weather,
they can then travel up to 15 kilometers per day.
Food
Grasshoppers are herbivorous animals. Immediately after hatching from the egg, in nymph stage, the
grasshopper starts eating any small, easy-to-digest tree, grass or new tender branches all around. After
moulting for once or twice and when it is a little bigger, it takes hard plants as food. Young grasshoppers, like
adults, eat specific plant foods. Then grass, leaves and grains come up as the main food in the food list. Most
grasshoppers collect food from many species of plants, only one or two species feed on specific plants.

External Morphology
The body of the grasshopper is slender, long, cylindrical and bilaterally symmetrical. Adult animals are up
to 8 cm in length. Body color can be of yellowish green type or brown color with varieties of spots or
markings. This mixed color helps them to adapt to the environment and even protect them from the enemy.
Some grasshoppers also have bright bluish-yellow color (e.g. Poekilocerus pictus).

The whole body of the grasshopper is covered with chitinous cuticle. Exoskeleton is made up of secretions
from hypodermis and each segment of the body forms a solid plate-like structure called sclerite. The
junction of the sclerites is covered by a thin soft membrane called suture. Segments and appendages can
move easily due to presence of sutures. The grasshopper shows a variety of colors due to the presence of
various pigments inside and below the cuticle.
The body of the grasshopper is segmented and divided into three regions like other insects, e.g.
A. Head - Carries the compound eye, antennae and mouth appendages.
B. Thorax - Connects and carries three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings.
C. Abdomen - Contains the spiracle and genitaliae.
A. Head
Although it looks unsegmented from the outside, it is basically formed of 6 embryonic segments. It looks
like a pear and is of hypognathous type, that is, the mouthpore is downward and located below the head.
The skull is positioned at right angles to the body, with the help of a small, elastic neck. Grasshoppers can
turn the head in different directions through the neck. The outer skeleton of the head is called the head
capsule or epicranium. The outer skeleton of the skull is divided
into several parts, viz., The triangular region of the surface is the
vertex, gena on both sides, the broad frons towards the forehead, and
the rectangular plate below the forehead, the clypeus. The
grasshopper's head carries a pair of compound eyes, three ocelli or
simple eyes, a pair of antennae and a set of mouth parts. Below is a
brief description of them.

67 ZOOLOGY
1. Compound Eye: On both sides of the grasshopper's head, on the dorso-lateral side, the 1st segment has a
pair of compound eyes. These occupy a large part of the head. Grasshoppers are better than any arthropod in
terms of vision. They can also see colored objects accurately. In terms of structure and function,
grasshoppers are similar to arthropods like cockroaches, shrimp, etc. Numerous ommatidia unites to form a
single compound eye. Ommatidia is the unit of structure and function of the compound eye.
2. Ocelli (singular-ocellus): The grasshopper has three simple eye or ocelli in the middle of two compound
eye. Each ocellus consists of a thick, transparent cuticle-formed lens and a cluster of light-sensitive cells.
Each cell is rich in pigment. At the base of the ocelli is the nerve fiber that travels to the brain. Inside are
light-sensitive cells that act like retinas.
3. Antenna (plural-antennae) : In front of the grasshopper's compound eye, two small antennae extend on
either side of the head. The grasshoppers move by keeping antennas in front and can move them at will. By
moving them, they feel touch, smell and sound waves. Each antenna consists of three parts - scape, pedicel
and flagellum. The pedicel is short and undivided. The flagellum is quite long and divided into about 25
segments.
4. Mouth Parts: The movable, articular appendages around the mouth are collectively called the mouth
parts. The mouth parts of the grasshopper is located on the ventral side of head. The grasshopper's mouth
parts is called chewing or mandibulate type because it is used for chewing leaves. The mouth parts consists
of five parts - labrum, mandible, maxilla, labium and hypopharynx.
Different parts of mouth-part of grasshopper
 Labrum: It looks like a flattened disc and forms the upper lip. The color can be green, brown or any
other type. A groove is seen in its middle part. The
groove helps to hold food, push it towards the mandible
and to receive taste.
 Mandible: Located on either side of the mouth pore, the
mandible or jaw is a triangular and black or brown
colored, quite hard and with saw-like tooth in the inside.
Mandible helps in cutting and chewing food.
 Maxilla: There is a long maxilla on the back and outside
of the mandible on either side. Each maxilla is divided
into several parts. The proximal segment is called cardo
and the next segment is called stipes. Nail-like lacinia
and lid like galea named two segments at the tip of the
stipes stays together side by side. Next to the galea is a
five-part maxillary palp. It has fine hair on it. Maxilla's
job is to taste the food, hold it, get it into the mouth and
help to crush the food. The maxillary pulp participates in cleaning the antennae and the tip of the
foot, prevents food from slipping, and acts as a sensory organ.
 Labium: The grasshopper has a multi-joint labium along the middle below the mouth pore. The
labium is thought to represent the second pair of maxillae. It is basically divided into two parts,
namely, mentum and submentum. On either side of the free end of the mentum are two moving
ligulae and three articulated labial palp. This prevents food from slipping and causes chewed foods
to enter the mouth. The labial pulp acts as a sensory organ and helps in proper food selection.

ZOOLOGY 68
 Hypopharynx: A small, fleshy hypopharynx is located below the labrum. It is surrounded by mandible,
maxilla and labium. A membrane formed from the inner edge of the labium is attached to the ventral
surface of the hypopharynx. Its function is to help the food move and mix with the saliva.
B. Thorax
The fleshy thorax at the back of the head is connected by a short, slender and flexible neck. Grasshopper’s
thorax is divided into three parts; Namely, prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. The dorsal surface of
each part is composed of tergum, ventral surface by sternum and lateral surface by pleuron. These are
connected to each other by a thin cuticle membrane. The targum portion of the prothorax is quite large,
wide, and extends backwards and laterally. Its name is pronotum. The thorax consists of the spiracle, wings
and the legs.
1. Spiracle: There are two pairs of spiracles located on the ventrolateral side of the thorax. The first pair is
located between the prothorax and mesothorax below the pronotum and the second pair is located between
the mesothorax and metathorax.
2. Wings: There are two pairs of cuticle formed wings from
junction of tergum and sternum, that is, back of metathorax and
mesothorax. Wings are first formed as bi-layered sac, then
transforms into complete wings. Each wing is formed of
innumerable small blood vessels. Structure and function of the pairs
are different. Mesothoracic, i.e., forewing is rigid, small, thin and
doesn’t help in flying. They cover the hindwings. That’s why they
are called elytra, wing covers or tegmina. Metathoracic, i.e.,
hindwings are large, wide, membranous, transparent and helps in
flying. During resting, hindwings remain covered in foldings of
forewing.

3. Legs: There are a total of three pairs of legs, one in each part of the thorax. Each leg is divided into five
parts; At the beginning a coarse, triangular coxa; next there is
triangular small trochanter; Next long, tubular and rigid femur;
then narrow tibia; And finally tarsus. Tarsus divides into three
smaller subdivisions. These are called tarsomeres. At the end of the
first tarsomere there are two curved claws. Between the claws is an
adhesive pad called pulvilus. Grasshoppers' legs are used for
walking and climbing. However, since the femur part is much
larger and fleshy, they can jump and cross long distances. This
type of foot is called saltatorial legs. Tibia and tarsus help to
catch food as they bear thorns.
C. Abdomen
The grasshopper's abdomen is quite long, narrow and divided into 11 segments. Each segment has tergum
on the dorsal surface and sternum on the ventral surface, no pleuron. The 1st abdominal segment is
incomplete; Because, its sternum is attached to the metathorax. It only contains tergum. The abdomen of the
grasshopper carries the organs described below.
1. Tympanum: There is a membrane on each side of the 1st segment which covers the auditory sac. Its
name is tympanic membrane or tympanum.
2. Spiracle: From the 1st to the 8th body segment, each segment has a pair of spiracles on its lateral side,
making a total of 8 pairs, the first of which is larger in size than the others.
3. Anus and external reproductive organs: The last abdominal segment of the grasshopper has been
specially adapted for reproduction. In males it is round but in females it is pointy. In both cases the ninth and
tenth segments are partially integrated. The tergum of eleventh segment in male forms the supra anal plate
above the anus. They have two anal circi on the back of the tenth segment. The sternum of the ninth
segment is elongated to form the subgenital plate which covers the existing genital hole at the end of the
segment. The sternum of the ninth segment of the female grasshopper is elongated and transformed to form
the ovipositor for laying eggs.

69 ZOOLOGY
Difference between male and female grasshopper:
Topic Male grasshopper Female grasshopper
1. Size Male grasshoppers of the same age are The female grasshopper of the same
smaller in size than female grasshoppers. age is comparatively larger in size
than the male grasshopper.
2. Abdomen Their abdomen is round and elongated. The abdomen is wide and the edges
are pointed.
3. Leg Relatively small. Larger than males.
4. Wings Slightly extended on both sides even Covers only the abdomen.
after covering the abdomen.
5. Sternum The sternum of the 9th segment expands The sternum of 9th segment is
to form the subgenital plate, which acts enlarged and slightly transformed
as a covering for the genital pore. into an ovipositor, which acts as an
egg laying organ.
6. Reproductive organ There is a small mating organ on each Absent as any kind of such organ is
side of the 10th body segment, known as unnecessary.
anal sac.
7. Tergum The tergum of the 11th segment is Partly fused in 9th and 10th
transformed into the supra-anal plate, abdominal segment.
which acts as a cover for the anal
opening.
8. Genital pore In 9th abdominal segment. In 8th and 9th abdominal segment.
9. Figure (dorsal view
+ lateral view)

Coelom and Internal Structures of Grasshopper

Only in the embryo body cavity takes the form of a coelom. The cavity seen in adult animals is formed by
the fusion of the blastocoel and the celomic cavity of the embryo. Its name is mixocoel. The embryonic
celomic wall is used to form various body parts. Mixocoel is called haemocoel because the blood that flows
through it and the flowing fluid is haemolymph.
Aorta and heart of the circulatory system on the dorsal surface of the body; nerve cord in the ventral surface
and various parts of the alimentary canal are located along the middle of the body. The salivary glands
extend to the base of the anterior part. At the junction of the middle and posterior part of alimentary canal, a
number of thread-like Malpighian tubules extend into the hemocoel. Other organelles are seen inside the
hemocoel.

ZOOLOGY 70
 Digestive System of Grasshopper
The digestive system adapts to the grasshopper's diet and consists of two main parts. Namely, the digestive
tract and the alimentary gland. The table shows the different parts of digestive system.

Below is a brief description of the digestive system of grasshoppers.

Alimentary Canal

Grasshopper's alimentary canal is simple in nature and is located as a

straight duct along the midline of the body from the mouth to the
anus. For the convenience of description, the alimentary canal is
divided into three regions: - Stomodium, Mesenteron and
Proctodium.
1. Stomodium or Foregut: This is the first part of the
alimentary canal extending from the mouth to the gizzard.
Originating from the embryonic ectoderm, the lining of this part is
covered with a hard covering made of chitin. It consists mainly of the
parts mentioned below.
A. Mouth: This is a pore located at the base of pre-oral cavity or
cibarium. The chamber is surrounded by mouth appendages.
Function: Food is taken in cibarium and food enters the body
through the mouth.
B. Pharynx: The mouth is open to small cylindrical and muscular
pharynx.
Function: Through this food enters the esophagus.

C. Oesophagus: This is a narrow, straight, tubular thin walled duct behind the pharynx.
Function: Carries food from the mouth and food reaches the crop.
D. Crop: The esophagus swells to form a conical sac-like and thin-walled crop.
Function: Food is stored here for some time. Due to contraction and expansion of crop, the food becomes
slightly crushed and the salivary enzyme initiates digestion.
E. Gizzard or Proventriculus: It is a very solid, thick-walled, triangular posterior part of the crop
consisting of six chitinous teeth and six vertical folds in the inner wall. There are hairs and six pads behind
the teeth. The posterior part has a valve extending backwards.
Function: Gizzard’s strong contraction-expansion crushes food; The hairs on the pads filter the food
particles as they enter the mesenteron; And the valves prevent the food from going in the opposite direction.
2. Mesenteron or Midgut: Mesenteron is a thin-walled part extending from the gizzard to the middle of the
abdomen. It is formed from the embryonic endoderm layer and its inner wall cuticle is replaced by a
selectively permeable membrane called the peritrophic membrane. The anterior and posterior ends of the

71 ZOOLOGY
mesenteron have muscle sphincters. At the junction of the mesenteron and the stomodeum are six pairs of
hollow, long conical sacs. These are gastric caeca or hepatic caeca. One
of each pair of hepatic caeca extends to the front side and another
extends to the back. The inner wall of the mesenteron is formed by
columnar endodermal cells, which folds and form numerous villi. The
last part of the mesenteron contains numerous fine hair-like and
yellowish organelles. These are the malpighian tubules which are
basically the excretory organs
Function: Food is digested in the lumen of the mesenteron and the
villi on its wall absorb the food.

3. Proctodeum or Hindgut: This is the last part of the

alimentary canal originating from the embryonic ectoderm and the
inner wall is covered by cuticle. The proctodeum consists of the
following 4 parts.
A. Ileum: This is the non-twisted, wide, tubular first part.
Function: Digested food are absorbed in its wall.
B. Colon: This is the narrow tubular part behind the ileum.
Function: The rest of the digested food, including water is absorbed.
C. Rectum : This is the last swollen and thick-walled part of the
alimentary canal. Its inner wall has six longitudinal folds called rectal papillae.
Functions: Absorption of excess water, mineral salts, amino acids from feces and temporary storage of
indigestible food.
D. Anus: This is the opening at the end of the rectum. It is exposed in the ventral surface of the tenth body
segment.
Function: Removes indigestible foods from the body as faeces.

Digestive Glands
Salivary glands, the lining of the mesenteron, and hepatic ceca act as digestive glands of the
grasshopper. Below is a brief description of these parts.
1. Salivary Glands: This is the main salivary gland of grasshopper. Beneath the crop is a small, branched
pair of salivary glands. The duct of salivary gland opens into the pharynx at the base of the labium.
Function: Saliva secreted from salivary glands helps in swallowing and chewing food. It also plays a role in
digestion of some carbohydrate like food.
2. Lining of midgut or mesenteron: There are several secretory cells in the lining of mesenteron from
which digestive juices are secreted.
Function: Secreted digestive juices take part in digestion.
3. Hepatic Caeca: Hepatic or gastric caeca is six pairs of long cone-shaped, transparent ducts located at the
junction of the foregut and midgut.
Function: Digestive juices are secreted from the secretory cells located in the inner wall of hepatic caeca
and help in digestion.

Mechanism of food ingestion, digestion and absorption

1. Food: Grasshoppers are completely herbivorous animals. They make a living by eating grass, crops and
herbs. Their diet contains all the proteins, carbs and fats.
2. Ingestion: The mouth appendages of grasshoppers are used only for chewing, so their food intake is
called chewing and the appendages are called mandibulate.
Grasshoppers first select food with the help of maxillary and labial pulp. The forefoot, labrum and labium
hold the food. Mandible and maxilla cut and suck small portions of food.

ZOOLOGY 72
3. Digestion: Foods are mixed with saliva secreted by salivary glands as soon as they reach the pre-oral cavity.
Saliva contains amylase, chitinase, and cellulase enzymes that hydrolyze various carbohydrates. The food
reaches the crop from the pre-oral cavity, from where it is sent to the gizzard. When partially digested food
enters the gizzard, the chitin-rich teeth crushes it into a very fine-grained paste. These enter the mesenteron,
filtered in the delicate hair of the Gizzard. The mesenteron's lining and hepatic ceca act as surface for secretion
and absorption. After the food particles reach the mesenteron, hepatocytes and mesenteron secrete amylolytic
(amylase, maltase, lactase, invertase, etc.), proteolytic (peptidase, proteases, tryptase, trypsin, etc.) and
lipolytic (lipase) enzymes that digest complex food in simple food particles.
4. Absorption of Digested Food: Absorption of almost all food is done by the absorbing cells present in the
wall of mesenteron and hepatic ceca. Most of the glucose is absorbed in the hepatic caeca.
5. Assimilation: The absorbed food enters the hemocoel of the grasshopper and is transported to various
organs of the body and helps in energy production, growth and repair.
6. Egestion: Before the indigestible food reaches the rectum through the colon, the wall of the colon absorbs
water, salt and inorganic ions from it. Later hard indigestible material is excreted in the form of feces
through the anus.
Practical
Observation of external features of grasshopper and cockroach
Grasshopper
Taxonomical Classification: Identification feature
Phylum: Arthropoda 1. The body is covered with cuticles, yellowish-green in color and
Class: Insecta divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
Subclass: Pterygota 2. The head has a pair of compound eye, ocelli and antennae, and a
Order: Orthoptera mandibulate mouth.
Family: Pyrgomorphidae 3. In the mesothorax, there is a pair of narrow and stiff wings and in the
Genus: Poekilocerus metathorax, there is a pair of large, wide and membranous wings.
Species: Poekilocerus pictus 4. There are three pairs of joined appendages and the abdomen is narrow,
long and divided into 18 segments.
5. The abdomen of the female grasshopper is gradually narrowed and
ovipositor is present for laying eggs.

Cockroach
Taxonomical Classification:
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Dictyoptera
Family: Blattidae
Genus: Periplaneta
Species: P. Americana
Identification feature
1. Body slender, oblong, oily and reddish brown in color.
2. The body is covered with cuticles and divided into specific segments.
3. The body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen; Three segments in the
thorax and 10 segments in abdomen is present.
4. The head has two simple eyes, two antennas; The chest has three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings.
5. At the end of the abdomen is the anal cerci.

73 ZOOLOGY
Observations of Mouth appendages of cockroach and Grasshoppers
Dissection method
1. The head of the grasshopper or cockroach is to be pressed between the thumb and index of the left hand at
first and the different appendages have to be identified.
2. With a scalpel, press the base of each appendage to remove the labrum first, then the mandible, maxilla,
the hypopharynx, and finally the labium one by one.
3. They should be dipped in some glycerin already preserved on a slide.
4. Place the slide under a simple microscope and observe well and draw a labelled diagram.

Observation
1. Labrum: It is like a broad plate and is attached to the front of the head.
2. Mandible: They are hard, strong, curved and toothed.
3. First Maxilla: It is located behind the mandible. Its basal part is formed with Cardo, Stypes and Lacinia
4. Second maxilla or labium: Located behind the 1st maxilla. Consists of submentum, mentum etc. Labial
pulp is seen.
5. Hypopharynx. It is a long tube-like uvula.
Observation of digestive tract of Grasshopper / Cockroach
The wings of a newly dead grasshopper or cockroach should be cut off and the fine scissors are to be
inserted along the sides of the body to separate the terga and sterna of the thoracic abdomen. The animal
should now be pinned to the back of the tray filled with water. With the help of scalpel, the terga should be
cut one after another. After exposing the thorax and abdomen in this way, the used water should be disposed
and the tray should be filled with clean water. Pull the alimentary canal a little and pin it to one side.
Observation of salivary glands
When dissecting the digestive tract, fat and muscle from esophagus should be slowly removed with the help
of needles and scalpel. As soon as the salivary glands look like white leaves, notice the position and
gradually move upwards towards the sub-tongue (hypopharynx). Care should be taken that the salivary
receptacles, which are in the middle of the salivary glands on both sides, do not rupture. Identify the
common salivary ducts, salivary glands and salivary receptacles, including the hypopharynx, and place them
on a slide. Now place the slide under a microscope, observe carefully and draw a labelled diagram.

ZOOLOGY 74
 Grasshopper's Blood Circulatory System
The circulatory system in grasshoppers is a system consisting of dorsal aorta and other vessels for the
circulation of blood-like hemolymph. There are two types of circulatory system in animals according to the
path of blood, such as open or lacunar and closed circulatory system.
1. Open blood circulatory system: The type of circulatory system in which blood exits the heart through
the ducts and enters the open body cavity and returns to the heart by ducts from the body cavity is called
open circulatory system. That is, blood does not always flow through the blood vessels. Such circulatory
systems are found in the bodies of animals of the Arthropoda and Mollusca phylum.
2. Closed type circulatory system: The circulatory system in which blood always flows completely through
the blood vessels and heart and is never exposed into the body cavity is called closed blood circulatory
system. This type of circulation is seen in Non-chordata animals of the Annelida phylum and in Chordata
animals.
Difference between closed and open circulatory system
Open circulation Closed circulation
1. In such circulatory systems, blood remains 1. In such circulatory systems, the blood is located inside
in the heart, blood vessels and various sinuses. the heart and blood vessels.
2. It consists of the heart, short blood vessels 2. It consists of the heart, veins, arteries and capillaries.
and sinuses.
3. In this case blood enters the body cavity; 3. In this case blood does not enter the body cavity.
That's why it is called hemocoel.
4. Blood comes in direct contact with cells and 4. Blood does not come into direct contact with cell-tissue.
tissues and exchanges nutrients and gases. Nutrients and gases are exchanged through tissue fluid.
5. Seen in phylum Arthropoda and Mollusca. 5. Seen in phylum Annelida and Chordata.
The blood circulatory system of grasshoppers
The circulatory system of grasshoppers is underdeveloped and open or lacunar type. Their blood vessels are
released into the open spaces or sinuses or lacunae existing in different parts of the body instead of forming
capillaries. As a result, the blood flows to those cavities or lacunae and comes in direct contact with the
tissue-cells. This is why their blood circulatory system is called open or lacunar blood circulatory system.
The blood circulatory system of grasshoppers is divided into three main parts: hemocoel, hemolymph and
heart. These parts are described below.
A. Haemocoel (Greek, haima = blood + koiloma = cavity): The cavity that is formed when the main
coelomic cavity merges with blastocoel during embryonic development is called hemocoel or mixocoel.
The hemocoel is then covered by the extracellular matrix instead of the mesodermal peritoneum. It is filled
with blood. The grasshopper's hemocoel is divided into three chambers or sinuses with two transverse
diaphragms. The membrane along the base of the heart is called the dorsal membrane and the membrane
extending just above the nerve cord is called the ventral membrane. The sinuses formed by the presence of
these membranes are as follows-
i. Pericardial sinus: It is located just above the dorsal membrane. It contains the heart.
ii. Perivisceral sinus: It is located below the dorsal membrane and contains the alimentary canal.
iii. Perineural sinus: This is the cavity below the ventral membrane. The nerve cord remains here.
Because the membranes are perforated, blood can travel from one sinus to another as needed. The ventral
membrane is extended to the foot.
Function: Hemocoel contains various organs, blood and lymph of the body. Through this food and wastes
are transported.
B. Hemolymph: Grasshopper's blood is called hemolymph because it
remains mixed with lymph in the body cavity called hemocoel. It is a
liquid, containing innumerable and various types of cells, organic and
inorganic matter. The grasshopper's hemolymph is colorless because they
do not contain hemoglobin or any other type of pigment. Its pH is 6-7,
which means slightly acidic; Relative density is 1.01-1.06. Hemolymph
consists of two components, hemolymph or plasma and hemocytes.

75 ZOOLOGY
1. Hemolymph juice or plasma: About 70% of plasma is water. In this juice
almost all kinds of organic and inorganic substances are dissolved; Such as- (i)
different ions; (ii) protein and free amino acids; (iii) lipids such as
phospholipids, sterols, triglycerides, etc .; (iv) Trehalose-like (two molecules
of glucose) simple sugars; (v) salt mainly of sodium, potassium and calcium;
(vi) organic acids; (vii) ester; (viii) phosphate; (ix) uric acid; (x) Pigments etc.
Grasshopper's hemolymph juice and mammalian plasma are not the same,
because hemolymph juice contains- (i) relatively high amino-nitrogen content;
(ii) low sodium-potassium ratio; (iii) high uric acid; (iv) Trehalose as the main
carbohydrate; And (v) diglyceride as the main lipid, forming lipoprotein
compound.
2. Hemocytes: A number of mesoderm-derived, amoeboid and nucleated
hemocytes remain floated in the grasshopper's hemolymph. They are homologous to the white blood cells of
vertebrates and circulate throughout the hemocoel. The number of hemocytes per cubic millimeter is 15,000-
60,000 in hemolymph.
The three types of hemocytes described below are:
1. Prohaemocyte: Their volume is 6-9 micrometers. 23% of total hemocytes are prohemocytes.
ii. Transitional Haemocytes: They are 9-18 micrometers in volume and 68% of total hemocytes.
iii. Large Haemocyte: They are 18-23 micrometers in volume and 9% of total hemocytes.
Hemocytes initially remove various solid substances from the body cavity through the process of
phagocytosis. In the process of mitosis, the number of cells increases and this proliferation occurs only after
the moulting. In any wound, hemocytes come together to help in healing.
Functions of blood: Grasshoppers perform a number of important functions through the blood, such as-
(i) transporting nutrients, excretory substances, hormones and mineral salts. (ii) Some amount of CO2 is
dissolved in the blood and carried. (iii) Different types of amino acids, carbohydrates etc. are stored in the
plasma. (iv) Water stored in plasma balances the osmotic pressure of cellular fluid. (v) Blood hemocytes
destroy various germs. (vi) Effective role in coagulation and wound healing. (vii) Blood helps in wing
movement and moulting.
C. Heart
The heart of a grasshopper is tubular and it has 7 chambers. It is along
the mid-line of the body and lies in the pericardial sinuses extending
from the head to the anus. Heart chambers are funnel-shaped and
arranged longitudinally in a row. The back part of chambers is wide
and the front part is narrow. Each chamber is connected to the wide
part of the anterior chamber by its narrow part. There is a pore called
ostia on both sides of the junction. Through these pores, blood enters
the heart from the pericardial sinuses. There is a hole at the top of the
narrow edge of each chamber. One-way blood flow to the heart is
ensured as the pores of all the chambers of the heart are protected by
the afferent valve. The front of the first chamber of the heart gradually
narrows to form a straight tubular segment. This is called ventral
aorta. This is exposed in the sinus of the head. The dorsal aorta is the
narrow, straight tubular portion formed from the posterior part of the last chamber of the heart. From both
sides of the ventral plane of tergum, triangular wing like special muscles called alary muscle originates which
attaches with the wall of pericardial sinus and ventro-lateral side of heart. Six pairs of alary muscles are found
in grasshopper. Their contraction and expansion plays an important role in blood circulation. There are no
cardiac-tissue and pacemakers in the heart wall. Therefore, cardiac impulse is not formed in the heart wall but
by a ganglion or nerve gland located near the heart. This type of heart is called neurogenic heart. All insects
have this kind of heart. The heart of a grasshopper is not called proper heart because there is no cardiac muscle
in the heart wall of the grasshopper and the structure of the heart is like a blood vessel.
Accessory Pulsatile Organ: Grasshopper has different membrane like muscular organs of different shape at
the base of antenna, leg and wings. These are pulsatile. Their contraction and expansion causes blood to flow
from sinus to different organs.

ZOOLOGY 76
Mechanism of Blood Circulation
As a result of the contraction and expansion of the heart and alary muscles, blood flows to different parts of
the grasshopper's body. Every chamber of the heart contracts and expands like a continuous wave. The heart
rate of the grasshopper is 100 to 110 beats per minute. The blood circulation process is performed as
follows.
1. Contraction of alary muscles causes blood to flow from pericardial sinus to enter the heart through ostia.
2. Later the heart consecutively contracts from backwards to forwards to move the blood forward and
through aorta, blood reaches the sinus of the head.
3. Presence of valves in the ostia prevents blood from going outside the heart and at the junction of the heart
chambers, the valves prevent blood from going backward.
4. Some blood from head reaches the antenna.
5. Then blood goes backwards to enter the perineural sinus. From the perineural sinus, blood enters the legs
and wings.
6. Later blood flows backwards to enter the perivisceral sinus.
7. Afterwards when the heart expands again, blood returns to the pericardial sinus from the perivisceral sinus
8. Due to the contraction of alary muscles from pericardial sinus, blood again enters the heart through ostia
and the whole cycle repeats again.
It takes 30 to 60 minutes for the blood to flow through the whole body of the grasshopper.
Perineural sinus  Perivisceral sinus  Contraction of alary muscle  Pericardial sinus  Expansion of
heart chambers  Heart  Contraction wave of heart  Ventral aorta  Sinus of head  Perineural sinus
 Repeat

Difference between coelom and hemocoel

Coelom Haemocoel
1. Mesoderm derived peritoneum covered, 1. Mesoderm derived non-peritoneal space filled
coelomic juice filled space between body wall and with blood, between body wall and digestive tract.
digestive tract.
2. Does not extend to any part of the body. 2. Haemocoel spreads to all parts of the body.
3. Coelom does not form part of the circulatory 3. Hemocoel form part of the circulatory system.
system.
4. Nutrients are not transported in the coelom. 4. Nutrients are transported by the hemocoel.
5. Seen in phylum Annelida and Chordata 5. Found in phylum Arthropoda and Mollusca.

Difference between circulation of human and grasshopper

Topic Blood circulation in grasshopper Blood circulation in human
1. Type Open Closed
2. Color of blood Blood is colorless because it does not Red because blood cells (RBCs) contain
contain hemoglobin or any other type hemoglobin
of respiratory pigment.
3. Component of White blood cells float in colorless Three types of blood cells float in colorless
blood plasma plasma.
4. Heart Tubular; Seven-chambered; The wall Cone shaped; Four chambers; The wall is
is without cardiac muscle. made up of cardiac muscle.
5. Alary muscle A pair exists on the side of each Absent
chamber of the heart.

77 ZOOLOGY
 Respiratory System of Grasshoppers
Grasshoppers, like other terrestrial insects, take in oxygen from the air for respiration. Their respiratory system
is developed, as a result, the inability to carry oxygen in the blood has been filled to a great extent. Oxygen
from the environment enters the body cells directly through the branches of a type of respiratory duct called
trachea, and the carbon dioxide produced in the body cells is excreted in the same way. The tracheal system
is a special type of respiratory system created in grasshoppers by the trachea and its branches joining together
to perform respiration. The grasshopper's tracheal system (respiratory system) consists of the following
organs.
1. Spiracle: 10 pairs
2. Tracheae: Innumerable
3. Air sac: Innumerable
4. Terminal cells or tracheole cells: Numerous
5. Tracheole: Numerous
1. Spiracle: These are the open pores of the tracheal system. There
are a total of ten pairs of spiracles on either side of the body. Of
these, two pairs are located in the thoracic region and eight pairs in
the abdominal region. Each spiracle is an oval pore and covered by a
chitinous wall called the peritreme. Dust, germs, water, etc. cannot
enter the pores due to the presence of fine hairy filtering apparatus
in the mouth of the pores. The pores are opened or closed with the
help of muscle controlled valves. When the
spiracles are closed, water vapor cannot escape from the body.
Spiracles in the thoracic region open directly into the trachea. But the
abdominal spiracles open into a cavity called the atrial chamber
before attaching to the trachea.
Functions: (i) Air enters the body through spiracle. (ii) They prevent entry of dust, germs, water etc.
2. Tracheae: Each spiracle is exposed to a small chamber called atrium. From here emerges the finely
branched, elastic, ectodermal trachea with almost 2.5 micrometer diameter, which is the main respiratory
organ of grasshoppers and are extended all over the body as a network. Trachea is formed as a projection of
the skin. Their wall has three layers. The outer basement membrane formed of epidermis, the epithelium
formed of flattened polygonal cells in the middle, and the cuticle formed intima of the inner portion.

Air flows through the inner cavity of the trachea. In this cavity, the intima become thicker and form a ring-
like structure . These are called ctenidia. When the air pressure
drops, ctenidia protects the trachea from collapsing. At the same
time, ctenidia protects the trachea from excessive expansion due to
excess air entering the trachea. Although the trachea is reticulated
in the body, some of the main ducts are arranged longitudinally and
transversely. These are called tracheal trunk. A total of three pairs
of longitudinal tracheal trunk extend along the length of the body.
E.g.

ZOOLOGY 78
 A pair of lateral longitudinal tracheal trunk on both side of the body
 A pair of dorsal longitudinal tracheal trunk on both side of the heart and
 A pair of ventral longitudinal tracheal trunk located on both side of the nerve cord.
From the tracheal trunk of the lateral body wall, a number of transverse tracheal trunk are formed on the
dorsal and ventral side, connecting the dorsal and ventral tracheal trunks, respectively.
Function: Trachea transports respiratory gas throughout the body
3. Air sac: Feature of respiratory system of grasshopper is- in some places,
branches of the trachea extend and form large, intima-less and thin-walled air
sacs. These are located the head, thorax and abdomen.
Functions: (i) The air sacs hold excess air. (ii) They control the supply of air
to the tracheal system by contraction-expansion of the abdomen during
respiration.

4. Tracheole cell or terminal cell: Continuous division from the lateral side of the main trachea produces
branched trachea, and each fine branched trachea ends in a star-shaped tracheole cell or terminal cell.
Tracheole cells, like other animal cells, have a thin cell membrane, a large nucleus, and a cytoplasm.
Functions: Forms a tube called tracheole and plays an important role in gaseous exchange between body
cell and trachea

5. Tracheole: Branches formed from tracheole cell, narrower than trachea, having diameter less than 1
micrometer (0.2 μm - 0.3 μm), distributed in lots of network, is called tracheole. Its wall is devoid of chitin
and intima. At the end of each branch, there is a fluid filled long sac or terminal sac. They come in direct
contact of cells after entering different organs of the body.
Functions: Oxygen enters the body cells through diffusion by dissolving in the fluid of terminal sac from
tracheole and carbon dioxide from body cell comes back to the tracheole by dissolving.

Difference between trachea and tracheole

Topic Trachea Tracheole
1. Shape and size Branched, duct with large Unbranched, fine duct with small
diameter, around 2.5 micrometer diameter, less than 1 micrometer
2. Structure Inner wall bears intima, doesn’t Inner wall without intima,
collapse in air-less condition collapses in air-less condition
3. Location Hemocoel Close to body cell
4. Color Shining like diamond Whitish
5. Internal part Air-filled Fluid-filled
6. Origin Atrium Tracheole cell
7. Ending Tracheole cell Body cell
8. Relation with body cell Doesn’t come in contact Comes in contact
9. Function Exchange of oxygen and carbon Exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide from spiracle to dioxide by diffusion from body
tracheole cell to tracheole cell

Process of Respiration
Due to the lack of respiratory pigment, the blood of grasshoppers cannot play much role in
respiration. Gas exchange takes place through the trachea and tracheole, which are spread like a network in
different parts of the body. Both inhalation and exhalation processes are mainly controlled by the spiracle.
As a result of the rhythmic contraction-expansion of the abdomen due to muscle function, air (O2) enters the
body and air (CO2) is expelled from the tracheal system.

79 ZOOLOGY
A. Inspiration: When the abdominal segments expand as the muscles expand, the inner cavity of the trachea
increases in volume. At this time, the first four pairs, i.e., inhalatory spiracles open, so that O2-containing air
first reaches the trachea through the spiracle, then from there to the tracheole (dissolves in the tissues) and
through the air sacs to the intracellular space.
B. Expiration: Exhalation is a passive process. CO2 produced by cellular respiration, enters the tracheal fluid
by diffusion and enters the trachea from there. The contraction of the thoracic and abdominal muscles causes
contraction of the body segments and at the same time the internal volume of the trachea decreases. During
this time the other six pairs of spiracle open, through which CO2-rich air escapes quickly from the trachea.
Basically very little CO2 is released from the body during respiration. Most of the CO2 produced in the cell is
transported by the blood plasma and is excreted by the body surface by the process of diffusion.

Excretory System of Grasshoppers

The process of excretion of nitrogenous wastes formed by metabolism of protein food is called excretion.
Like all other insects, the main excretory organ of grasshopper is the malpighian tubule. However, some cells
in the fat mass, such as urate cells, uricose glands, nephrocytes and cuticles, act as accessory excretory
organs.
Malpighian tubule
Naming: The tubule was first named after Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), an Italian physician and biologist
who first discovered it in 1669.
Location: At the junction of mesenteron and ileum, numerous (about 100) thread-like Malpighian tubules
extend into the hemocoel. Their free ends are closed and immersed in the hemolymph in the hemocoel cavity.
The other end is exposed in the cavity of the alimentary canal.

ZOOLOGY 80
Structure: Each Malpighian tubule is about 25 mm long, 1 mm in diameter, narrow, cylindrical, elastic and
hollow. The hollow cavity inside the tubule is called the lumen. The wall of each tubule consists of a single
layer of epithelial cells. The outer side of the cell layer is covered with a basement membrane and the inner
side is covered with numerous microvilli. The microvilli collectively form the characteristic brush border.
The tubules themselves are not so motile, but carry out excretion by the movement of the hemolymph in the
hemocoel.
Mechanism of action: The base of each Malpighian tubule is adapted for excretion and the end part is adapted
for absorption. The free, closed end of this duct absorbs water, CO2 and potassium urate ions by floating in
the hemolymph. These are converted into potassium bicarbonate, water and uric acid by the action of specific
enzymes inside the tubules. Some water and bicarbonates are reabsorbed by the base of the tubule and return
to the hemolymph. Uric acid in the form of excretory waste enters the alimentary canal with the remaining
water. Most of the water in the rectum is reabsorbed and uric acid is excreted by the anus as solid with fecal
matter.

Accessory Excretory Organ

1. Urate cells: Grasshoppers have numerous fat bodies in their body. These mainly store carbohydrates,
proteins and fats in a modified form. Moreover, they store some uric acid and urate present in the
hemolymph for life. Because of the storage of these substances, the cells are known as urate cells.
ii. Uricose glands: Uricose glands are located in the mushroom glands of male grasshoppers and store
excretory material from hemolymph as uric acid. During intercourse these wastes are thrown out with the
sperm.
iii. Nephrocyte: Nephrocytes located on the lateral side of the heart in pericardial sinus collect excretory
products and excrete them through the blood.
iv. Cuticle: Some amoebocytes resembling amoebae floating in hemocoel in the nymph stage collect
excretory material from the blood and store it under the cuticle. Stored materials, including old cuticles, is
discarded during molting.
Differences between malpighian tubule and malpighian body
Topic Malpighian tubule Malpighian body
1. Nature The main excretory organ of all insects, The part of excretory organs of all
including grasshoppers. vertebrates, including humans.
2. Location Located in clusters on the intestinal wall Located alone in the nephron of the kidney.
of the animal
3. Number Less, About 100 in each grasshopper Innumerable, about 20 lakhs in two human
kidneys.
4. Structure Thin thread like, tubular, formed with Round; formed with cup-like bowman's
epithelial lining and basement membrane capsule and capillary mass named
glomerulus.
5. Attachment One end remains open in hemocoel, the One end is connected to the proximal
other end is attached to the intestine. convoluted tubule of the nephron and the
other end is connected to the blood vessel.
6. Mechanism Collects excretory wastes from the Collects excretory products from blood by
hemolymph present in the hemocoel and ultrafiltration and sends them to nephron
sends them to the alimentary canal. tubules.

81 ZOOLOGY
 Sensory Organs of Grasshopper
Sensory organs are the organs through which the special stimuli (touch, smell, taste, sound, pressure, heat
and intensity of light, etc.) received from the environment are transmitted to the central nervous system and
appropriate responses are made. The following sensory organs can be seen in grasshoppers-
1. Tactile organs: The small hairs and bristles located on different parts of the grasshopper's body act as
tactile organs. The hairs are present in the antenna, pulp, cerci, and distal segments of the legs. They collect
touch related stimuli.
2. Olfactory organs: The grasshopper has two antennae in front of its head. The hairs in the antenna act as
smell-collecting organs. The antenna feels the need to select and collect food by moving here and there.
3. Gustatory organs: Grasshoppers can easily take the taste of food. Their taste receiving power is very
strong. The gustatory organs are mainly located in the mouth.
They taste the food through hair located in the maxillary pulp
and labium.
4. Visual organs: Grasshoppers have both ocelli and compound
eye as visual organs. With the help of ocelli, the grasshopper
senses the change in light intensity. The image of objects is
formed in the compound eye.
5. Auditory organs: An oval tympanic membrane adjacent to
the 1st abdominal segment in both sides of the grasshopper is
present that covers the tympanum used for hearing. The hair
follicles in the anal cerci also transmit the auditory sensation to the brain through the nerves.

6. Thermal organs: The plantulae pads at the base of the first three tarsus of the legs and some of the hairs
in antennae acts as thermal organ of grasshoppers.
Except the visual organs, all the above mentioned sensory organs are situated on the epidermis of skin
and epidermis is formed by some transformed cells. These cells are called sensillae (singular- sensilla). Each
sensillae has a sensory cell, a trichogen cell and some tormogen cells. In the tactile, olfactory and gustatory
cells; sensilla remains solitary but in the thermal auditory and sensory organs, they remain in cluster.

Grasshopper's Compound Eye - Structure and Mechanism of vision

The large, kidney-shaped, convex, black part located on either side of the grasshopper's head is called the
compound eye. Each compound eye is formed of almost two thousand (varies in different species)
hexagonal ommatidia. Each ommatidium works as single unit of vision. The entire upper surface of
compound eye is covered with a transparent cuticle. The structure and function of each ommatidium located
in the compound eye are identical. The structure of an ommatidium and function of different parts are
mentioned below.

1. Cornea: This is the colorless, transparent, convex and hexagonal cuticle covering on the outside of the
ommatidium. It works like a lens.
2. Corneagen cells: These are a pair of flattened and adjacently located cells below the cornea. Their
secretion forms cornea.
3. Crystalline cone cells: These are 4 long cells located around the crystalline cone below the corneagen
cell. Crystalline cones are formed from the secretion of these cells.

ZOOLOGY 82
4. Crystalline cone: It is a transparent, conical organ surrounded by cone cells and located between them.
Crystalline cones are formed by the material secreted by the cone cells. It acts as a refractive organ and helps
light to enter the ommatidium.
5. Iris pigment sheath: These are long, colored (black particle carrying) cells that surround the cone cells. In
bright light this covering extends and completely covers the
cone cells, while contracts in dim light and keep cone cells
partially exposed.
6. Retinular cells: 7/8 long retinular cells are located
circularly below the cone cells. Their nucleus are located at the
adjacent ends of the cone cells. These cells are attached to the
cone cells on one side and to the nerve fibers on the other.
Rhabdome is formed from the secretion of these cells.
Moreover, they are also light sensitive.
7. Rhabdome: This transparent elongated part below the
crystalline cone is transversely lined. Rhabdome is formed and
nourished by the secretion of the surrounding retinular cells.
Through this, light is received.
8. Retinal pigment sheath: A layer of dark membrane formed
around the retinular cells by pigment cells. This separates each
ommatidium apart from each other. The pigment in this sheath
can move in different directions depending on the intensity of
light.
9. Basal membrane: The thin membrane on which
ommatidium is located is called the basal membrane. This
contains ommatidium.
10. Nerve fiber: Nerve fibers come out of each retinular cell
and connect to the optic nerve. These fibers transmit the
received image through ommatidia to the brain.
Differences between simple eye and compound eye
Topic Compound eye Simple eye
1. Location In dorsal or lateral side of head of Anterior to head in invertebrates
arthropods. and in two sides of head of
vertebrates, inside cavities.
2. Structure Round or kidney shaped, formed of Almost round, itself is a unit
innumerable ommatidia unit
3. Component of unit Cornea, corneagen cell, cone cell, Cornea, iris, lens, retina, choroid,
crystalline cone, iris sheath, retinal sclera, muscle, chamber etc.
sheath, rhabdome etc.
4. Iris sheath Innumerable and long One and round
5. Sclera and choroid Absent Present
6. Image Different type of image in bright and Same type of image in all light
dim light
Mechanism of Vision
Animals observe objects by creating images. Grasshoppers are diurnal herbivores. Bright (intense) light
during the day and dim (mild) light at the end of the day - their eyesight is effective in both. For this, there
are two different mechanism of vision. They can see any moving object more clearly than humans.
Grasshoppers usually cannot see a whole object with an ommatidium. Each ommatidium produces a
fragmented image of the object. The combined image of all ommatidium together helps to see the object as a
whole. When the sensation of the fully formed image reaches the brain through the optic nerve, the
grasshopper sees it. According to the intensity of light, two types of images are formed in the compound
eye, namely, mosaic image and superposition image.

83 ZOOLOGY
1. Mosaic or Apposition Image in bright light
In bright or intense light, a mosaic image is created in the ommatidium of the grasshopper and allows each
ommatidium to function independently. In bright light the Irish pigment sheath and the retinal pigment sheath
expand continuously, completely covering the corneagen cells and the crystalline cone cells. As a result, each
ommatidium is separated from each other. In this case, only perpendicular light rays coming from a point of
the object enters the ommatidium and reaches the rhabdome through the cornea and crystalline cone. Though
the oblique light rays coming from that object penetrate the cornea of the surrounding ommatidium, they are
absorbed by the iris and retinal sheath. As a result, individual and distinct images of different parts of the
object are formed in each ommatidium. When these fragmentary images of all ommatidium are combined, the
grasshopper can see the object clearly. Such an image is called a mosaic image because the whole image is
made up of dotted points like a mosaic and since the whole image is formed of fragments, it is called
apposition image.

2. Superposition Image in dim light

Superposition Image usually is formed in the afternoon, evening or at night, that is, in dim light. In dim
light the Irish pigment sheath of ommatidium is contracted towards the cornea and the retinal pigment sheath
towards the basal membrane. As a result, the entire ommatidium, i.e., the crystalline cone and the rhabdome,
is exposed. At this time the light rays coming from the object reach the rhabdom directly through the cornea
and the crystalline cone. Again the ray of light coming obliquely from the object of vision enters through the
cornea of an ommatidium and falls into the rhabdome of the adjacent ommatidium. Such movement of light
rays is possible as there is no obstruction of the two pigment sheath. As a result, in an ommatidium, multiple
images fall on one another in this way with light rays coming from multiple directions. The result is a
blurred image of the whole object. This type of image is called superposition image, since the superposition
of one image over the other creates a complete image.
Comparison of apposition and superposition image
Topic Superposition image Apposition image
1. Nature of light Dim light Bright light
2. Pigment sheath Retinal and iris sheath contracts Retinal and iris sheath expands
3. Light ray Both longitudinal and oblique light Only longitudinal rays enter and
rays enter and form image form image
4. Nature of image Complete, blurred image of object Fragmented distinct, clear image
is formed. is formed.
Process of Reproduction and Metamorphosis of Grasshoppers
Grasshoppers are dioecious animals, as the male and female reproductive systems are produced in separate
members. Their sexual dimorphism is distinct. A male and a female grasshopper can be easily identified
from the outside. The male members are separated by looking at the ovipositor in the abdomen of the female
grasshopper. The reproductive organs of grasshoppers are located in the perivisceral sinuses of the hemocoel.
The male and female reproductive organs are described separately below.

ZOOLOGY 84
Male Reproductive Organ
The male reproductive organs of grasshoppers consist of testes, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, accessory
glands and seminal vesicle. These are described below.
1. Testes: The main organ of the male reproductive system is a pair of testes. The testes are connected by
the median ligament to the dorsal surface of the 3rd, 4th and 5th segment of the abdominal cavity. Each
testes is made up of many small transparent follicle clusters. Sperm are produced in the follicles.
2. Vas Deferens: Each testes has a long and twisted vas deferens
attached to the ventral surface.
3. Ejaculatory Duct: Two vas deferens on either side of the ninth
abdominal segment join, forming a simple contractile ejaculatory
duct. It is exposed to outside through the penis.
4. Accessory gland : A pair of accessory glands consisting of long
ducts open into the ejaculatory duct. Sperm are immersed in the fluid
secreted from these glands and receive nutrition.
5. Seminal Vesicle: A long, twisted seminal vesicle is attached to
the accessory gland. It opens in the ejaculatory duct. Sperm remains
stored in it and enters the ejaculatory duct when needed.

Female Reproductive Organ

The female reproductive organ of the grasshopper consists of
ovaries, oviduct, vagina, spermatheca and accessory glands.
These are described below.
1. Ovary: A pair of ovaries is the main organ of the female
reproductive system. The ovaries are attached to the surface wall by
a median ligament above the intestine. Each ovary is made up of 7-
8 tubular ovarioles. In the ovariole, egg is produced and remains
lined up.
2. Oviduct: The ovarioles of each ovary join together at the base to
form an oviduct.
3. Vagina: The two oviducts on either side join in the 7th abdominal
segment to form a muscular vagina which lies between the two parts
of the ovipositor. It is connected to the ovipositor and is exposed
outside through the female genital pore.
4. Spermatheca: In addition to a pair of oviducts, the vagina has a coiled spermatheca duct. At the end of
this coiled duct is a sac-like spermatheca. During mating, the sperm from the male grasshopper is
temporarily stored here.
5. Accessory Gland: On the upper surface of each ovary there is an accessory gland or collateral gland
which connects to the vagina through the oviduct. The secretion from this gland (cementitious substance)
helps to keep the eggs in clusters after laying.
Process of Reproduction
Reproduction of grasshopper is sexual in nature. Its reproductive process is completed in several stages
described below.
1. Copulation: Grasshoppers mate at the end of summer. At this
time the male grasshopper gets stuck on the back of the female
grasshopper and in this condition it releases seminal fluid in the
vagina of the female
grasshopper. Seminal fluid contains sperm. Sperm are stored in the
spermatheca until the eggs are laid. There may be several mating
before laying eggs.

85 ZOOLOGY
2. Fertilization: At one stage of sexual intercourse, the sperm is transferred from the male to the female, and
fertilization is completed by the fusion of the nucleus of the sperm and the ovum. Fertilization of
grasshoppers is internal. The 3-5 mm long ovum is enriched with yolk and is enclosed in a soft vitelline
membrane and
hard-flexible outer chorion when it comes by the oviduct. The egg is fertilized when it passes over
spermathecal pore. The sperm enters the ovum through a small pore in the chorion. This pore is called
micropyle.
3. Oviposition: A few days after mating, the female grasshopper
begins to lay long, brown eggs. Laying of eggs continues till
autumn. With the help of ovipositor female grasshopper makes a
10 cm deep hole and lay 20 eggs in clusters inside it. The eggs are
attached to each other with the help of adhesive substances. A
female grasshopper thus lays a total of 200 eggs in 10 clusters.
After laying eggs, both male and female grasshoppers die.

4. Development: The eggs of grasshoppers are of centrolecithal type i.e. its yolk remains confined to the
center. The fertilized egg continues to develop for about three weeks after cleavage (division) begins. In
winter development remains stopped. This period is known as diapause. Diapause plays an important role in
preventing baby grasshoppers from facing adverse winter conditions (severe cold and food shortages). With
the arrival of spring, when the warm environment returns, development begins again and very small baby
grasshoppers is born.
Metamorphosis
The type of post-embryonic development is called metamorphosis when the embryo of the insect
reaches its adult stage through a gradual series of changes. Metamorphosis is mainly of two types-
1. Incomplete metamorphosis and 2. Complete metamorphosis.
1. Incomplete metamorphosis: Incomplete metamorphosis is the process by which an insect hatches from
an egg and turns into a adult insect after passing a few nymph stages. Each nymph stage looks like a tiny
replica of a full-grown insect, but they are wingless and have no genitals and show distinct color differences.
In an incomplete metamorphosis, a baby animal is called a nymph. Example- Metamorphosis of
grasshopper and cockroach.
2. Complete metamorphosis: A metamorphosis in which there is no physical resemblance between a baby
animal and a full-grown animal, and a baby animal converts into a full-grown animal by massive changes, is
called a complete metamorphosis. Example- Metamorphosis of bees and butterflies. In this case there are
4 obvious steps of metamorphosis: Egg  larva  pupa  imago (complete). In the complete
metamorphosis the baby animal is called a larva.
Metamorphosis of grasshopper
The metamorphosis of grasshoppers is incomplete or hemimetabolous, as they pass through a few nymph
stages and transform into full grasshoppers. In other words, there are three stages in the life history of
grasshoppers: Egg  nymphs  adult animals.
The young grasshopper that emerges from the egg is called a nymph. Nymphs and full-grown grasshoppers
are almost identical in external appearance, at least in case of mouth, simple and compound eye, antennae,
anus, and so on. Similarly, lifestyle, eating habits, food and settlement of nymph and adult are the same. The
difference between nymphs and full-grown grasshoppers is that nymphs do not have wings and genitals, and
their body size is small. When mature, the wings and genitals develop, and the size of the body increases.
The chitin-formed outer skeleton of the newly developed nymph is transparent, gradually darkens. When the
nymph grows slightly in the very early stage, the external skeleton becomes tight and the growth of the body
is stopped. Then to keep the body growth normal, the old exoskeleton is left out in the process of molting and
it becomes the nymph of the second stage. It is later transformed into a full-fledged grasshopper after 3 more
moltings are done. In the second stage, nymphs begin to form wings from a tiny wing pad. The nymphs look
like small sized adult grasshoppers, each time they shed their shells. Apart from that, there is no resting stage
in their development. The nymph became an adult grasshopper by molting for the fifth time. The stage between
two molting is called instar. The metamorphosis of grasshopper takes about two months to complete.

ZOOLOGY 86
 The role of hormones in metamorphosis
There are 4 types of endocrine glands in the body of grasshopper - intercerebral gland cells, prothoracic
glands, corpora allata and corpora cardiaca. The first 3 of these glands secrete hormones that play a
major role in the metamorphosis of grasshoppers. Below is a brief description of these-
1. Intercerebral gland cells: These gland cells in the head secrete prothoracicotropic hormone or brain
hormone which stimulates the secretion of prothoracic glands.
2. Prothoracic gland: These glands located in the prothorax secrete ecdysone hormone which regulates
ecdysis or molting in nymph stage. As a result, the growth of tissues in the body occur.
3. Corpora allata: Juvenile hormone (neotinin) is secreted from this gland in nymph stage which
determines the characteristics of nymph stage. In fact, it is the effect of this hormone that prolongs the
nymph phase of grasshoppers. Gonadotropic hormone is secreted from the corpora allata of adult
grasshoppers, which results in the maturation of reproductive organs of adults.
4. Corpora cardiaca: These glands, located on either side of the esophagus in the back of the head, secrete
growth hormone. This hormone helps in growth.
The names, locations, secreted hormones and role are mentioned in the table below
Name of gland Location Secreted hormone Role
1. Intercerebral Head Prothoracicotropic Stimulates prothoracic
gland cell gland
2. Prothoracic gland Prothorax Ecdyson Controls molting
3. Corpora allata Back of head but in i. Juvenile in nymph stage Determines
front of intestine ii. Gonadotropic hormone characteristic of nymph
in adult stage, matures genitalia
4. Corpora cardiaca Back of head, either Growth hormone Helps in growth
side of esophagus
Difference between nymph and adult grasshopper
Topic Nymph Adult Grasshopper
1. Condition 1. The independent immature state of 1. The independent complete state of
the grasshopper is called nymph. the grasshopper is called Imago or
full-grown grasshopper.
2. Emergence 2. Mature grasshoppers give birth to 2. Nymph becomes a complete
nymphs through sexual reproduction. grasshopper through incomplete
metamorphosis.
3. Size 3. Quite small in size. 3. Relatively large in size
4. Color 4. Pale 4. Greenish
5. Wing 5. Wings absent, but very small wing 5. Two pairs of wings are present.
pads present.
6. Reproductive System 6. The reproductive organs are 6. The reproductive organs are
incomplete and undeveloped. complete and developed.
7. Moulting 7. Repeated shelling or molting occurs. 7. Molting does not occur.

87 ZOOLOGY
Economic Importance of Grasshopper
1. As crop pests: Both nymphs and adults of grasshoppers eat a variety of crops and cause extensive loss.
Locusts move from one place or one crop field to a new crop field and vegetable gardens. They can travel
long distances individually or in groups. Migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria) have been known as such
harmful insects since time immemorial. When there is a shortage of food in the habitat, they satisfy their
hunger by eating vines, tree branches, wood and even the weakest members among them. Sometimes, attack
of grasshoppers cause damage to the crop so massively that it cannot be repaired in any way.
2. As food: Grasshoppers have a special place in the food chain of the environment as a favorite food of many
predatory animals. Grasshoppers are used as food for many predatory insects, spiders, frog, reptiles, birds and
mammals. Dead or alive grasshoppers are also used as fish bait.
In some countries of the world, they are used as human food. Many people make flour by grinding Greek
Ground Locust. Grasshoppers are known as a favorite food in Mexico, Japan, and the Philippines. The
inhabitants of America, India and other countries often take this as food.
3. Keep the environment habitable: Grasshoppers contribute to soil fertility by decomposing and fertilizing
the soil, regenerating the soil, protecting the nutrients of various plants by feeding on weeds,, defecating and
dissolving itself after death.
4. As an Intermediate Host: Some flatworms and roundworms attack grasshoppers and go through a phase
of life cycle in their body. Insects act as secondary hosts for worms. If a bird or reptile ever eats grasshoppers
as food, they enter the body of vertebrates. Thus the vertebrate host is affected.
Recapitulation
1. Some species of grasshoppers live in groups, are migratory and those who fly long distances in groups and
cause extensive damage to crops are called locusts.
2. The body of the grasshopper is covered with a cuticle made of chitin. The cuticle acts as an external
skeleton.
3. The cuticle of every body segment of grasshopper is plate like. They are called sclerite.
4. The dorsal part of the sclerite is called tergum, the ventral part is called sternum and the lateral part is
called pleuron.
5. The junction of the sclerites are covered by a thin soft membrane called the suture. Due to the presence
of the suture, the body parts and appendages can move easily.
6. The head of a grasshopper consists of 6 segments. The triangular region on the dorsal surface of the head
is called vertex.
7. Grasshopper's mouth is useful for chewing. The face consists of a labrum, a pair of mandibles, a pair of
maxillas, a labium, and a hypopharynx.
8. Head of grasshoppers are pointed downwards at the front end of the body. Such a head of an insect is
called hypognathous.
9. Grasshoppers have three pairs of legs on their body. Each leg consists of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia
and tarsus.
10. The tarsus is divided into three small segments. These are called tarsomeres. The first tarsomere has two
curved claws at the ends. Between the two claws is an adhesion pad called pulvinus.
11. Grasshoppers have two pairs of wings. The front wings are small, rigid, thin and doesn’t help in flying. These
cover the hind wings. The hind wings are quite large, wide, membrane-like, transparent and helps in flying.
12. Behind the esophagus of the grasshopper is the bulging sac-like part up to the middle of the abdomen is
called crop. Its walls are thin but muscular. Its job is to store food and partially digest it.
13. The gizzard is the conical, hard and thick walled part next to the crop. Its inner wall has 6 chitin-like teeth.
Behind the teeth are hairy pads or bristles and elongated valves. Its main function is to crush food. Bristles
works as a filter.
14. Hepatic or gastric caeca are six pairs of long cone-shaped, transparent, secretory ducts located at the
junction of the foregut and midgut.
15. Grasshopper's circulatory system is underdeveloped and open, that is, blood does not flow through certain
vessels. It flows directly to various tissue cells through the perivisceral cavity or hemocoel.
16. The blood of grasshoppers is clear and colorless. Blood is called hemolymph because it is mixed with
lymph in body cavity called hemocoel. Because hemolymph does not contain respiratory pigment, it
cannot play a significant role in respiration. Collecting dissolved food, storing water and food is the job of
hemolymph.

ZOOLOGY 88
17. The body cavities of all arthropods, including grasshoppers, are not covered in the peritoneum, which
originates from the mesoderm, but is filled with blood and acts as part of the circulatory system. This
type of cavity is called hemocoel.
18. Grasshopper's hemocoel is divided into three chambers by two longitudinal membranes or diaphragms.
The chambers are called sinus. Such as- pericardial sinus, perivisceral sinus and perineural sinus.
19. Grasshopper's heart is divided into 7 chambers. There is a pore on each side of each chamber. The pores
are called Ostia.
20. The grasshopper has a system in which the trachea and its branches join together to perform respiratory
functions. It is called tracheal system.
21. Grasshoppers have a total of 10 pairs of spiracles on either side of their body. Of these, 2 pairs are
located in the thorax and 8 pairs are located in the first 8 abdominal segments. These respiratory pores
are called spiracles.
22. The inner lining of the grasshopper's trachea is protected by a spiral ring made of chitin. These are called
ctenidia.
23. Some branches of the trachea of the grasshopper extend and form large sacs with large and thin walls. It
is called air sac. Air accumulates in the air sac and it regulates airflow during respiration.
24. Malpighian tubules are the main excretory organs of grasshoppers. The malpighian tubule is located at
the junction of the midgut and hindgut. They are like fine threads of yellow. The free end of the tubules
is closed, the other end is open in the cavity of the alimentary canal. In addition the fat body participates
in excretion and releases some excretory substances during molting.
25. The large, circular, convex, black part on either side of the surface of the grasshopper's head is called
compound eye. Each eye consists of about two thousand hexagonal ommatidia. Each omatidium
(singular) acts as a single vision unit.
26. During the day, bright or intense light produces mosaic images on the grasshopper's omatidium,
allowing each ommatidium to function independently.
27. Usually in the afternoon, evening or at night, that is, in dim light, superposition image is formed in
grasshopper's ommatidium.
28. Grasshoppers are unisexual animals. Their sexual dimorphism can be seen, that is, male and female
animals can be identified from the outside. The female grasshopper can be identified by looking at the
ovipositor (egg-laying organ) located at the end of the abdomen.
29. A number of arthropods, especially insects (such as grasshopper), change their skeletons or shells
repeatedly for physical growth, this process is called ecdysis or molting. Ecdysis or molting occurs in
grasshoppers under the influence of prothoracic gland secreted ecdysone hormone. The period between
two consecutive molting is called instar.
30. Baby that hatches out of eggs of insects like grasshoppers, cockroach, etc. is called nymph. The nymphs
are almost identical to those of full-grown animals, but they are smaller in size, have larger head, have
short antennae , incomplete genitals, and have no wings.
31. The type of post-embryonic development is called metamorphosis when the embryo of the insect reaches
its adult stage through a gradual series of changes. Metamorphosis is mainly of two types- 1. Incomplete
metamorphosis and 2. Complete metamorphosis.
32. Incomplete metamorphosis is the process by which an insect hatches from an egg and turns into a adult
insect after passing a few nymph stages. Each nymph stage looks like a tiny replica of a full-grown
insect, but they are wingless and have no genitals and show distinct color differences. In an incomplete
metamorphosis, a baby animal is called a nymph. Example- Metamorphosis of grasshopper and
cockroach.
33. A metamorphosis in which there is no physical resemblance between a baby animal and a full-grown
animal, and a baby animal converts into a full-grown animal by massive changes, is called a complete
metamorphosis. Example- Metamorphosis of bees and butterflies.
34. Diapause is a special adaptation of grasshoppers, which protects their nymphs or babies from extreme
cold and food shortages. Grasshopper's eggs stop developing in unfavorable weather (winter). This
condition is called diapause. Diapause is continued throughout the winter.

89 ZOOLOGY
 Exercise
1. How many pairs of long, transparent ducts are present in hepatic caeca?
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 3 (d) 5
2. What is the characteristic of alary muscle?
(a) Open from ventrolateral surface from heart (b) Triangular blade like
(c) Located in wall of perivisceral sinus (d) 4 pairs
3. What is the length of malpighian tubule in mm?
(a) 22 (b) 24 (c) 25 (d) 26
4. Which part of ommatidium helps in entrance of light?
(a) Cornea (b) Crystalline cone cell (c) Corneagen cell (d) Retinular cell
5. Vas deferens fuses in which segment?
(a) 8th (b) 9th (c) 7th (d) 10th
6. Which part helps food to enter in esophagus?
(a) Crop (b) Mouth (c) Pharynx (d) Hepatic caeca
7. Time required for blood to flow once in full body of grasshopper-
(a) 20-50 min (b) 40-50 min (c) 30-60 min (d) 40-50 min
8. Esophagus of grasshopper-
(i) Located behind pharynx (ii) Thin and straight (iii) Cylindrical, thin walled
Which one is correct?
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i, ii and iii
9. Function of maxilla-
(i) Prevents slipping of food (ii) Acts as sensory organ (iii) Helps in selecting suitable food
Which one is correct?
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i, ii and iii
10. Enzymes in saliva-
(i) Amylase (ii) Protease (iii) Cellulase
Which one is correct?
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i, ii and iii
11. Applicable for malpighian tubule-
(i) Innumerable fine hair like (ii) Yellow organelle (iii) Mainly works as excretory organ
Which one is correct?
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i,ii and iii
12. Proctodeum-
(i) Last part of digestive tract (ii) Originates from embryonic ectoderm (iii) Secretes digestive juice
Which one is correct?
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i,ii and iii
Answer 13 and 14 from the diagram.

13. What is the part ‘B’ in the figure?

(a) Spiracle (b) Trachea (c) Tracheole (d) Air sac
14. Function of ‘A’-
(i) Exchange of gas in body cells
(ii) Store air
(iii) Control air flow during respiration
Which one is correct?
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i, ii and iii
Answer Sheet :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
B B C B B C C D A B D A B C

ZOOLOGY 90