Introduction

• Computed Tomography (CT) imaging, also

known as "CAT scanning" (Computed
Axial Tomography).

• Tomography is from the Greek word

"tomos" meaning "slice" or "section" and
graph meaning "describing".
• A technique to help locate a problem and
confirm diagnosis in order to give the
correct treatment.
 Continued
• It combines the use of a digital computer together
with a rotating x-ray device to create detailed cross
sectional images or "slices" of the different organs
and body parts such as the lungs, liver, kidneys,
pancreas, pelvis, extremities, brain, spine, and
blood vessels.

• The x-rays tube rotates around the body,

the x-rays passes through the body and
cross sectional images (pictures) of tissues
are formed
 Continued

• CT Scan has the unique ability to image a

combination of soft tissue, bone, and
blood vessels.

• For example, conventional x-ray imaging

of the head can only show the dense bone
structures of the skull
 How Does Ct Scan Work?
 Basic components
 X-ray tube
 Collimators
X-ray
 Detector/s Collimators
tube
 Collimated x-ray beam Detector
traverses the object and
enters the detector.
 The attenuation is
determined from the
difference between incident
intensity and transmitted
intensity
 Translate rotate system

 In the basic CT system

the x-ray tube and
detector are translated
linearly so that the beam
scans the object (eg. A
disc of uniform density)
 Ray, Ray sum, View & Attenuation Profile
Ray – Imaginary line
between Tube & Detector
Ray Sum – Attenuation along
Ray sums
a Ray Ray
View – The set of ray sums in
one direction

The attenuation for each ray

sum when plotted as
function of its position is View Attenuation
called an attenuation profile
profile
 Attenuation profile of different
structures
 Attenuation of objects with
different densities will
change the attenuation
profile

Object with low

attenuation

Object with high

attenuation
Attenuation profile at different positions
 In a translate –rotate CT,
after a view is recorded,
the tube and detector
rotate a small angle and the
entire process is repeated
until many views have been
recorded for the same slice
Views & attenuation profiles for a slice

2
4
3
• Computed Tomography is based on the x-
ray principal:
• As x-rays pass through the body, they are
absorbed or attenuated (weakened) at
differing levels. This x-ray profile is
registered on film, thus creating an image.
• In the case of CT, the film is replaced by a
banana shaped detector which measures
the x-ray profile.
 Continued
• A CT scanner looks like a big, square
doughnut.
• The patient aperture (opening) is 60 cm to 70
cm (24" to 28") in diameter.
• Inside the covers of the CT scanner is a
rotating frame which has an x-ray tube
mounted on one side and the banana shaped
detector mounted on the opposite side.
• A fan beam of x-ray is created as the rotating
frame spins the x-ray tube and detector
around the patient.
 Continued
• Each time the x-ray tube and detector make a
360⁰ rotation, an image or "slice" has been
acquired.
• This "slice" is collimated (focused) to a
thickness between 1 mm and 10 mm using
lead shutters in front of the x-ray tube and x-
ray detector.
• As the x-ray tube and detector make this
360⁰ rotation, the detector takes numerous
snapshots (called profiles) of the attenuated
x-ray beam.
 Continued
• Typically, in one 360⁰ lap, about 1,000
profiles are sampled.
• Each profile is subdivided spatially (divided
into partitions) by the detectors and fed into
about 700 individual channels.
• Each profile is then backwards reconstructed
(or "back projected") by a dedicated
computer into a two-dimensional image of
the "slice" that was scanned.
 Continued
• Multiple Computers are used to control the
entire CT system.
• The main computer that orchestrates the
operation of the entire system is called the
“host computer.”
• There is also a dedicated computer that
reconstructs the “raw CT data” into an image.
• A workstation with a mouse, keyboard and
other dedicated controls allows the
technologist to control and monitor the
exam.
 Continued
• The CT gantry and table have multiple
microprocessors that control the rotation of
the gantry, movement of the table (up/down
and in/out), tilting of the gantry for angled
images, and other functions such as turning
the x-ray beam on an off.
 History to now
● 1917 - Mathematical theory of tomographic image
reconstructions (Johann Radon)
● 1931- Conventional tomography (Alessandro Vallebona)
● 1963 – Theoretical basis of CT (Allan McLeod Cormack)
● 1971 - First commercial CT (Sir Godfrey Hounsfield)
● 1974 –Fourth generation CT
● 1979 - Nobel prize (Cormack & Hounsfield)
● 1998 – Multiple scanner were introduced
● 2001 - 16-row spiral CT
● 2004 – 256 slice CT scanner was undergoing clinical tests
● 2007 - 320-row spiral CT
● 2008 – Dual Energy CT
● 2010 - 640 slices MDCT
● 2014 – Use of stellar detector (high absorption, fast decay and no afterglow)
 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

o G.N Hounsfield (an engineer with

EMI) is credited with the invention of
CT
o Allan MacLeod Cormack of united
state developed solution to the
mathematical problem in CT GN Hounsfield
1919-12 August 2004
o In 1972, the first head CT scanner
was invented by Goldfrey Hounsfield

18
o in 1972, Hounsfield shared the
Nobel prize in medicine and
physiology with Allan Cormack
o Seven generations of CT
scanner since the original EMI
scanner, with each generation Allan Cormack
providing faster scan time and
improved image manipulation

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 GENERATIONS OF CT SCAN
o Regardless of the CT scanner generation the latent
image is acquired and achieved in a similar manner
o The exit radiation is detected and converted into a
digital signal by the analog to digital converter
o Data from many different entrance angles are
processed characteristic of the tissue in the section
under examination
o Data are stored in a matrix of pixel.
o The digital pixel data are processed in a DAC (digital
to analog converter) before being displayed

20
 First generation
o Employed a rotate/translate, pencil beam system
o Two detector were used
o Used parallel ray geometry
o NaI as detector element with PM tube
o X-ray tube and detector system translate linearly
across the 24 cm FOV acquiring 160 parallel rays
o When the x-ray tube/detector system completed it’s
translation the whole system rotate slightly and then
another translation was used to acquire the next
projection in at 1 degree interval

21
o due to uneven thickness of the head, huge
change in x-ray flux occurred and need water
bath to accommodate the detector system
o Took at least 5 minute to complete one slice
o The first EMI brain scanner and other earlier
scanner were used on this concept

22
 Second generation
o Employed rotate/translate,
narrow fan beam
o Incorporation of a linear array of
30 detector
o Narrow fan angle of 10 degree
was used
o 15 times faster than the first
generation CT system
o The shortest scan time was 18
sec per slice
o Acquired more data (600
rays*540 views=32400 data
point)

23
 Third generation
o Employed rotate/rotate, wide fan
bean geometry
o More than 800 detector were
used
o Fundamental impediment
(hindrance) to fast scanning
o Rotates continuously around the
pt for 360 deg.
o The path traced by the tube
describe circle rather than the
semicircle characteristic of 1st
and 2nd generation CT scanner
o Collect data within a few second

24
 Fourth generation
o Stationary detector and rotating x-ray tube
o Stationary detector requires a large acceptance
angle for radiation, and is therefore more sensitive
to scattered radiation than 3rd generation
o requires large no. of detector cells and electronic
channels(higher cost) to achieve the same spatial
resolution and dose efficiency as a 3rd gen. system
o Larger fan beam
o Shorter scanning time
o Had some 600 detectors in early version and up to
4,800 in later

25
o Less efficient use of
detectors, less than ¼
are used at any point
during scanning
o Only the x-ray
generator and tube
rotates at 360 degree,
thus shortening the
scanning time even
more

26
27
 Fifth generation (EBCT)
o X-ray tube is a large ring that circle pt., opposed
to detector ring
o Use: for cardiac topographic imaging
o X-ray source is produced by high energy
electron beam
o No moving parts to this scanner gantry
o It is capable of 50 millisecond scan times and
can produce 17 slice/sec
o Stationary/stationary geometry

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Fifth Generation
EBCT
30
 Sixth generation
spiral/helical
o In 1990, significant advancement in ct
technology
o Allowed 3D image acquisition within a single
breath hold
o Design : x-ray tube rotates as pt is moved
smoothly into x-ray scan field
o Simultaneous tube rotation, table translation and
data acquisition
o Produces one continuous volume set of data for
entire region

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o Data for multiple slices
from pt acquired at 1
sec/slice
o Advantage :-
 High speed
 Improved detection
 Improved
reconstruction and
manipulation

32
 Seventh generation
o New technology
o Design : multi-detector array
o The collimation spacing is wider and more of the
x-rays that are produced by the tube are used in
producing image data
 Opening up the collimation in a single array
scanner increase slice thickness, reducing
spatial resolution in the slice thickness
dimension

33
 With multiple detector array scanner, slice thickness
is determined by the detector size, not by the
collimator
o Up to 8 rows of detector
o Capable of acquiring large volume of pt in 1 B . hold
o Cone beam and multiple parallel rows of detector
o Widened (z-direction) x-ray beam and detector array
to acquire multiple ( 4-64) slice simultaneously
o Advt :- reducing scan time, increase z-resolution
o Disadv :- less scatter rejection, very expensive

34
35
COMPONENT OF CT SYSTEM
CT has three major systems

1. IMAGING SYSTEM
A. Gantry B. Table

2. COMPUTER SYSTEM

3. THE DISPLAY, RECORDING AND

STORAGE SYSTEM (OPERATOR CONSOLE)

36
 1. IMAGING SYSTEM
 Comprises several components housed
in the gantry that work together to acquire
an image
A.GANTRY
o A mounted framework that surrounds the
patient in a vertical plane
o Houses imaging component such as slip rings,
x-ray tube, high voltage generator, collimators,
detectors and data acquisition system
o Two important feature of the gantry are the
gantry aperture and tilting range
37
 Cont…..

o Gantry has a 50 to 80 cm aperture for the patient

to pass through during the scan
o Can be angled 30 degree towards or away from
the patient table to permit positioning the patient
for coronal images and to align the slice plane to
certain anatomy such as base of the skull or
lumber spine curvature
o Three intense white or low power red laser light
used to accurately line the patient up for
saggital, coronal and transverse plane centering
in the aperture

38
EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF
GANTRY
1.GANTRY APPERTURE
2.MICROPHONE
3.SAGITTAL LASER LIGHT
ALIGNMENT
4.PATIENT GUIDE TABLE
5.X-RAY EXPOSURE
INDICATOR LIGHT
6.EMERGENCY STOP
BUTTOM
7.GANTRY CONTROL PANNEL
8.EXTERNAL LASER
ALIGNMENT LIGHT
9.PATIENT COUCH
10.ECG GATING MONITOR

39
INTERNAL APPEARANCE OF
GANTRY
1.X-RAY TUBE
2.FILTER,COLLIMATOR,REFEREN
CE DETECTOR
3.INTERNAL PROJECTOR
4.OIL COOLER
5.HVG (0-75 KV)
6DIRECT DRIVE GANTRY MOTOR
7.ROTATION CONTROL UNIT
8.DAS
9.DETECTOR
10.SLIP RING
11.DETECTOR COTROL UNIT
12.HVG (75-150 KV)
13.POWER UNIT
14.LINE NOISE FILTER

41
 GENERATORS:

CT scanner use three phase power for efficient production

of X-rays: -
‫ ٭‬In the past generators were based on 50/60 Hz
voltage frequency, were bulky & located in a corner
of the x-ray room & a long HT cable connected the
generator to the X-ray tube in the gantry.
‫ ٭‬Modern CT scanners uses high frequency generators
which are small, compact & more efficient, located
inside the gantry.
‫ ٭‬In Generators of the CT scanners, low voltage low
frequency alternating current from the main power
supply is converted into high voltage, high
frequency (500- 25000 Hz), direct current of almost
constant potential is supplied to X-Ray tube.
‫ ٭‬the voltage ripples is less than 1% compared to 4%
from a three phase 12 pulse generator.
‫ ٭‬Current CT generators have maximum power rating
of about 40 – 80 KW that allows kV in the range of
80 – 140 kVp & tube current in the range of 100 –
800 mA.
‫ ٭‬Now a days, in all modern CT scanners posses
“Constant Potential Generator” which houses inside
the gantry & rotate along with the X-ray Tube.
44
Specifications: -
‫ ٭‬Power: - 40 – 80 KW.
‫ ٭‬kV Ranges: - 80, 100, 120, 130, 140.
‫ ٭‬mA Ranges: - up to 800 mA, mA modulation available.
‫ ٭‬Max. Coverage Acquisition Time: - 120 sec.
Note: - To maximize ‘Imaging Efficiency’, a ‘Constant Potential’
supply is required; the kV must be stable, since fluctuation tends to
cause ‘Image Artifacts’. 3 – Phase, 12 – Pulse, Middle or High
Frequency output satisfy this need. Typically an out range of 80 –
150 kV is required.
 Modern Scanners
• No longer categorize into Generations
• Contemporary CT scanners are either third or
fourth generation designs
• Scanners are categorized by tube and detector
movement
• Slip Ring Technology: connects generator with tube
(no cables)
 SEQUENTIAL CT:
‫ ٭‬A cross-sectional image is
produced by scanning a transverse
slice of the body from different
angular positions while the tube &
detector rotate 360° around the
patient with the table being
stationary.
‫ ٭‬The image is reconstructed from
the resulting projection data.
 HELICAL/SPIRAL/VOLUME CT:

‫ ٭‬Spiral CT uses a different scanning principle. Unlike in

sequential CT, the patient on the table is moved continuously
through the scan field in the z direction while the tube
performs multiple 360° rotations in the same direction.
‫ ٭‬It is modification of 3rd generation CT that uses the Slip Ring
Technology & made possible of volumetric data acquisitions.
‫ ٭‬In this generation, several advancement are applied such as: -
- X-ray Tube with Massive thermal loading capacities.
- High precision table stepping motors.
- Faster acquisition & Reconstruction process.
‫ ٭‬The X-ray traces a spiral around the body & produces a data
volume. This volume is created from a multitude of 3D picture
elements, i.e. voxels.
‫ ٭‬The table movement in the z direction during the acquisition will
naturally generate inconsistent sets of data, causing every image
reconstructed directly from a volume data set.
‫ ٭‬Thus it is possible to reconstruct individual slices from a large
data volume by overlapping reconstructions as often as required.
 Advantage: -
‫ ٭‬Short scan times (resulting in fewer motion artifacts & a lower contrast
medium requirement)
‫ ٭‬Large anatomical area coverage in a single breath hold.
‫ ٭‬Improved lesion detection due to capture of real time contrast uptake of the
lesion.
‫ ٭‬Reducing the partial volume artifact.
‫ ٭‬Additional diagnostic information due to improved resolution (thinner slices) &
3D visualization in routine operation
‫ ٭‬Improved patient throughput & improved patient comfort.
‫ ٭‬Improved Z- axis resolution i.e. Temporal resolution
‫ ٭‬Capable to scan in both axial as well as helical mode.

Disadvantage: -
‫٭‬ Increased image noise.
‫٭‬ Reduced spatial resolution.
‫٭‬ Reconstruction time is longer due to more data accumulation in a shorter time.
‫٭‬ Higher patient dose.
 Slip ring Technology
• In the early 1990s, the design of third- and fourth-
generation scanners evolved to incorporate slip ring
technology.
– A slip ring is a circular contact with sliding brushes that allows
the gantry to rotate continually, uninturrupted by wires.
• The use of slip-ring technology eliminated the inertial
limitations at the end of each slice acquisition, and the
rotating gantry was free to rotate continuously throughout
the entire patient examination.
 Slip ring Technology
• Slip-rings are electromechanical devices that
conduct electricity and electrical signals through
rings and brushes from a rotating surface onto a
fixed surface
• Slip-ring design
– Disc type
– Cylinder type
 Slip ring Technology
• The disc design incorporates concentric conductive
rings in the plane of rotation
• In the cylinder design the conductive rings lie
parallel to the axis of rotation forming a cylinder
• The brushes (silver-graphite) that transmit power to
the gantry components glide in contact grooves on
the stationary slip ring
 Slip ring Technology
• There are usually 3 slip rings on a gantry
– One provides high voltage power to the x-ray tube or
low voltage power to the high tension generator
– Second provides low voltage power to control systems
on the rotating gantry
– The third transfers digital data from the rotating
detector array
Disc type slip ring system
Cylinder type slip ring system
 DESIGN AND POWER SUPPLY
o TWO DESIGN
1.DISC 2.CYLINDER

59
 :
CT X-RAY TUBE
‫ ٭‬CT require longer exposure time at higher KV
than needed for general radiography.
‫ ٭‬Early generation CT Scanners were used Oil
Cooled, Stationary Anode relatively large (2 x
16 mm) Focal Spot operated at 120 kVp & 30
mA & heavily filtered X-ray tube.
‫ ٭‬Now a days CT tubes are heavy duty rotating
anode with higher thermal capacity & smaller
focal spot (0.6 to 1.2mm) which are air cooled
with current value up to 800mA.
‫“ ٭‬Borosilicate Glass Envelope” has been replaced with a
“Metallic Envelope (Alloy of Chromium & I)” &
“Ceramic Insulators (Al – Oxide)”.
‫ ٭‬Anode disk is made up of compound materials
consisting of Tungsten-Rhenium focal track brazed to
‘Graphite’ base with “Disk Diameter” up to 200 mm
compared to 75-160 mm.
‫“ ٭‬Anode Speed” is increased up to 12000 rpm by having
liquid bearing technology for smooth rotation of disk.
e.g.. Gallium Based Liquid Metal Alloy.
‫ ٭‬Air cooled , rotating anode having smaller focal
spot 0.6mm Heat loading capacity 3.5 MHU &
high heat dissipation efficiency.
‫ ٭‬Oil-water cooled tube were introduced having
high heat dissipation efficiency.
‫ ٭‬Some CT Tubes are ‘Grid Controlled’ for ‘Pulsed’
radiation to reduce patient radiation dose.
‫ ٭‬It Should supply ‘Monochromatic X-ray Beam’
for accurate ‘Image Reconstruction’.
‫ ٭‬Tube Housing: -
 Material: - Borosilicate & Metal Ceramic.
 Heat Storage Capacity: - 1.5 to 8.3 MHU.
 Oil: - Distilled Oil.
‫ ٭‬Anode: -
 Diameter: - 200 mm
 Weight: - 2000 gm
 Heat Dissipation Rate: - 1 MHU / Min.
 Angle: - 10 – 120.
 Focal Spot: - 0.6 to 1.2 mm
 Rotation: - 9,000 to 12,000 rpm
 Material: - Tungsten + Rhenium + Molybdenum +
Graphite.
‫ ٭‬Cathode: -
 Material: - Tungsten (W)
 Type: - Dual Focus
CT X-ray tube is:
o Located in the heart of the gantry
o Provide radiation: source for ct
o Early experimental models used radionuclide to
supply such a beam
o First and second generation scanner used fixed
anode , oil-cooled x-ray tube
o With the demand for increased output rotating
anode tubes become common in CT scanner

64
 Cont…..

• The introduction of spiral/helical CT with the

continuous rotation scanner has placed new
demands on CT tubes

• Several technical advances in component design

have been made to deal with the problem of heat
generation, heat storage and heat dissipation. For
example, the tube envelop, cathode assembly,
anode assembly including anode rotation and
target design have been redesigned

65
 Cont…..

• Although the borosilicate glass envelope in early

CT tube provides good thermal and electrical
insulation, electrical arching result from tungsten
deposits on the glass caused by vaporization

• To solve above problem tubes with metal

envelop and ceramic insulator are now common
e.g. Metal ceramic x-ray tube

66
 METAL CERAMIC X-RAY TUBE
o Glass envelope has been replaced
by metal casing and ceramic is
used as insulation of high voltage
cable e.g. Super rotalix ceramic
x-ray tube

o Anode rotates on an axle with bearing at each

end and providing greater stability and reduced
stress on shaft permits massive anode approx-
2000 gram
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• ADVANTAGES
o Higher tube loading
o Reduce off focus radiation
o Allow high tube current
o Deposition of tungsten on the glass wall acts as
electrode causing tube arching and shortening
of tube life. When metal enclosure is grounded
this deposition do not alter grounding thus
increasing tube life

68
 MRC
(MAXIMUS ROTALIX CERAMIC X-RAY TUBE)
o In 1989 Phillips became the first
company to introduce MRC
o Based on the technology of spiral
groove bearing using liquid metal
alloy as lubricant
o Significant improvement in
rotating anode x-ray tube

69
 Cont…..

o Noiselessly rotating anode that could be

switched on the morning and switched off in the
evening
o Avoid waiting time during and between
examination
o Possible to achieve dose saving filter technique
in angiography
 FEATURES
o Higher output and longer tube life

70
 Cont…..

o 200 mm graphite backed anode

o Anode heat storage capacity – 8 MHU
o Tube voltage - 90 to 140 KV
o Tube current - 20 to 500 mA
o Anode angle - 7 degree
o Directly cooled anode
 USES
o Cardiovascular imaging
o MDCT

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 AQUILLION X-RAY TUBE
(Toshiba)
o High capacity multi-slice CT tube
o Heat storage capacity 7.5 MHU
o Cooling rate 1.7 MHU/min
o Anode grounded
o Focal spot 1.4mm × 1.4 mm
o Air cooled

72
73
 NEW STRATON TUBE
(Siemens)
o New construction
o Focused and deflected beam
of thermal electron
o The whole tube and anode
assembly rotates
o Bearing located out side
o Oil cooled

74
 Cont…..

o Zero heat storage capacity

o Cooling rate 4.7 MHU/min
o Cooled down within 20 sec
o Enables gantry speed of 0.37 sec per rotation
o Tube current 500 mA
o Based on RET (rotating envelope tube)
technology
o The electron beam in the tube is shaped and
controlled by magnetic deflection coil
o Focal spot – tungsten and rhenium

75
 FILTRATION IN CT
o Absorbs soft, low energy x-
rays. Make uniformity of x-ray
spectrum
o Reduces scatter, reduce patient
dose
o Improve image quality
o 3 mm Al equivalent thickness
o flat: copper or aluminum
o Comb shaped/ bow-tie: Teflon
(a material with low atomic
number and high density)
76
 COLLIMATOR
o Collimation is required in CT scanning for exactly
the same reasons as in radiography

 To decrease scatter radiation

 To reduce patient dose

 To improve image quality

 Collimator width determine the slice thickness

77
• TYPES OF COLLIMATOR IN CT SCAN
1.pre-patient collimator
o It is mounted on the tube housing and
limits the area of the patient that is
exposed to the primary beam
o Determines the slice thickness and patient
dose
2.post-patient collimator
o Comprised of thin plates formed from a suitable
x-ray absorbing material like lead or tungsten

78
o located directly below the patient and above
the detector, restricts the x-ray field viewed
by detector array
o Lead or tungsten plates are focus at the x-ray
focal spot and generally located between
columns of detector(z-direction) and referred
to as a “1D” anti scatter collimation
o In multi-slice scanner, shielding between both
columns and rows of detector, both directions
are focusing to the x-ray source. this type is
called a “2D” anti scatter collimator

79
 “1D” anti scatter collimator

“2D” anti scatter collimator

80
 CT DETECTOR TECHNOLOGY
o CT detector capture the radiation beam from the
patient and covert it into electrical signal, which
subsequently converted into binary coded
information

o Detector characteristic

o A. efficiency:- refers to the ability to capture,

absorb and convert x-ray photons to electrical
signal

81
B. Stability:- refers to the steadiness of the detector
response, if not stable frequent calibrations are
required to render the signals useful
• C. Response time:- refers to the speed with which
the detector can detect an x-ray event and recover
to detect another event (should be very short in
micro second)
• D. Dynamic range:- refers to the ratio of the largest
signal to be measured to the precision of the
smallest signal to be discriminated
• E . After glow:- refers to the persistence of the
image even after the radiation has been turned off
•

82
 IDEAL FEATURES:

Detector must be capable of responding with extreme speed to a signal,

without lag, must quickly discard the signal & prepare for the next.
It should have: -
‫ ٭‬High Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE).
‫ ٭‬High Quantum Absorption Efficiency (QAE): - It should be > 90 %
(Ideally 100%).
‫ ٭‬High Conversion Efficiency (CE).
‫ ٭‬Good Homogeneity: - Purity > 99.99 %.
‫ ٭‬Small After Glow: - It should be < 0.01 % 100 ms after end of
irradiation.
‫ ٭‬Fast Response Time: - Response time refers to length of time it takes
for a detector to review & discard signals which influences image
contrast. So, it should be < 0.1 % difference.
‫ ٭‬High Packing Density: - Which influences resolution.
‫ ٭‬Wide Dynamic Range: - Refers to the detector ability to
receive wide range of X-ray intensities, from low to high &
convert them into proportional output signals which is
dependent on the accuracy & precision of the ADC.
‫ ٭‬High Stability: - It is controlled by how often the detectors
must be recalibrated to meet quality control standards.
‫ ٭‬Cost as minimum as possible & easily available.
‫ ٭‬The efficiency of X-ray detector array reduces patient dose,
allows faster scanning tine & improves image quality by
increasing the SNR.
There mainly 2 types of detection systems are
available for CT: -
1. Gas Ionization Detectors: - A single multi
chamber ‘Inert Xenon Gas’ detectors is used.
2. ‘Scintillation’ Crystal Detectors: - a
a) Multiple ‘Scintillation’ detectors with
‘Photo Multiplier Tubes’.
b) Multiple ‘Scintillation’ detectors with
‘Photodiodes’.
 1. GAS IONIZATION DETECTOR
o Use high pressure ( about 25 atm)
nonradioactive xenon gas, in long thin cells
between two metal plates

o Based on the principle of ionization

o Consists of a series of individual gas chamber,

usually separated by tungsten plate carefully
positioned to act as electron collection plates
with voltage applied across it.

86
o When x-ray fall on the individual chamber, ionization
of gas result and produces positive and negative
ions. The positive ions migrate to the negatively
charged plate, whereas the negative ions at
positively charged plate

o The migration of ions causes a small signal current

that varies directly with the number of photons
absorbs

o QDE is only 50 – 60 percent

o Can be used for 3rd generation scanner only

87
88
 2. SCINTILLATION DETECTORS
o Solid state detectors that consist of a scintillation
crystal coupled to a photodiode tube

o When x-ray falls onto the crystals, flashes of

light are produced. The light is then directed to
PM tubes. Which then releases electrons and
these electrons cascade through a series of
dynodes that are carefully arranged and
maintained at diff. potential to result in small out
put signal

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o Early scanner used sodium iodide crystals
coupled to PM tube. Due to afterglow problem
and the limited dynamic range of sodium iodide,
other crystals such as calcium fluoride and
bismuth germinate used in later scanner

o Now a days, solid state photodiode multiplier

scintillation crystal detectors are used

o The photodiode is a semiconductor whose p-n

junction allows current flow when exposed to
light

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o Photodiodes are normally used with amplifier
because of the low output from the diode

o Response time of photodiode is extremely fast

(about 0.5 -250 nanosecond)

o Scintillation materials currently used with

photodiodes are cadmium tungsten and a ceramic
material made of high purity, rare earth oxides
based on doped rare earth compounds such as
yttrium and gadolinium oxysulphide, these crystals
are optically bonded to the photodiode

91
o The conversion efficiency and photon capture
efficiency of cadmium tungsten are 99% and
99% respectively and the dynamic range is 1
million to 1

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 DETECTOR CONFIGURATION
o One major problem with single slice, single row
detector is related to the length of time needed
to acquire data

o CT scanner now use multi-row detector to image

multi-slice during a 360 degree rotation

o DUAL ROW/DUAL SLICE DETECTOR

 In 1992, Elscint introduced the first dual slice
volume CT scanner

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o This technology uses a dual-row, solid state detector
array coupled with a special x-ray tube based on a
double dynamic focus system

o The dynamic focal spot is where the position of focal

spot is switched by a computer controlled electron-
optic system during each scan to double the
sampling density and total no. of measurement

o Twin beam technology results in the simultaneous

scan of two contiguous slices with excellent
resolution

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 MULTI-ROW/MULTI -SLICE DETECTOR
o The goal of MR/MS detector is to increase the
volume coverage speed
o MR/MS detector are solid state detectors that
can acquire 4 to 64 to 320 slices per 360 degree
rotation

 Multi-row detector falls into three groups

o A . MATRIX ARRAY DETECTOR
o Referred to as a fixed array detectors

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o Contains channels or cells, they are often referred
to isotropic, that are equal in all dimensions

o B . ADAPTIVE ARRAY DETECTORS

o The adaptive array detectors are anisotropic in
design
o The cells are not equal but rather they have diff.
sizes

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97
• C . HYBRID DETECTORS
o Has a no. of narrow detector elements in the centre
of the detector and different no. of wider detector
(usually double the width of the narrow detector)
on both sides of the span of narrow detector
o The no. of narrow and wider detector can vary

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 AREA DETECTORS
o Currently undergoing testing

o Two such CT scanners based on area detector

technology are the 256 slice ct scanner
prototype(Toshiba Acquillion) and the flat panel CT
scanner prototypes ( one from siemens and another
from koning corporation)

o The 256-slice CT detector is a wide area multi-row

array detector that has 912 channels * 256
segments and a beam width of 128 mm
o Possible to scan entire heart in a single rotation

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o Flat panel detectors are similar to the ones used
in digital radiography are being investigated for
the use in CT imaging

o The detector is a flat panel type and is based on

the CsI indirect conversion digital radiography
detectors

o Recently, flat panel detectors are being

investigated for use in breast CT

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102
 B. PATIENT COUCH/TABLE

o Provides a platform on which the

patient lies during the examination

o Should be strong and rigid to support

the weight of the patient

o Either curved or flat

o Capable of moving up and down for

ease in transferring patient onto and off
the table and in positioning the patient
correctly in the aperture

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o Table indexing must be accurate and
reproducible within 1 mm

o Constructed of low atomic no. of carbon graphite

fiber to reduce attenuation of the x-ray beam
and to support patient weighing as much as 250-
350 kg, if excess may alter indexing

o Table top must be able to support the entire

weight of the patient when the table moved into
the gantry aperture
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o In conventional CT scanning, the tube rotates
around the patient to collect data for one slice,
the table indexes into the gantry at a preset
distance and the tube rotates again to collect
data for the next slice

o In helical scanning, table moves steadily through

gantry while the tube continuously rotates
around the table and the patient

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF CT TABLE
• A. Longitudinal motion
o Stroke: 1900 mm
o Scannable range: 1620 mm
o Speed : 0.5 – 143 mm
o Position accuracy: +/- 0.25
mm

o B. Vertical motion
o Range : 526 -1040 mm
o Speed : 2.5 – 50 mm/sec

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• C. Table top load capacity
o 204 kg (450 pounds) with full accuracy

o D. Floating table top

o Carbon fiber table top with foot pedal and hand
control for easy positioning and quick release

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 C. COMPUTER SYSTEM
o Uses minicomputer
o Unique component of the CT
system
o Must have sufficient speed
and memory to solve several
thousand calculations
simultaneously
o Calculates the attenuation of
the individual voxel using
algorithm
o Must be very fast to produce
images for immediate viewing
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109
 OPERATOR CONSOLE
o Permits control of all scan
parameter including selecting
proper technical factor, movement
of the gantry and patient table
o Commands computer to
reconstruct and transfer of image
data for storage in data file
o Operates a menu of directory
operations
o Pre programmed with the kvp an
mA values for individual anatomic
parts

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o The technologist uses a keyboard and mouse to
indicate the desired operation for the anatomy to
be scanned
o Hard copy images are printed on film using a
multiformat camera or printer

DISPLAY CONSOLE
o Often part of the main control and a separate
CRT or flat panel display with controls
o May be a separate workstation that allows
radiologists to display and manipulate image

111
o Permit a wide range of features to enhance digital
images such as MPRs, Reverse display,
Magnification, Suppression, selection of ROI,
Annotation, MIP , 3d images etc.

112
 ACCESSORIES
o Head rest/support
o Table straps for immobilization
o Automatic contrast injector
o ECG machine
o Phantoms for quality,
performance and dose test
o Stereo-tactic localizer for brain
lesion
o Emergency trolly
o Radiation protective materials

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SUMMARY

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 REFERENCES
1.Computed tomography physical principles,
clinical application and quality control, Fuclid
Seeram 3rd edition
2.The essential physics of medical imaging, 2nd
edition
Jerrold T. Bushburg
3. Cristensen’s Physics of Diagnostic Radiology,
4th edition
4. Various internet sources

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 QUESTIONS ?
• What are the features of diff. generations of CT scan?
• What are the major systems of CT scanner?
• Describe slip ring technology and it’s major advantage in
CT scan?
• Explain diff types of CT x-ray tube
• What are the type and characteristic of CT detector
• Explain type and configuration of CT scanner detector
system?
• Explain collimation system in CT scan?
• What are the features of CT table?

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