Basic principles

of computed
tomography

ECE 1023 FALL 2020-2021

Tomography
● tomos = slice; graphein = to write
● definition - imaging of an object by
analyzing its slices

Damien Hirst
Autopsy with Sliced Human
Brain
2004
History
● 1917 - mathematical theory of tomographic image
reconstructions (Johann Radon)
● 1930 - conventional tomography (A. Vallebona)
● 1963 - theoretical basis of CT (A. McLeod
Cormack)
● 1971 - first commercial CT (Sir Godfrey
Hounsfield)
● 1974 - first 3rd generation CT
● 1979 - Nobel price (Cormack & Hounsfield)
● 1989 - single-row CT
● 1994 - double-row spiral CT
● 2001 - 16-row spiral CT
● 2007 - 320-row spiral CT
Basic principles
Mathematical principles of CT were first
developed in 1917 by Radon

Proved that an image of an unknown object

could be produced if one had an infinite
number of projections through the object
Basic principles (cont.)
Plain film imaging reduces the 3D patient anatomy to a 2D
projection image

Density at a given point on an image represents the x-ray

attenuation properties within the patient along a line
between the x-ray focal spot and the point on the detector
corresponding to the point on the image
Basic principles (cont.)
With a conventional radiograph, information with respect
to the dimension parallel to the x-ray beam is lost

Limitation can be overcome, to some degree, by acquiring

two images at an angle of 90 degrees to one another

For objects that can be identified in both images, the two

films provide location information
Conventional tomography
● x-ray tube moves in the
oposite direction than
detector
● areas outside the focus
are blured, therefore
not shown
Conventional tomography
Conventional tomography
Conventional tomography
Imaging before CT
● entire body areas were inaccessible to
radiography - brain, mediastinum,
retroperitoneum

● diagnostic procedures showing better detail in these

areas were potentially harmful and or poorly tolerated
by the patient - pneumoencephalography, diagnostic
pneumomediastinum, diagnostic laparotomy
Imaging before CT

ventriculography pneumoencephalography
Imaging before CT

transfontanellar ultrasound
CT prototype
● scanning time: 9 days
● reconstruction: 2,5h
● resolution: 80x80
 Definition of Generation

Classification of computed tomography (CT) based

upon: arrangement of components and mechanical
motion required to collect data

“Generation” the order in which CT scanner design has

been introduced, and each has a number associated
with it

Higher generation number NOT a higher

performance system
1st generation CT
● xray tube and single detector are connected
and move together by translation and then
rotation
● xray beam has linear (pencil-like) shape
 First Generation

Design: single X-ray source and single X-ray detector cell to collect all the
data for a single slice

Source and detector, rigidly coupled

Beam: Pencil beam

Translated across patient to obtain set of parallel projection measurements

at one angle

Source/detector rotate slightly and a subsequent set of measurements are

obtained during a translation past patient

Process is repeated once for each projection angle until 180 projections

Translation and rotation process, this geometry is referred to as a

translate/rotate scanner
Earliest versions: 4.5 minutes for a single scan and thus were restricted to some
regions (patient motion controlled)

Later versions: procedures = series of scans procedure time reduced some what by
using two detectors so that two parallel sections were acquired in one scan

Contrast resolution of internal structures was unprecedented images - had very poor
spatial resolution
2nd generation CT
● same type of movement
● multiple detectors arranged in a row
● fan shaped xray beam instead of linear shaped
 Second Generation

Design: multiple detectors - X-ray source emits radiation over a

large angle, the efficiency of measuring projections was greatly
improved

Source and array of detectors are translated as in a first generation

system but since beam measured by each detector is at a slightly
different angle with respect to object, each translation step
generates multiple parallel ray projections

Multiple projections obtained during each traversal past the patient

this scanner is significantly more efficient and faster than 1 gen

This generation :a translate/rotate scanner

Pros: reducing scan time

By adding detectors angularly displaced , several projections could be

obtained in a single translation

Early versions: 3 detectors each displaced by1° Since each detector viewed
the x-ray tube at a different angle , a single translation produced 3
projections

The system could rotate 3° to the next projection rather than 1° make only
60 translations instead of 180 to acquire a complete section
Scan times were reduced X 3

• Later versions: up to 53 detectors

Fast enough (tens of seconds)to
permit acquisition during a single
breath hold First designs to permit
scans of the trunk
• because rotating anode tubes
could not
CT III. generace
● full rotation of x ray tube+detectors complex
 Third Generation
• Design: larger array Of detectors
– 300-700detectors, usually circular
– Shorter scanning time (2 sec)
– Designers: pure rotational scanning motion could be used , then it would be possible to use
higher-power, rotating anode x-ray tubes and thus improve scan speeds in thicker body parts

• “Slam-bang translational motion” was replaced with smooth rotational

motion
– higher-output rotating anode x-ray tubes could be used
– greatly reducing scan times

• X-ray tube is collimated to a wide x-ray beam (fan-shaped )

• Directed toward an arc-shaped row of detectors
• Tube and detector array rotate around patient
• Different projections are obtained during rotation by pulsing x-ray source or
by sampling the detectors at a very high rate
CT III. generace
CT IV. generace
● only x ray tube rotates, detectors are
stationary
● this technology was later abandoned
● 4800 detectors
V. generation CT
● electron beam tomography (EBT)
5 generation:
th

stationary/stationary
Developed specifically for cardiac tomographic
imaging

No conventional x-ray tube; large arc of tungsten

encircles patient and lies directly opposite to the
detector ring

Electron beam steered around the patient to strike

the annular tungsten target

Capable of 50-msec scan times; can produce fast-

frame-rate CT movies of the beating heart
V. generation CT
● electron beam tomography (EBT)
 5th Generation
● Design: x-ray tube is a large ring that
circles patient, opposed to detector ring
● Use: for cardiac tomographic imaging
“cine CT”
● X - rays produced = high - energy
electron beam
● No moving parts to this scanner gantry
● It is capable of 50 - millisecond scan times
and can produce 17 CT slices/second
●
The cine CT system
● No mechanical scanning motion
● X-ray detector and tube anode are stationary
● Anode, is a very large semicircular ring that forms an
arc around the patient scan circle
● Source of X-rays is moved around the same path as a
fourth generation CT scanner by steering an
electron beam around the X-ray anode
● Terms millisecond CT, ultrafast CT and electron beam
CT have also been used, although the latter can be
confusing since the term suggests that the patient is
exposed to an electron beam
Cont
. ms
● Very fast scanner ,data collection for 1slice is 50-100

● Requires no mechanical motion to acquire data

● Sweeps an intense electron beam across a large,
stationary anode target which surrounds the
patient
● X-rays are emitted from the point where electrons
strike target
● X-rays transmitted through object are measured by
a stationary array of detectors
● Cine CT systems, have higher noise level and
lower spatial resolution but are ideal for some
clinical application
● cardiac imaging with and without the use of contrast
CT machine anatomy
● energy source (140 kV) + slip rings
● x ray source
● detectors
● collimators
● DAS
= data acquisition system
 Sixth Generation
● 1990,Significant advancement in technology
● Allowed 3D image acquisition within a
single breath hold
Spiral/Helical
CT
● Design: x-ray tube rotates as patient is
moved smoothly into x-ray scan field
● Simultaneous source rotation, table
translation and data acquisition
● Produces one continuous volume set of data
for entire region
● Data for multiple slices from patient acquired
at 1sec/slice
Spiral
CT
scanning
● sequential - sequence of complete gantry rotation
followed by table movement with the patient
● spiral - continuous gantry rotation and table
movement
○ volume of raw data is generated, from which axial
images are reconstructed using interpolation
○ slip ring technology allowed transmission of
energy to
rotating gantry without the need of cables
spiral scanning
Advantages of Spiral
● Speed: patient movement continuous…………
shorter exam time ; entire abdomen or chest: 30 sec
(1BH)
● Improved detections: differences in BHs in standard
CT, small lesions fall out of plane for each continuous
slice
● Improved contrast: image a region in a short
period, contrast can be timed
● Improved reconstruction & manipulation:
volume of data collected, transverse data can be
reconstructed in any plane- strip away skin,
pitch
● table travel - table movement per rotation
● collimation - x ray beam width in z axis
● pitch = table travel / collimation
○ pitch = 1 - coils of the helix are in contact
○ pitch < 1 - coils of the helix overlap
○ pitch > 1 - coils of the helix are separated
pitch
SSCT vs. MSCT
● SSCT - single slice CT ● MSCT - multiple slice CT
SSCT vs. MSCT
detectors

fixed array, 4 slice CT

adaptive array, 4 slice CT

voltage vs. current
● voltage (kV)
○ 80-140 kV
○ higher the voltage, better the penetration of x ray,
but worse tissue contrast and larger dose
● electric current (mAs)
○ 50-500 mAs
○ higher the current, better the image quality (lower
noise), but larger dose
Tomographic images
The tomographic image is a picture of a slab of the
patient’s anatomy

The 2D CT image corresponds to a 3D section of the patient

CT slice thickness is very thin (1 to 10 mm) and is
approximately uniform

The 2D array of pixels in the CT image corresponds to an

equal number of 3D voxels (volume elements) in the
patient

Each pixel on the CT image displays the average x-ray

attenuation properties of the tissue in the corrsponding
voxel
image reconstruction
● matrix - 512 x 512
● pixel - 2D object, smallest element of a raster image
● voxel - 3D object, smallest element of a 3D grid
image reconstruction

0 + 90dg 4 angles 16 angles

16 angles 30 angles 100+ angles

image reconstruction
isotropic imaging - all 3
sides (x, y, z) of the
voxel have equal size
image reconstruction
image reconstruction
● Hounsfield scale - tissue density is expressed
in different shades of grey in relation to its
xray absorption
○ water = 0, air = -1000
○ scale -1000 to 3095
image reconstruction
● CT window
○ window width
○ window level (center)
■ mediastinal window
● W 350, L 50
● lowest HU = -125 (50-350/2)
● highest HU = 225 (50+350/2)
■ lung window
● W 2000, L -200
■ bone window
● W 1500, L 300
■ brain window
● W 80, L 30
image reconstruction
CT coronarography
CT angiography
CT endoscopy
CT endoscopy
CT endoscopy
CT in polytrauma
CT in acute stroke
Thank you