Teaching

Language
Components
Session 5

‫روش تدریس مؤلفه های زبان‬

By Ehsan Zolfaghari
Zolfaghari34@[Link]
Teaching Language Components ‫روش تدریس مؤلفه های زبان‬

Language Skills: Speaking

Second Language Speaking

Celce-Murcia, M. (2003). Teaching English as a Second Or

Foreign Language (4th ed.). National Geographic
Learning.
Complexity and Importance of Teaching Second
Language Speaking
● Teaching second language speaking is vital as it is often viewed as the
core skill in language acquisition. Speaking encompasses a complex
array of processes, including clustering, the use of hesitation markers,
colloquial expressions, and suprasegmental features like stress and
rhythm. Additionally, speaking inherently involves interaction,
requiring learners to simultaneously understand their interlocutors,
formulate their responses, and evaluate the impact of their
contributions. This complexity makes speaking particularly
challenging to assess. The text explores current pedagogical issues,
effective classroom activities for developing oral skills, and methods
for evaluating speaking proficiency in second language learners.
Balancing Fluency and Accuracy in Second Language
Speaking
● The debate between prioritizing fluency or accuracy in teaching
second language (L2) speaking is ongoing and depends on learners'
backgrounds, needs, and proficiency levels. Accuracy is defined as
adherence to the language system, while fluency refers to the ability
to use the language quickly. Teaching methodologies suggest a shift
towards fluency as the primary goal, especially in informal
conversational contexts, while acknowledging that accuracy-focused
activities can still play a role. Recommendations indicate that in
environments with ample out-of-class L2 exposure, accuracy-based
tasks may take precedence, whereas in EFL settings with limited
exposure, fluency-based tasks are more beneficial.
The Role of Appropriacy in Second Language Communication
● Appropriacy in second language (L2) teaching emphasizes the importance
of sociocultural context and pragmatics, beyond mere accuracy and
fluency. L2 learners must understand how to communicate with
appropriate levels of politeness, directness, and formality, as well as how
to navigate nonverbal communication. A key focus in pragmatics is on
speech acts, which represent specific social functions such as greetings or
disagreements, where strategy selection varies based on sociocultural
factors like social distance and status. Awareness of pragmatic appropriacy
has increased in ESL/EFL resources, influenced by frameworks like Celce-
Murcia and Larsen-Freeman's tripartite grammar model. This model
highlights the significance of understanding the appropriate contexts for
language use, supported by empirical studies of language corpora.
The Challenge of Authenticity in Teaching Second
Language Speaking
● Authenticity in teaching second language (L2) speaking presents
challenges, raising questions about its definition and relevance for
learners at different proficiency levels. Teachers must consider how to
create meaningful contexts for authentic language use, balancing
controlled language instruction for beginners with the gradual
introduction of authentic materials.
The Challenge of Authenticity in Teaching Second
Language Speaking
● Research by Roberts and Cooke highlights two dimensions of
authenticity: the use of genuine teaching materials and fostering self-
expression and an authentic voice. They argue that L2 learners benefit
more from research-based materials that reflect real-world
interactions rather than scripted dialogues devoid of speaker errors.
The prevalent use of artificial pedagogical materials emphasizes the
need for a shift toward corpus-based L2 teaching methods to enhance
learners' competence and authenticity in communication.
Advancements in Corpus-Based L2 Teaching

● In reviewing research on teaching L2 speaking, McCarthy and

O'Keeffe (2004) observe that, although there have been no major shifts
in L2 teaching methodologies, our understanding of spoken language
has evolved significantly through developments in spoken corpus
linguistics. This shift includes a growing interest in spoken grammar,
which has unique qualities distinguishing it from written grammar
(McCarthy & Carter, 2006).
Advancements in Corpus-Based L2 Teaching

● They propose ten baseline principles for developing spoken

grammar, emphasizing that speech is often composed of phrasal
chains rather than complete sentences and includes structures
deemed ungrammatical in writing, such as elliptical forms like
"Wanna go with?" and "I gotta go." Moreover, hesitation markers
(e.g., "um," "like") and discourse markers (e.g., "cuz," "oh") are
dominant in spoken language but often absent from many scripted
dialogues in ESL/EFL materials.
 Advancements in Corpus-Based L2 Teaching
● Mumford (2008) further elaborates on spoken grammar's role in
enhancing the fluency and appropriacy of L2 speech, arguing that fluency
is crucial for effective communication. He highlights the Cambridge
Grammar of English (CGE; Carter & McCarthy, 2006) as a valuable
resource due to its comprehensive analysis based on a large corpus. While
ESL materials writers increasingly utilize large-scale corpora, as seen in
the Cambridge University Press’s Touchstone series, which is rooted in a
billion-word corpus of North American English, few ESL/EFL textbooks
specifically address spoken grammar features. This gap is notable,
especially since conversation—central to social interaction—remains
inadequately represented in teaching materials (Schegloff, 2007).
 Effective Methodologies for Teaching L2 Speaking
● In teaching L2 speaking, ESL/EFL teachers often grapple with selecting
appropriate methodologies. While the traditional concept of "method"
has been critiqued, practical concerns about effective teaching strategies
remain. H. D. Brown (2007) suggests principles such as balancing fluency
and accuracy, using motivating techniques, encouraging authentic
language use, providing constructive feedback, linking speaking and
listening, allowing student-initiated communication, and fostering
speaking strategies. Additionally, J. C. Richards (2008) emphasizes the
importance of defining objectives, preparing instructions, offering
language support, selecting materials, and timing feedback, which are
essential for teaching all language skills, not just speaking.
Structuring L2 Speaking Skills Classes
● L2 speaking skills classes are often organized around functional
language uses, catering to the specific needs of learners. In
nonacademic contexts, classes may focus on basic interactions, while
adult learners in academic settings require practice in skills like giving
presentations and engaging in lectures. Assessing learner needs and
proficiency levels through tests or self-assessments is crucial for
tailoring instruction. Low-level adult learners may benefit from hands-
on activities and support in their native languages, emphasizing
survival English and basic communication skills.
Published materials for teaching L2 speaking
● Teachers should critically evaluate textbooks and materials used in L2
speaking classes, questioning their authenticity, appropriateness for
the audience, and the methods promoted. Consulting reviews in
professional journals can aid this evaluation. Even with assigned
texts, teachers can supplement with various resources and create
original materials.
Discussions and group work
● Discussions are a common activity in L2 speaking classes, typically
following a reading or listening task. Teachers must ensure students
have the necessary interaction skills and thoughtfully consider how to
pair or group students based on factors like proficiency and
personality.
Presentations and unrehearsed speeches
● Presentations can be group or individual, with evaluations including
self-assessments of contributions. Impromptu speeches help students
practice thinking and speaking on their feet, utilizing hesitation
markers to avoid silence.
Role Plays
● Role plays are a popular speaking activity ideal for practicing
sociocultural variations in speech acts, such as complimenting,
requesting, and refusing. Depending on students' proficiency levels,
role plays can utilize prepared scripts, prompts, or knowledge gained
from prior instruction. "Speaking Naturally" by Tillitt and Bruder
(1985) provides a structured framework for teaching speech acts.
Role Plays
● A diagnostic assessment can identify students' existing knowledge of
the speech acts in question. Following this, a model dialogue, either
heard or read, serves as input, prompting students to evaluate the
role-play scenario and understand the pragmatic and linguistic
choices made. Students can practice prototypical phrases and perform
the role play, considering participants' ages, relationships, and
relevant context.
Conversations
● A key tool for L2 speaking teachers is the use of tasks that require
students to analyze and evaluate their own and others' language use
(Riggenbach, 1999).
 Conversations
● It is essential for students to not only produce language but also develop
metalinguistic awareness of spoken language features to become more
competent speakers. While noticing sentence-level features in SLA
research is widely accepted, the analysis of interactional features in
conversation is gaining importance. All L2 learners can benefit from
instruction on informal conversation and practice its fundamental
features, whether in a classroom or tutorial setting. One effective activity
is to assign students to find a fluent English speaker—a friend, roommate,
or colleague—and record a 20- to 25-minute interaction. While the fluent
speaker might dominate the conversation, students should prepare
questions to encourage dialogue. The recorded interaction provides a
sample for students to analyze.
 Conversations
● Various follow-up activities can arise from the transcript. For example,
students can identify communication difficulties and discuss what
happened and how such issues could be avoided. In advanced classes,
transcripts can be exchanged for critique, with the teacher guiding
whole-class activities on communication breakdowns. Another option is
to have students conduct interviews on topics of their choice and present
their findings, employing videotaping, self-evaluation, and peer
evaluation as assessment methods. Evidence from Stillwell et al. (2011)
shows that transcription tasks can improve students' ability to correct
errors while fostering positive attitudes toward the process.
Dialogue Journals
● The activities discussed emphasize fluency and meaning negotiation
over accuracy. The oral dialogue journal, which combines both
aspects, is a valuable assignment. Typically, the teacher initiates the
journal with directions and a topic for the first audio exchange. The
student responds via a recording tool, followed by the teacher's audio
response. In small classes, teachers can regularly listen to all journals,
while larger classes may require a rotating submission schedule.
Students can also exchange journals for peer feedback with teacher
guidance.
 Accuracy-Based Speaking Activities
● Returning to the Experience scenario, the tutor's concern about a
student's lack of accuracy highlights the potential of communicative
activities to address this issue. While drills have fallen out of favor in
language teaching, they can be effective if used sparingly and lead to
authentic communication.
● Activities that help students get to know each other can practice yes-no
and wh-questions.
● Error correction should be approached thoughtfully. In meaning-
centered activities, explicit error correction can disrupt communication.
Teachers can note errors for later discussion or remediation, focusing on
errors that impede communication. Teachers should strive for optimal
feedback that values learners' contributions.
 Teaching Speaking in an EFL Context

● While this chapter primarily addresses ESL teaching, EFL contexts present
unique challenges, such as student motivation, first-language use, and
encouraging participation. An innovative approach reported by Zhang
and Head (2009) involved EFL students in designing their English course,
which led to improved attitudes and motivation. Large class sizes can
limit opportunities for speaking and feedback, and curricula may not
emphasize speaking skills or may prioritize grammatical accuracy.
● EFL teachers must be adept at organizing authentic, motivating, and
varied activities. Digital technology provides access to a wealth of
resources, including movies, TV shows, and online speaking partners,
significantly enhancing the teaching landscape.
Technology Tools
● Digital technologies are essential for L2 speaking as they allow for
real-time practice and later reflection. They also enable instructors to
provide targeted feedback

Useful tools include:

● 1. Videoconferencing Tools
● 2. Podcasts
● 3. Voice-Based Technology Tools
Assessment
● Teachers must evaluate two types of oral assessment: classroom
performance and large-scale speaking tests. Classroom assessments
often lack comprehensive guidance, but resources like "Testing
Spoken Language" (Underhill, 1987) and "Assessing Speaking"
(Luoma, 2004) provide practical principles. Many ESL/EFL materials
now include assessment components, offering structured quizzes and
tests.
● In large-scale testing contexts, the Cambridge ESOL, Educational
Testing Service, and ACTFL offer speaking assessments. Cambridge
ESOL includes speaking sections in its exams, with fluency and
coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and
pronunciation being key rating criteria.
Future Trends
● Teachers must address sociopolitical issues in language pedagogy,
considering the social value of L2 and power dynamics involving
gender, ethnicity, and class. Issues like English as an international
language and the standards for spoken international English raise
practical questions about who sets these norms. McKay (2002)
emphasizes that EIL will continue to grow and belong to all its users.
 Conclusion
● L2 speaking skills are crucial for communication in and out of
English-speaking contexts. ESL/EFL teachers should strive to foster
fluent, accurate, and appropriate language use among their learners.
This requires understanding speaking fluency, error correction
principles, and pragmatic appropriacy, along with expertise in
selecting materials, employing technology, and creating meaningful
assessments. Additionally, teachers should be aware of sociopolitical
aspects of language pedagogy to sensitively address English language
varieties and international standards.

Celce-Murcia, M. (2003). Teaching English as a Second Or Foreign Language (4th ed.). National Geographic
 Summary
Focus Areas for L2 Speaking Teachers

1. Development of Language Skills

● L2 teachers should prioritize promoting the development of fluent,
accurate, appropriate, and authentic language.

2. Research Insights
● Recent findings from corpus-based studies of the SGE (Spoken
Grammar of English) and CA (Conversation Analysis) have
prompted a reconsideration of both the structural and interactional
features of spoken English.
Celce-Murcia, M. (2003). Teaching English as a Second Or Foreign Language (4th ed.). National Geographic
 Summary
Focus Areas for L2 Speaking Teachers

3. Activity Selection Factors

● The decisions of L2 teachers regarding the choice of speaking
activities depend on a variety of learner and contextual factors.

4. Assessment Challenges
● Speaking assessment remains a challenge for classroom teachers, with
differing ideas about the best methods to assess oral proficiency in
high-stakes examinations.

Celce-Murcia, M. (2003). Teaching English as a Second Or Foreign Language (4th ed.). National Geographic