BRASS

What Is Brass?

Brass is a non-ferrous red metal made mostly of copper and zinc. Different amounts of copper and
zinc can achieve various mechanical and electrical qualities. The amounts of copper and zinc are
adjusted to produce a Modern brass is composed of 67 percent copper and 33 percent zinc. Copper
concentrations can range from 55 percent to 95 percent by weight, with zinc concentrations ranging
from 5 percent to 45 percent.

Brass is a substitution alloy because it comprises atoms of the two main elements that can replace
each other inside the same crystalline structure. Lead is frequently added to the brass at roughly 2%.
The addition of lead to brass improves its machinability.

Even in brass with a relatively low overall content of lead, considerable lead leaching occurs
frequently. Musical instruments, weapon cartridge casings, radiators, architectural trim, pipes and
tubing, screws, and decorative items are all made of brass. variety of brasses.

History Of Brass

Brass was first used in China around the 5th century BC. The brass artifacts discovered have a zinc
content of only 5% to 15%, indicating that they were manufactured from “natural alloys” and may
have been made accidentally.

These metals were most likely smelted from a copper ore high in zinc, resulting in an accidental
brass-like metal. However, certain relics are known to have been made with the golden color
associated with brass.

Manufacturing Process Of Brass

1. Melting

In this first process, the copper alloy is melted in an electric furnace at 1,050°C. After melting the
copper, the copper alloy is given the required proportion of zinc. A tiny amount of extra zinc is
sometimes added to the copper alloy to compensate for zinc evaporation during the melting process.
The molten metal is then placed into the cuboidal framework and allowed to cool before solidifying
into slabs.

2. Hot Rolling

These cakes are then placed in a furnace and heated until they reach the desired temperature. The
brass thickness is then reduced by bypassing these hotcakes over an opposing steel roller. The width
of the brass is also enhanced during this operation.

The brass is then chilled before being fed through a milling machine known as a scalper. This
machine also eliminates the brass’s very thin exterior coating, made up of oxides that form when the
metal is exposed to the air.
3. Annealing And Cold Rolling

It becomes increasingly difficult to work with brass when it is hot rolled. It also loses flexibility or the
ability to stretch. The brass must be heated first to relieve some of its hardness and make it more
malleable before it can be rolled further. Annealing is the term for this process. Depending on the
brass composition and required qualities, annealing temperatures and timeframes vary.

Larger hot-rolled brass pieces can be annealed together in a batch in a sealed furnace. Smaller items
can be fed continuously through a furnace with airtight seals at both ends using a metal belt
conveyor.

4. Finish Rolling

The sheets are subjected to a final cold rolling process, which tightens tolerances and gives the brass
a flawless surface finish. These sheets are subsequently cut into the necessary size depending on the
necessity.

Types Of Brasses

The crystal structures of different varieties of brasses are the most important distinction. Three
different types of brasses are as follows:

1. Alpha Brasses

Alpha brasses are named after their homogeneous (alpha) crystal structure, formed when less than
37 percent of zinc is fused into copper. As zinc dissolves into copper, an alpha crystal structure forms,
resulting in a solid solution of homogenous composition. Because these brasses are softer and more
malleable than their equivalents, they can be cold worked, welded, rolled, pulled, bent, or brazed
with more ease.

2. Alpha-Beta Brasses

Alpha-beta brasses, also known as ‘duplex brasses’ or ‘hot-working brasses,’ have a zinc content of
37-45% and are made up of both alpha and beta grain structures. Brass in the beta phase is more
atomically comparable to pure zinc.

3. Beta Brasses

Beta brasses are the third type of brass alloy that contains more than 45 percent zinc. They are far
less common than alpha or alpha-beta brasses. These brasses have a beta crystal structure and are
tougher and stronger than alpha and alpha-beta brasses.
PROPERTIES OF BRASS
The amount of copper and zinc in brass determines its properties. Other metals such as tin,
aluminum, lead, and nickel are frequently added to improve the quality of brass. The following are
some properties of brass:

 Brass is commonly bright gold, but it can also be reddish-gold or silvery-white. More copper
gives the alloy a rose tone, while more zinc gives it a silvery appearance.
 Brass has a low melting point, between 9000 0C and 9400 0C.
 Brass is a non-magnetic metal and desirable metal for electrical and electronic equipment
due to its non-magnetic nature. It is simple to separate from scrap.
 Brass is a naturally antibacterial metal and does not support pathogens (bacteria or other
microbes). As a result, it is suggested for faucets and doorknobs.
 Brass is malleable. It does not break when drawn or stretched into tiny wires. When metal is
pulled into wires, it experiences tensile pull. It has higher elasticity than copper and zinc.
 Brass is anti-corrosive, and the high content of copper forms a protective layer surrounding
the metal and protects it against corrosion.
 Brass has acoustic properties that make it ideal for musical instruments.
 The surface of the brass metal is resistant to wear. It also has a strong resistance to friction.
 Brass is a good heat and electricity conductor, and it permits the passage of heat and
electricity. Electric cables have brass strands that conduct electricity.

USES OF BRASS

 Brass is a desirable architectural alloy because of its inherent durability and corrosion
resistance. Architectural fascia trims and hedges are frequently employed. Certain brass
alloys have also been employed to aid in the restoration or refurbishment of historical
structures worldwide.
 Brass has low friction in settings where metal-on-metal contact is required, which is why it is
frequently used in mechanical components. Machines are common in brass gears,
locomotive axle boxes, marine engines, etc. Due to their extraordinary longevity, brass hand
tools (hammers, flat knives, etc.) are also highly coveted.
 Brass is frequently employed as a component of two of your home’s most general plumbing
and electrical systems. Various components of electrical sockets and switches are made of
brass alloys. Brass is commonly used in plumbing applications such as valves and pipe fittings
such as elbows, plugs, and couplings.
 Brass has traditionally been used to make a variety of musical instruments. Brass is utilized to
produce trumpets, french horns, trombones, and tubas worldwide. Brass components will be
used in the interior of electric instruments such as electric guitars and electric violins.

TYPES OF PRODUCTS MANYFACTURE IN BRASS CONSTRUCTION PARTS

 BRASS ANCHOR
 BRASS TEE  HANDRAILS
 BRASS ELBOW  DOORKNOBS
 BRASS NIPPLE  HANDLES
 BRASS NUTS  PLUMBING FIXTURES

LIST OF BRASS FITTINGS MANUFACTURERS IN INDIA
Venus Enterprise
Precision Brass Parts India (PBP)
Prime Industrial Components
Deepak Brass Industries
Vinayak Brass Industries
Riddhi Brass Industries
Savvy Brass Industries
Shiv Om Brass Industries
Krishna Brass Products
Jamnagar Brass Fittings
BRONZE
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and
often nowith the addition of other metals and sometimes non-metals, such as
phosphorus, or metalloids such as arsenic or silicon.

Modern bronze is typically 88 percent copper and about 12 percent tin.

Some modern bronzes contain no tin at all, having other metals substituted—such as
aluminum, manganese, and even zinc.

Bronze is harder than copper, as a result of alloying that metal with tin or other metals.
Bronze is also more fusible (i.e., more readily melted) and is hence easier to cast. It is harder
than pure iron and far more resistant to corrosion

Bronze is improved in hardness and strength by the addition of a small amount of

phosphorus

Bronze is one of the earliest metals known to man. It is defined as an alloy made of copper
and another metal, usually tin. Compositions vary, but most modern bronze is 88% copper
and 12% tin. Bronze may also contain manganese, aluminum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon,
arsenic, or zinc.

HERE ARE SOME TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Highly ductile.
Bronze exhibits low friction against other metals.
Many bronze alloys display the unusual property of expanding a small amount when
solidifying from a liquid into a solid. For sculpture casting, this is desirable, as it helps to fill a
mold.
Brittle, but less so than cast iron.
Upon exposure to air, bronze oxidizes, but only on its outer layer. This patina consists of
copper oxide, which eventually becomes copper carbonate. The oxide layer protects the
interior metal from further corrosion. However, if chlorides are present (as from seawater),
copper chlorides form, which can cause "bronze disease" -- a condition in which corrosion
works through the metal and destroys it.
Unlike steel, striking bronze against a hard surface won't generate sparks. This makes bronze
useful for the metal used around flammable or explosive materials.

Bronze is used in architecture for structural and design elements, for bearings because of its
friction properties, and as phosphor bronze in musical instruments, electrical contacts, and
ship propellers. Aluminum bronze is used to make machine tools and some bearings. Bronze
wool is used instead of steel wool in woodworking because it doesn't discolor oak.
Architectural Bronze is a manganese bronze, a copper and zinc based alloy containing small
amounts of manganese, iron and aluminium, and is commonly used in architectural
applications.

HISTORY
The Romans were the first to use bronze in cladding doors. However, it took until the Middle
Ages before bronze became more widely used for architectural purposes.

There are bronze doors still in existence dating back to the 15th century, demonstrating the
durability of this material, although the majority of buildings which feature architectural
bronze windows, doors and other decorative features date from the 18th and 19th century.

properties, including corrosion resistance, anti-seizing properties, durability and high

strength.

The alloy is chosen for its aesthetic appeal, as it develops a rich, warm patina over time,
which can enhance the overall appearance of a structure. The patina also acts as a
protective layer, preventing further corrosion and enhancing the material's durability.

In addition to its visual qualities, architectural bronze also possesses excellent mechanical
properties, longevity and ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions, making it
suitable for structural applications.
Historic bronze
HISTORY OF BRONZE IN ARCHITECTURE
The qualities of bronze have been known to man since the beginning of the Bronze Age over
4,000 years ago. The Romans were the first to use bronze in cladding doors. However, it took
until the Middle Ages before bronze became more widely used for architectural purposes.

There are bronze doors still in existence dating back to the 15th century, demonstrating the
durability of this material, although the majority of buildings which feature architectural
bronze windows, doors and other decorative features date from the 18th and 19th century.

Investing in bronze guarantees that your products will withstand the test of time, providing
years of enjoyment for yourself and for future generations.

WHAT IS ARCHITECTURAL BRONZE?

Architectural Bronze is a manganese bronze, a copper and zinc based alloy containing small
amounts of manganese, iron and aluminium, and is commonly used in architectural
applications. The combination of these metals give manganese bronze its distinctive
properties, including corrosion resistance, anti-seizing properties, durability and high
strength.

The alloy is chosen for its aesthetic appeal, as it develops a rich, warm patina over time,
which can enhance the overall appearance of a structure. The patina also acts as a
protective layer, preventing further corrosion and enhancing the material's durability.

In addition to its visual qualities, architectural bronze also possesses excellent mechanical
properties, longevity and ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions, making it
suitable for structural applications.

Example of architectural bronze

Example of historic project 'Freston Tower' with bronze windows
WHY CHOOSE BRONZE OVER STEEL OR ALUMINIUM?
Architectural bronze is a timeless and truly special alloy of undisputed prestige, providing an
exciting alternative to steel and aluminium windows and doors, and there are many very
good reasons why one might choose to invest in architectural bronze.
Firstly, architectural bronze is a living material, subject to natural oxidation and therefore
acquires unique and original shades over time. It does not require galvanising, powder
coating or painting which can give any product a limited lifespan due to chipping or general
deterioration.

Many of our clients will choose architectural bronze for its distinct warm, rich colour that
gives windows a classic and elegant aesthetic appeal and ability to enhance the overall
architectural design of a building. Architectural bronze is a naturally beautiful metal and
should not be confused with other products which may have a bronze coloured powder coat
finish.

Architectural bronze is a highly durable material that can withstand harsh environmental
conditions, including exposure to moisture, UV rays, and extreme temperatures. It has a
natural resistance to corrosion and is less prone to degradation compared to steel or
aluminium, making it suitable for long-lasting window frames. It is also a sturdy material that
offers excellent structural integrity.

The natural anti-corrosive properties work by developing a protective patina over time,
which not only adds to its visual appeal but also helps prevent further corrosion. This
characteristic makes architectural bronze windows a relatively low-maintenance option
requiring only periodic waxing, compared to steel or aluminium, which may require more
significant upkeep over the years.
Architectural bronze is, appropriately, popular for architectural projects, and especially
accenting and trim on elements such as entryways, elevators, windows, and more.

Architectural Bronze should be cleaned to prevent the buildup of dirt, grime, and other
imperfections that may detract from its appearance. Architectural bronze can be cleaned
using a solution of 50% lacquer thinners and 50% water. The metal should be cleaned only
with the direction of the grain, rather than against it. Use a lint-free cloth to clean the
surface, then rinse the metal, and finally wipe dry with another clean, lint-free cloth.
IRON
Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe (from Latin ferrum 'iron') and atomic number 26.
It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is,
by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core.
It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust, being mainly deposited by
meteorites in its metallic state.
Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500
°C (2,730 °F), about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper. Humans
started to master that process in Eurasia during the 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron
tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC.
That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. In the modern
world, iron alloys, such as steel, stainless steel, cast iron and special steels, are by far the
most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost.
The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in
hemoglobin and myoglobin. These two proteins play essential roles in oxygen transport by
blood and oxygen storage in muscles. To maintain the necessary levels, human iron
metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of
many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction
in plants and animals.[9]
EXTRACTION OF IRON

Iron is generally extracted from its ore which is known as haematite. The conventional
method of extracting iron from haematite is by crushing it. The ore is placed on top of a blast
furnace with a carbon source such as coke or calcium carbonate (limestone). Carbon
monoxide is produced when coke is burned in the furnace. The iron ore is reduced to iron by
carbon monoxide. At this point, the iron is liquid.

Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide are formed when calcium carbonate decomposes. Calcium
oxide interacts with impurities like calcium silicate to form. This is referred to as slag. The
molten iron floats with the slag on top. The iron is tapped out of the furnace's bottom.
The ingredients to make useable iron were limestone, ironstone, coke and air. The coke is
the fuel and the ironstone provides the iron ore. Ironstone is first roasted in calcining kilns,
located next to the blast furnaces, to remove impurities. The air, or blast, was blown into
the blast furnace by powerful steam engines. (They used cold air until 1828 when it was
discovered at Wilsontown that hot blast produced better quality iron).
Air is required to keep the mixture burning inside the furnace. Limestone is added because
it combines with the impurities in the iron ore, it acts as a flux. This mixture of limestone
and impurities is called slag, this was not wanted and was removed from the blast furnaces
by opening a tap which the slag would flow out from once it had floated to the top of the
mixture.Diagram of the furnace at Wilsontown

Once the mixture had been heated for the required period and the slag tapped off, a tap
would be opened at the bottom of the blast furnace for the molten iron to flow out from. It
would be allowed to flow into prepared sand beds called pig beds where it would set. This is
how they made pig iron, so called because the arrangement of the pig beds was said to
resemble a sow with feeding piglets.

Inside a blast furnace

After pig iron was made at the blast furnaces some of it would then be taken to the
refineries then the forge and the rolling mill.

The Refineries
There were two blast-refineries at Wilsontown where pig iron was first subjected to a blast
of air to burn out some of the impurities before puddling. The refineries would have been
close to where the iron emerged from the blast furnace and conveniently placed for iron to
be taken across the culvert to the forge for puddling. After refining the metal was cooled in
a cistern or water trough.

The Forge
Detail from the forge at Wilsontown forge is a building where metal is heated and shaped.

This building was first constructed in 1790/1 following plans drawn up by John Rennie who
worked as an Engineer for Boulton and Watt at the time. It stood across the culvert from the
blast furnaces. At its heart stood an engine house with 2 steam engines in 1810, one single-
power and one double-power. One of these engines was second hand, it had been bought
from the King and Queen Foundry at Rotherhithe owned at time by Gardner, Manser & Co.
It probably started working in the forge at Wilsontown in August 1791.

The forge originally contained helve hammers, chaferies and fineries for refining iron, but
this method became unprofitable. So after John Wilson Snr & Sons took over they installed
new equipment that included a steam engine, puddling furnaces and 2 new hammers, they
possibly altered the building as well.
In 1810 the engines now provided the power to work 3 shingling hammers and one drawing
hammer. Also in the forge at this time were 10 puddling furnaces, 2 balling furnaces and
one chafery.

Iron would be brought to the forge from the refineries and reworked in the puddling
furnaces to burn out (mainly) carbon. Following this the now crude malleable iron was
reheated in a balling furnace or chafery before being hammered (shingled) to expel scale
and finally drawn out into blooms for taking to the rolling mills. This might require a number
of ‘heats’. For this reason refining, puddling, hammering and finally rolling needed to be
close together.

The hammers were of two types – helve and tilt. For shingling these were of the helve type
and worked by cams off the axle which lifted the nose (hammer end) directly with the
fulcrum secured at the other end. This worked more slowly than the tilt hammer, but gave a
heavier stroke. The tilt hammer was used for drawing and gave a more rapid but gentler
stroke. In this type the fulcrum lay in the middle; by depressing the tail, the hammer end at
the opposite end was lifted by the leverage exerted through the fulcrum.

Movement of iron within the forge was by wheelbarrows, one four-wheeled and three two-
wheels carriages along cast-iron ‘barrow runs’. There were 14 water boxes (boshes) around
the forge for cooling working tools.

The Rolling Mill

Details from the rolling mill at Wilsontown rolling mill is a factory for shaping metal by
passing it between pairs of rolls.

The rolling mill lay beside the forge to the north. Before being taken into the rolling mill the
blooms from the forge were weighed. The rolling mill appears to have been built
around1802-4 and was described as open-sided with stone pillars at suitable intervals and
arched between. Because of the large area covered the roof was supported internally on
cast-iron pillars and probably had wrought-iron roof trusses that were tied into the walls by
the wall-plates. Internal slender cast-iron pillars would have allowed the movement of
materials within; like the forge the floor was laid with cast-iron plates to prevent damage
when iron was move about.

The mill was powered by a single-acting steam engine with a massive 24-ft diameter
flywheel. The mill engine was placed centrally so that the three pairs of merchant bar rolls
could lie one side of the main drive with the three pairs devoted to plain (boiler plate, sheet
and hoop) work on the other. On this side there was also a pair of bolt rolls with cutters
worked off an eccentric. A lathe for turning the rolls back to true (rolls tended to wear
unevenly) was also driven off the engine.

An Inventory from 1813 lists equipment such as 100 Tongs and Hooks which would have
been used for drawing the iron between passes. Between each pass iron would have
needed reheating and there were furnaces for this purpose. After rolling, finished iron was
assembled on 2 bundling benches which weighed over ½ ton each, but there was also a long
wooden bench for the same purpose: possibly this was for boiler plates which might have
scratched more easily.

PRODUCTS WERE:
Pig iron – sold to other Foundries
Cast iron products such as shot (4-18 pounders) for cannons, axles, pipes
Bar iron / Wrought iron / Merchant Bar
Blooms – bought by other Ironworks / Foundries
Boiler and other plates
Hoop iron – eg for barrels
Sheet iron
Iron rods
Ballast for ships
Special items for local sale
Nailrods - sold to an Ironmonger in Edinburgh
TITANIUM
Titanium was discovered in 1791 by the clergyman and geologist William Gregor as an
inclusion of a mineral in Cornwall, Great Britain.
Gregor recognized the presence of a new element in ilmenite when he found black sand by a
stream and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnet.
Analysing the sand, he determined the presence of two metal oxides: iron oxide (explaining
the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.
Realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match any known
element.
About fifty grades of titanium alloys are designed and currently used, although only a couple
of dozen are readily available commercially.The ASTM International recognizes 31 grades of
titanium metal and alloys, of which grades one through four are commercially pure
(unalloyed). Those four vary in tensile strength as a function of oxygen content, with grade 1
being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and grade
4 the least ductile (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%).The remaining
grades are alloys, each designed for specific properties of ductility, strength, hardness,
electrical resistivity, creep resistance, specific corrosion resistance, and combinations
thereof.
Forming and forging
Commercially pure flat products (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must
take into account the tendency of the metal to springback. This is especially true of certain
high-strength alloys. Exposure to the oxygen in the air at the elevated temperatures used in
forging results in the formation of a brittle oxygen-rich metallic surface layer called "alpha
case" that worsens the fatigue properties, so it must be removed by milling, etching, or
electrochemical treatment.

Titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) find application in
industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in
pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.
About 95% of all titanium ore is destined for refinement into titanium dioxide (TiO
2), an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints, paper, toothpaste, and plastics.
[27] It is also used in cement, in gemstones, as an optical opacifier in paper,[82] and a
strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs.[83]

TiO2 pigment is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: it imparts a
pure and brilliant white color to the brown or grey chemicals that form the majority of
household plastics.[11] In nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase, brookite,
and rutile.[9] Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures and marine
environments.[11] Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical
dispersion higher than diamond.[10] In addition to being a very important pigment, titanium
dioxide is also used in sunscreens.
The metal is generally too expensive for the general consumer market, though some late
model Corvettes have been manufactured with titanium exhausts,[94] and a Corvette Z06's
LT4 supercharged engine uses lightweight, solid titanium intake valves for greater strength
and resistance to heat.
Advantages
Titanium is a strong, lightweight metal that is used in a variety of applications, including
aircrafts, automobiles, and medical devices.
Titanium is corrosion-resistant, which means it will not rust or corrode when exposed to the
elements.
Titanium is biocompatible, which means it is safe for use in medical implants and other
devices that come into contact with the human body.
Titanium is non-toxic and does not release harmful chemicals when heated or burned.
Titanium has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which means it is both strong and light.

APPLICATION OF TITANIUM ALLOY

Aerospace industry
Electronic industry
Medical industry
Automotive industry
Marine industry
The Manufacturing

PROCESS
Titanium is produced using the Kroll process. The steps involved include extraction,
purification, sponge production, alloy creation, and forming and shaping. In the United
States, many manufacturers specialize in different phases of this production. For example,
there are manufacturers that just make the sponge, others that only melt and create the
alloy, and still others that produce the final products. Currently, no single manufacturer
completes all of these steps.

Extraction
1 At the start of production, the manufacturer receives titanium concentrates from mines.
While rutile can be used in its natural form, ilmenite is processed to remove the iron so that
it contains at least 85% titanium dioxide. These materials are put in a fluidized-bed reactor
along with chlorine gas and carbon. The material is heated to 1,652°F (900°C) and the
subsequent chemical reaction results in the creation of impure titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4)
and carbon monoxide. Impurities are a result of the fact that pure titanium dioxide is not
used at the start. Therefore the various unwanted metal chlorides that are produced must
be removed.
Purification
2 The reacted metal is put into large distillation tanks and heated. During this step, the
impurities are separated using fractional distillation and precipitation. This action removes
metal chlorides including those of iron, vanadium, zirconium, silicon, and magnesium.
Production of the sponge
3 Next, the purified titanium tetrachloride is transferred as a liquid to a stainless steel
reactor vessel. Magnesium is then added and the container is heated to about 2,012°F
(1,100°C). Argon is pumped into the container so that air will be removed and contamination
with oxygen or nitrogen is prevented. The magnesium reacts with the chlorine producing
liquid magnesium chloride. This leaves pure titanium solid since the melting point of
titanium is higher than that of the reaction.
4 The titanium solid is removed from the reactor by boring and then treated with water and
hydrochloric acid to remove excess magnesium and magnesium chloride. The resulting solid
is a porous metal called a sponge.
Alloy creation
5 The pure titanium sponge can then be converted into a usable alloy via a consumable-
electrode arc furnace. At this point, the sponge is mixed with the various alloy additions and
scrap metal. The exact proportion of sponge to alloy material is formulated in a lab prior to
production. This mass is then pressed into compacts and welded together, forming a sponge
electrode.
6 The sponge electrode is then placed in a vacuum arc furnace for melting. In this water-
cooled, copper container, an electric arc is used to melt the sponge electrode to form an
ingot. All of the air in the container is either removed (forming a vacuum) or the atmosphere
is filled with argon to prevent contamination. Typically, the ingot is remelted one or two
more times to produce a commercially acceptable ingot. In the United States, most ingots
produced by this method weigh about 9,000 lb (4,082 kg) and are 30 in (76.2 cm) in
diameter.
7 After an ingot is made, it is removed from the furnace and inspected for defects. The
surface can be conditioned as required for the customer. The ingot can then be shipped to a
finished goods manufacturer where it can be milled and fabricated into various products.
ALUMINIUM is a tool for unlimited creativity in the hands of the architect, making it
possible to create structures that cannot be made from wood, plastic, or steel as it is light ,
but strong metal, it is not prone to corrosion, it is non-toxic and durable, and can be given
virtually any desired shape.

That is why it is so commonly used in modern construction.

Thus 25% of all aluminium produced worldwide
is used in construction.

HISTORY:
At the beginning of the last century, Aluminium was virtually unused in civil engineering, as
the metal was too expensive and not produced in sufficient volumes. Everything changed in
the 1920s, when the electrolysis process reduced the cost of Aluminium by 80%. The metal
became extremely popular for finishing roofs and domes and for use in drains and wall
panels, as well as for decorative purposes.

The first building in which Aluminium was widely used in construction was the Empire State
Building, the famous New York skyscraper built in 1931 – and the tallest building in the world
until 1970. Aluminium was used in all of the building's basic structures and widely used in
the interior as well. One of the building's calling cards is the fresco on the lobby ceiling and
the walls are made of Aluminium and 23 karat gold.

The application of Aluminium in construction and architecture slowed in the 1940s, as the
metal was predominantly used for producing planes. But as early as the middle of the 20th
century, Aluminium became more and more popular in the construction of high-rise
buildings and bridges. Window frames, panels, domed roofs and other wide-span
constructions and ornaments were increasingly made with Aluminium. Today, it is used for
roofs, siding, translucent panes, window and doorframes, staircases, air conditioning
systems, solar protection, heating systems, furniture and many other things.

The minimum design service life of Aluminium structures is 80 years. Within this timespan,
Aluminium can be used in any climatic conditions and does not lose its properties in
temperatures ranging between –80 °C and +300 °C. Aluminium structures can be slightly
prone to damage in fires, but the metal becomes even stronger at low temperatures.
For example, heat-insulated Aluminium siding with reflective foil covering protects premises
from cold temperatures four times better than 10 cm thick brick facing or 20 cm thick stone
masonry. That is why it is widely used in construction in cold areas, like the Northern Urals,
Siberia and Yakutia in Russia.

Aluminium plate constitutes half the weight of steel with the same stiffness. So, the weight
of Aluminium structures is one half to two-thirds the weight of steel structures and up to
one-seventh the weight of reinforced concrete structures with the same bearing capacity.

That is why Aluminium is today is used in high-rise buildings and skyscrapers as it can cut
down on the depth of the foundation , it's expense on the whole building. In addition, it is
simpler, faster and more convenient to work with lightweight structures.

PRODUCTION:
The process of mining aluminum involves extracting bauxite ore, refining it to produce
alumina, and then smelting the alumina to extract pure aluminum. The extracted aluminum
can then be used to manufacture a wide range of products, from aircraft parts to cans.
China is the largest producer of aluminium in the world.
Angul in Odisa is called as the aluminium city of India.
Aluminium ingots and Flat rolled products, hot- and cold-finished, are used for the
production of aluminium sheet, wire and slab.

Aluminium takes to polishing and anodizing very well and can take on any colouring, a
quality highly valued by designers. Additionally, anodizing provides intensified anticorrosion
protection for the metal.

Anodizing includes a number of electrochemical processes for metal surface preparation and
the formation of a hard, corrosion-proof film of Aluminium oxides. Immediately after
anodizing, the artificial colourless film possessing high adsorption capacity may be painted in
any colour by immersing parts in a warm bath of colouring agents.

For example, the ceiling of the Aviamotornayaunderground station in Moscow, the buildings
of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the State Kremlin Palace feature anodic Aluminium
raised plates. These elements look and sparkle like gold from afar. In using this metal, it is
not necessary to waste this precious metal for gold anodizing, as the special pigment gives
the colour and the oxide film gives the lustre.billets are used most frequently in civil
engineering, being processed into floating ceiling, windows, doors, stairs, wall panels, roof
sheets and many more uses.

The aluminium industry of India produces the second-highest volume of aluminium and its
products in the world.The aluminium industry of India is growing day by day, and the export
worldwide is increasing year after year. The aluminium production of the Indian companies
contributes nearly 2% of India’s GDP.

The top 10 aluminium companies in India are Hindustan Aluminium Company (HINDALCO),
Vedanta Aluminium Limited, India Foils Limited, Sacheta Metals, Jindal Aluminium, National
Aluminium Company Limited (NALCO), Bharat Aluminium Company Limited (BALCO), Madras
Aluminium Company Limited (MALCO), Indian Aluminium Company Limited (INDAL), and
Century Extrusions Ltd. Where Vedanta limited is the largest aluminium producing company
of India.