THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

In association with
MAKENI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
PRIMARY/SECONDARY TEACHER’S DIPLOMA

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY & SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

(COMPONENT: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY)
COURSE CODE: EPS-41004/3101

Makeni College of Education

P.O BOX 32531
Mosque Road
Lusaka, Zambia.
Cell Phone Number: +260973-208139
FAX: +260 211 4004
E-MAIL: mist.zambia@yahoo.com
WEBSITE: www.makenislamic.org

i |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 COPY RIGHT
© 2025
This publication belongs to Makeni College of Education. Therefore; any alteration,
reprographics, reprinting, photocopying, duplicating and all rights are reserved to Makeni
College of Education.

ii |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Makeni College of Education Department of Educational Studies wishes to thank all those
who contributed both directly and indirectly to bring this work to completion. The writer would
like to acknowledge the efforts and material support of the following for their direct
contribution to the production and publication of this Primary Teachers Diploma (PTD) and
Junior Secondary Teacher‘s Diploma (JSTD) module:

PRINCIPAL: MRS. SIKWESE, B.

WRITER: MR. PELEKELO FRANCIS.

CONTACT NUMBER: +260976-012953

iii |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

ABOUT THIS MODULE
The Primary Teachers Diploma and Secondary Teachers Diploma in EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (COMPONENT: EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY) has been produced by Makeni College of Education. This is the first of the two
modules in this course. The second component comprises of Sociology of Education, therefore
for someone to graduate in this course one has to complete the two components which are
usually written as one course during the end of year one promotional examinations. The module
has been divided into three terms. All Makeni modules are structured in the same way.

How this Junior Secondary Teachers Diploma is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in
the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you
 What you will already need to know
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Study skills
 Where to get help
 Course assignments and assessments
 Activity icons.
 Units

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study.

iv |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 THE COURSE CONTENT
The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes
 New terminology
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activity
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Resources
For those interested in learning more about this subject, we provide you with the list of
additional resources at the end of this module. These maybe books, articles or websites.

Your comments
After completing your study of this module we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include
comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments
 Course duration
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.) your constructive feedback will help us
to improve and enhance this course.

v |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 COURSE OVERVIEW
This course is intended for people who would like to pursue their Primary Teachers Diploma
and Junior Secondary Teachers Diploma.

Course Outcomes

Upon completion of this module you will be able to:

 Describe psychology as a discipline
 Distinguish educational psychology from general psychology

 Define and describe educational psychology

 Discuss conception as a concept

 Discuss the principles of genetic transmission

 Discuss language development and thought

 Discuss the concept of personality development

 Explain the educational implication of cognitive theories of development.

 Analyze appropriate theories of language development

 Describe introversion and extraversion types of personality

 Discuss types of learning theories.

 Discuss the concept of motivation

 Differentiate memory and forgetfulness.

 Express educational measurements

 Calculate central tendency, variability, Standard deviation, and correlation

vi |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 TIME FRAME

This module can be read in eight hours. Students are advised to spend at least one hour per unit.
You do not have to read continuously. Find time and space free from interruption and embark
on the work given. Also space some time to answer the questions in the activity. Refer to the
content in the module only after completing the work in the activity.

STUDY SKILLS

As an adult learner, your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days:
you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation
for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you
will need to consider performance issues related to time management, etc. Perhaps you will also
need to reacquaint yourself to areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
internet as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space that is the time you dedicate to your
learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now before starting your self-study-to familiarize yourself
with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web browser. A few
suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The how to study website is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find link on study
preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, Strategies for reading
text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://ww.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the website of the Virginia Tech, Division of Students Affairs. You will find links to
time scheduling (including a ``where does time go? `` Link), a study skill check list, basic

vii |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory Skills (``remembering``).

 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php

How to study websites with useful links to time management, efficient reading, and
questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (hands on learning),
memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing, these web
links were active. If you want to look for more go www.google.com and type` `self-study
basics``, ``self-study tips``, ``self –study skills or similar.

NEED HELP?

There is course website provided at the end of the unit.

If you have any queries concerning this course, contact the Principal Makeni College of
Education.
You can as well contact the course lecturer who will be introduced to you during your
residential stay.
For your research, contact your nearest Provincial or District Resource Centre in your respective
districts.

Assignments

Self-marked activities are given for you to attempt.

They are important if you are to understand the contents of the module. The questions asked
also are similar to what might come in your assignments.
You should, therefore, take the activities seriously.

viii |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

You may receive one assignment based on the content of this module or whatever may be
applicable.

Assessments

Assessment will be in form of self-marked activities, tests and assignments. A good grade in
these areas will add value to your final examination grade in form of continuous assessment. In
this course you are expected to write two assignments before you write your final examinations.

ix |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 WELCOME TO
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

TERM I

x |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
COPY RIGHT......................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... iii
ABOUT THIS MODULE ........................................................................................................................ iv
THE COURSE CONTENT ....................................................................................................................... v
COURSE OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................ vi
TIME FRAME...................................................................................................................................... vii

UNIT ONE.................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY .............................................................. 1
1.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). ............................................. 1
1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS: ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 What is Psychology?........................................................................................................ 1
1.3 THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY .............................................................................................. 2
1.4 BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY ........................................................................................ 3
1.5 THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY............................................................................................ 5
1.6 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................................... 6
1.7 DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. .................................................................... 8
1.8 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. ................................................................. 9
1.9 APPROACHES/SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT TO THE STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 11
1.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY........................13
1.11 UNIT SUMMARY: ...............................................................................................................14
1.12 ACTIVITY 1. ........................................................................................................................14

UNIT TWO ................................................................. 16

2.0 METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................16
2.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). ...........................................16
2.2 METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................17
1. Introspection: ....................................................................................................................17
2. Experimental Method .......................................................................................................18
3. Observational Method ......................................................................................................20
4. Case Study .........................................................................................................................23
5. Correlational Research ......................................................................................................24
6. Content Analysis ...............................................................................................................24
7. Survey Research Method ..................................................................................................25

xi |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 i. Direct Interviews ...................................................................................................................25
ii. Telephonic or Digital Surveys ................................................................................................26
iii. Questionnaires ......................................................................................................................27
iv. Psychological Testing ............................................................................................................27
2.4 UNIT SUMMARY: ...............................................................................................................27
2.5 ACTIVITY 2. ........................................................................................................................27

UNIT THREE ............................................................. 29

3.0 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH ...........................................................................29
3.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). ...........................................29
3.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. ................................................29
3.2.1 WHAT IS GROWTH? ......................................................................................................29
3.2.2 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? .............................................................................................30
3.3 STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................30
3.4 CONCEPTION AND PR-ENATAL STAGE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT ....................................30
3.4.1 Conception in Humans ..................................................................................................31
3.4.2 The Zygote stage ...........................................................................................................31
3.3.4 The Embryo stage..........................................................................................................32
3.3.5 The Fetus Stage .............................................................................................................33
3.4 HOW ARE TWINS FORMED ...............................................................................................33
3.5 How the environment affect the vulnerable fetus. ..........................................................34
3.5 THE PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. ........................................................35
3.6 POST-NATAL STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. ..........................................................37
3.7 BIRTH CONTROL METHODS ..............................................................................................38
3.8 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACILITATING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD. 40
3.9 The principles of nature and nurture. ...............................................................................41
3.10 Education implication of nature and nurture. ..................................................................42
3.11 UNIT SUMMARY: ...............................................................................................................42
3.12 ACTIVITY 3. ........................................................................................................................43

UNIT FOUR ............................................................... 44

4.0 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.........................................................................44
4.1 Expected learning outcomes (by the end of this topic student should be able to): .........44
4.2 JEAN PIAGET’S THEORIES ..................................................................................................44
4.2.1 TERMS OF PIAGET’S THEORY ........................................................................................45
4.2.2 PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.........................................................46
xii |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 4.3 PRACTICAL TIPS FOR THE TEACHER ON PIAGET’S STAGE .................................................48
4.3.1 SENSORY MOTOR STAGE (0-2 YEARS). ..........................................................................48
4.3.2 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2- 6 YEARS). .......................................................................48
4.3.3 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11 YEARS). ...........................................................48
4.3.4 FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12-19 YEARS) .............................................................48
4.4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (JEROME BRUNER’S THEORY) ...............................................49
4.5 LEV VYGOTSKY VIEW OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT .......................................................50
4.6 HOW DEVELOPMENT OCCURS ..........................................................................................51
4.7 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ...............................................................................................52
4.8 UNIT SUMMARY: ...............................................................................................................53
4.9 ACTIVITY 4. ........................................................................................................................54

UNIT FIVE ................................................................. 55

5.0 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................55
5.1 Expected learning outcomes (learning objectives). ..........................................................55
5.2 Language development.....................................................................................................55
5.3 Development of language and thought. ...........................................................................56
5.3.1 LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN..........................................................................................56
5.4 STAGES OF LANGAUGE DEVELOPMENT. ...........................................................................57
5.5 THEORIES EXPLAINING HOW CHILDREN ACQUIRE LANGUAGE ........................................58
5.5.1 The Innatist View (Noam Chomsky, 1959). ...................................................................58
5.5.2 THE BEHAVIORIST VIEW (B.F SKINNER, 1975). .............................................................59
5.6 LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT DEVELOP INDEPENDENTLY...................................................60
5.7 THINKING DEPENDS ON LANGUAGE. ................................................................................60
5.8 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ...............................................62
5.9 ADULT STRATEGIES TO HELP CHILDREN ACQUIRE LANGUAGE: .......................................64
5.10 UNIT SUMMARY. ...............................................................................................................64
5.11 ACTIVITY 5. ........................................................................................................................64

REFERENCES ........................................................... 65

xiii |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

We welcome you to chapter one of term one of our Educational Psychology and Sociology of
Education course, educational psychology component. In this unit, you will learn about the
principles of educational psychology and why it is important to include it in the education setup
for you as a teacher(s) training to teach in Zambia and elsewhere. The course aims at producing
teachers who will have good understanding of child development and its significance in the
teaching and learning processes. We hope that the knowledge you will get from this course will
help justify the reasons for introducing this important subject in Zambian Teacher education
curriculum.

1.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Describe psychology as discipline
 Differentiate the branches of psychology
 Discuss the different approaches to psychology
 Analyze the different school of thought to the study of psychology
 Justify the inclusion of Psychology to teacher education
 Importance of Educational Psychology
 Distinguish educational psychology from general psychology

1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1.2.1 What is Psychology?

Psychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. The word psychology is derived from
the Greek word Psyche meaning ―Soul‖ or ―Mind‖ and Logos meaning ―Knowledge‖. One of
the most common questions asked by students new to the study of psychology could be what is
psychology?
1 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
  Psychology refers to the scientific study of the human mind and its functions,
specifically those that affect human behaviour, and the complexities and issues
concerned with them. In brief, psychology studies the human mind and its effect on
human behaviour.
 The American Psychology Association states that psychology ‗embraces all aspects of
the human experience, from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from
child development to care for the aged‖.
 Many psychologists have defined psychology differently however the acceptable
definition is the one given by Lahey. Psychology according to Lahey, (2009), is the
scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
Among the many definitions of psychology this definition has been widely accepted because it
contains the key words which are Scientific, Behaviour and mental processes.
Scientific: To be scientific is to be systematic in the search for answers. It is based on
the scientific method. In other words we use research and empirical data to
answer theories, make predictions and try to explain phenomena. It is
scientific because it deals with observed behaviour and scientifically proven
behaviours.
Behaviour: Is defined as anything that is outward or something the public acknowledges
about a person.
Mental Processes: Mental processes, Mental Functions and Cognitive Processes are terms
often used interchangeably to mean Such functions or processes as perception,
introspection, memory, creativity, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning,
volition, an emotion in other words, all the different things that we can do with
our minds.

1.3 THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

There are basically four goals of psychology: These are to describe, to explain, to predict and to
influence (control) behaviour. It is possible and easy to understand the basics of psychology by
examining and understanding its four main goals.
i. Describing: The first goal of psychology is to observe and describe behaviour.
Differentiating between normal, healthy and unhealthy behaviours is the cornerstone of
psychology, so it is important that psychologists have a keen sense of observation. Not
only does the psychologist have to observe one‘s actions but also his or her attitudes,
feelings, goals, motivations, reactions and thoughts to the best of his or her abilities. In
2 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 addition to observation, psychologists have to use other methods to describe behaviour
including case studies, correlation studies, surveys and other testing.
ii. Explaining: Of course, these studies also go into the second goal of psychology,
explaining. The attempt to explain behaviour based on observation is actually rather
difficult due to many factors. For instance, behaviour varies among culture and can
change over time. An accepted behaviour in one culture may not be acceptable in
another. Furthermore, as the world continues to expand (or grow smaller) through the
use of technology, transferring acceptable modes of behaviour to new technology can
become confusing or create new modes of behaviour.
iii. Predicting: The third goal of psychology is to predict behaviour. Psychologists try to
determine if a person is likely to make healthy or unhealthy decisions when confronted
with certain situations. Most of the time, they will use experiments to make their
predictions. A subject can be placed in an environment and given a stimulus or stimuli to
see how he or she will perform. Sometimes, a psychologist will look at past behaviour in
order to predict. In any case, predictions can sometimes be wrong.
iv. Influencing behaviour: The last of the goals of psychology is to influence behaviour.
This can be to change unhealthy behaviour as well as encourage already existing healthy
behaviour. There are many methods used to influence behaviour such as positive
reinforcement, punishment and rewarding good behaviour. Cognitive discourse is also a
well-known method in which the psychology helps the subject get to the true underlying
issues that may be behind unhealthy behaviours and attitudes.
Although the goals of psychology are universally the same, many psychologists will go
about achieving these goals in different ways. Furthermore, they have to keep in mind
that there are always exceptions. In other words, sometimes the behaviour of a group
does not necessarily mean that an individual that fits into that group will behave in a
consistent manner and vice versa. However, psychology can be a useful tool despite its
limitations to predict and prevent destructive behaviour and reinforce healthy and
positive attitudes and behaviours.

1.4 BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. The word psychology is derived from
the Greek word ―Psyche‖ meaning ―Soul or Mind‖ and ―Logos‖ meaning Knowledge. German
physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a
laboratory setting. Wunndt is known as the "father of psychology", he founded the first
3 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879. Wundt focused on breaking down
mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent
advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material
things. The first book in psychology was written by William James, in his book, Principles of
Psychology, published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that
psychologists would explore for years to come.
In other words the birthdate of psychology is in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt, Germany, founded
psychology as a truly independent experimental field of study. He set up the first laboratory that
carried out psychological research exclusively at Leipzig University. Wundt today is
appreciated in the field of psychology.

THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE

FILED OF PSYCHOLOGY.

4 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 1.5 THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is considered a science because it employs systematic methods of observation,
experimentation, and data analysis to understand and predict behavior and mental processes,
grounded in empirical evidence and subjected to peer review. This is because science uses an
empirical approach. Empiricism (founded by John Locke) states that the only source of
knowledge is our senses – e.g., sight, hearing, etc. In psychology, empiricism refers to the belief
that knowledge is derived from observable, measurable experiences and evidence, rather than
from intuition or speculation.

The key features of the experiment are control over variables (independent, dependent, and
extraneous), careful, objective measurement, and establishing cause and effect relationships.

Features of Science

1. Empirical Evidence

 Refers to data being collected through direct observation or experiment.

 Empirical evidence does not rely on argument or belief.

 Instead, experiments and observations are carried out carefully and reported in detail so
that other investigators can repeat and attempt to verify the work.

2. Objectivity

 Researchers should remain value-free when studying; they should try to remain unbiased
in their investigations. I.e., Researchers are not influenced by personal feelings and
experiences.

 Objectivity means that all sources of bias are minimized and that personal or subjective
ideas are eliminated. The pursuit of science implies that the facts will speak for
themselves, even if they differ from what the investigator hoped.

3. Control.

 All extraneous variables need to be controlled to establish the cause (IV) and effect
(DV).

4. Hypothesis testing

5 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 E.g., a statement made at the beginning of an investigation that serves as a prediction
and is derived from a theory. There are different types of hypotheses (null and
alternative), which need to be stated in a form that can be tested (i.e., operationalized
and unambiguous).

5. Replication

 This refers to whether a particular method and finding can be repeated with
different/same people and/or on different occasions to see if the results are similar.

 If a dramatic discovery is reported, but other scientists cannot replicate it, it will not be
accepted.

 If we get the same results repeatedly under the same conditions, we can be sure of their
accuracy beyond a reasonable doubt.

 This gives us confidence that the results are reliable and can be used to build up a body
of knowledge or a theory: which is vital in establishing a scientific theory.

6. Predictability

 We should aim to be able to predict future behavior from the findings of our research.

1.6 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Because psychology touches on a number of other subjects including biology, philosophy,
anthropology, and sociology, new areas of research and practice are continually forming. Some
of the branches of psychology are explained as follows:

1. Biopsychology or Neuropsychology: This area of psychology is known by a number of

titles including behavioral neuroscience, psychobiology, and neuropsychology. Bio
psychologists study the relationship between the brain and behavior, such as how the
brain and nervous system impact our thoughts, feeling, and moods. This field can be
thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.

2. Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology is the largest specialty area in psychology.

These psychologists apply psychological principles and research to assess, diagnose, and

6 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 treat patients with mental and emotional illnesses. Clinicians often work in private
practices, but many also work in community centers or at universities and colleges.

3. Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychologists study the physical and

cognitive development that occurs over the course of the lifespan. These psychologists
generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or geriatric development,
while others may study the effects of developmental delays.

4. Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal

issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and treatments, or working directly
in the court system. Forensic psychologists often conduct evaluations, screen witnesses,
or provide testimony in court cases. A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a
science within the criminal justice system and civil courts. Forensic psychology involves
understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to interact with judges,
lawyers and other professionals of the legal system. Forensic psychology involves the
ability to testify in court, to present psychological findings in legal language to the
courtroom.

5. Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Psychologists in this field apply psychological

principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. Some
psychologists in this field work in areas such as human factors, ergonomics, and human-
computer interaction. Research in this field is known as applied research because it
seeks to solve real world problems. Studies the performance of people at work and in
training, develops an understanding of how organizations function and how people and
groups behave at work. The occupational psychologist aims to increase effectiveness,
efficiency, and satisfaction at work.

6. Personality Psychology: Personality psychologists study the characteristic patterns of

thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make each person unique. These psychologists
often work in academic settings as instructors or researchers.

7. Social Psychology: Social psychologists study social behaviors, including how

individual self-image and behavior is impacted by interactions with others. These
psychologists often conduct research in academic setting, but others work in such areas

7 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 such as advertising and government. Uses scientific methods to understand and explain
how feeling, behavior and thoughts of people are influenced by the actual, imagined or
implied presence of other people. A social psychologist will look at group behavior,
social perception, non-verbal behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and
leadership. Put simply, social psychology studies the impact of social influences on
human behavior.

8. School Psychology: School psychologists work within the educational system to help
children with emotional, social, and academic issues. These psychologists collaborate
with teachers, parents, and students to find solutions to academic, social, and emotional
problems. Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but
others work in private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into
private practice and serve as consultants, especially those with a doctoral degree in
school psychology.

9. Educational Psychology: Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which

deals with teaching and learning and also covers the entire range and behaviour of the
personality as related to education.‖ In other words Educational psychology studies
mental and behavior related issues scientifically, of those who are directly or indirectly
concerned with education.

1.7 DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.

Is the branch of psychology which applies the psychological principles, theories and techniques
to human behavior in educational settings? Nonetheless, teachers are more interested in
educational psychology. Therefore, educational psychology will be the main focus of this
course. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often
focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities.

Although they are many definitions of Educational Psychology the most appropriate definition
is that which was given by Santrock who defines it as the branch of psychology that specializes
in understanding the teaching and learning process in educational settings.

However, educational psychology can be in part being understood through its relationship with
other disciplines such as counseling psychology, child psychology, social psychology and many

8 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

others. Since psychology seeks to observe, describe, predict and control behavior therefore,
educational psychology seeks to observe, describe, predict and control behavior of pupils and
students in an educational setting.

1.8 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.

Today educational psychology is a vital discipline that is contributing to the education of
teachers and learners. Educational psychology is a vital tool that can be of immeasurable help in
planning, delivering and evaluating teaching. It contributes a lot in increasing the teaching
efficiency of the teacher in different ways as explained below:

1. Individual differences: A teacher has to deal carefully with a group of students in a

classroom situation. Despite the students being in a group they are different from one
individual to the other in terms of abilities, motivation, attitude etc. therefore, it is very
essential to understand the individual differences of students regarding their ability,
interests, attitudes and need at different levels of growth. The understanding of
individual differences will enable the teacher to teach well the pupils from different
cultural backgrounds.

2. Classroom management Skills: Educational psychology assists teachers with

management skills of the classroom. It helps teachers in keeping the class as a whole
working together and oriented toward classroom tasks. Effective teachers establish and
maintain an environment in which learning can occur. Psychology of education assist
teachers to know how to create rapport with their pupils, it gives strategies to teachers on
the establishing rules and procedures, organizing groups, monitoring and pacing
classroom activities and handling misbehavior.

3. Motivational skills: Educational psychology help teachers find ways of how to

motivate themselves and know how to motivate the pupils. Motivational skills make
teachers effective as it empowers teachers to have good strategies for helping students
become self-motivated and take responsibility for their learning.

4. Communication skills: Effective teachers use good communication skills in interacting

with parents and students themselves by keeping criticism at a minimum and have an
assertive rather than aggressive, manipulative or passive communication style. The skill
of communication is usually obtained from studying education psychology. Note that to

9 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 be a good teacher you need to be clear in your communication and psychology can be of
great help.

5. Developmentally appropriate teaching practices: As competent teachers have a good

understanding of children‘s development and know how to create instruction materials
appropriate for their developmental levels (age groups) understanding developmental
pathways and progressions is extremely important for teaching in ways that are optimal
for each child. As it explains how a child develops or grows from childhood to
adulthood. Educational psychology will assist you to know what a child is able to learn
at a particular stage (age).

6. Know the classroom Teaching/learning process: A well-developed teaching and

learning system is helpful for transacting the content to the students effectively which
include class-room climate and the teaching competence which are required for effective
communication and presentation of content. A teacher must know the appropriate
principles of teaching-learning, different approaches to teaching for better results of
teaching-learning process.

7. Awareness of effective methods of teaching: The method of teaching is based on the

developmental characteristic of the student for example History is taught effectively to
small children with the help of storytelling method because small children like stories so
the teachers knowledge about the interest of students and method of teaching for the
students of different age groups.

8. Understanding assessment strategies: Educational psychologists have been

instrumental in providing techniques that teachers can use to determine how successful
students have been in attending new knowledge and skills. Today, perhaps more than
ever, assessing students‘ knowledge and skills is a central issue in schools. From a
teachers‘ perspective, two of the most relevant purpose of assessment are (a.) to provide
information to teachers that will help them develop instructional programs to facilitate
all students functioning (b.) to identify students who need educational or psychological
assistance.

9. Preparation of time table: The classroom teaching of various subjects is organized by

perfectly arranged timetable. Timetable preparation need thoroughly psychology for

10 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 instance the difficulty subjects like mathematics and science are placed in the first
periods and other subjects like history, geography are usually taught in the last periods.

10. Teaching aids: Psychology assists the teacher know when to use Audio-Visual Aids.
The Teacher can take the help of scientific Devices. The topic of presentation in the
classroom can be made interesting by involving more students‘ participation. Many
difficult concepts can be made easy and interesting by the use of audio-visual teaching
aids. The knowledge of psychology is necessary to plan and select the most appropriate
teaching aids.

1.9 APPROACHES/SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT TO THE STUDY

OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
For the last two centuries psychologists have come to establish their own line of psychological
thought. A number of them even established their own schools of thought upon which
contemporary psychology has relied on for its development.

What Is a School of Thought?

 Psychology is the study of the human mind and a school of thought describes a group of
individuals who share a common ideology, philosophy, and intellect.

 It identifies individuals who belong to a particular group based on their beliefs or

practices relating to a specific subject.

The following are the five main schools of psychology founded in the Nineteenth Century.

i) Structuralism-Wilhelm Wundt (1852-1920)

ii) Behaviourism- John B. Watson (1878 – 1978)

iii) Gestalt Psychology- Wolfgang Kohler (1882-1962)

iv) Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud (1856-1957)

v) Humanistic Psychology - Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

 Structuralism- Wilhem Wundt (1852 – 1962)

11 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

The founder of this school of psychology, Wilhelm Wundt- a Germany Psychologist believed
that the only way to understand the workings of the human mind was by examining an
individual‘s pattern of thought. Wundt envisaged it to analyse man‘s immediate experience so
as to disclose its simplest unit or elements which then would indicate mental life/processes.
Wundt analysed human‘s conscious experience by utilizing experimental mental called
Introspection a method in which trained introspectors were required to examine or reflect upon
their own experiences.

Later Wundt called this new science experimental psychology. The major emphasis of Wundt
laboratory was on sensation and sensory experience called Perception. Later observations were
extended to major reactions, feelings and emotions.

 Behaviourism – John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)

John B. Watson has been credited to be the founder of the school of behavioural psychology
although other psychologists have used the techniques of behaviour in their investigations for
instance Ivan Pavlov in his experiments of classical conditioning. Watson argued that Wundt‘s
method of introspection – a subjective analysis of thought was not a very efficient way of
studying the human mental process. Watson maintained that the best way to study psychology
was through records of observable and measurable response (from a person). Behaviourism
became the basis in the study of learning process. Another psychologist B. F Skinner extended
behaviourism to the study of learning process in animals as well as human beings. Skinner
introduced the principle of stimulus Response (S-R) = reward of punishment. In educational
psychology, behaviourism is widely used.

 Gestalt Psychology – Wolfgang Kohler et al (1887-1967)

The school of gestalt psychology was developed in German by Wolfgang Kohler and his
colleagues Max Witheimer and Kurt Kaffka. These gestalt psychologists protested and
disagreed against both aspects of structural and behavioural psychology. They argued that what
is revealed does not represent the full picture or true nature of conscious experiences.

The gestalt psychologists argued that in the study process one should start with the complex
rather than the simple units or parts (or Structures) of the conscious experiences. The gestalt
psychologists argued that in the study process one should start with the complex rather than the
simple units or parts (or structures) of the conscious behaviour. They argued that one cannot

12 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

understand the properties of water by studying the properties of oxygen and Hydrogen or enjoy
a symphony by listening to the lead guitarist. Gestalt psychologists study at higher levels of
human mental operations believing that we learn in wholes rather than in fragmented units or
points. Hence, Gestalt psychologist stresses that a human person should studied as whole.

 Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud (1856-1957)

Freud the founder of psychoanalysis began his career as a neurologist (i.e. expert in the branch
of medical science concerned with nerves). He then became interested in a possible method to
treat neurotic patients. Neurotic patients often revealed events, desires and fears which went
unrecognized in their working life. Sigmund Freud believed that one‘s life or behaviour is
wholly influenced by events of which one is not conscious of. In other words, according to
Freud the unconscious, controls or determines the behaviour of a person, hence the term
psychology of the unconscious (psychoanalysis).

 Humanistic Psychology - Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Humanistic psychology emerged as a school of thought as a response to behaviorism and

psychoanalysis. It differs from other schools of thought in psychology as it mainly focuses on
assisting individuals to improve their free will, self-actualization, and personal growth.
American psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the two major humanist
thinkers. Carl Rogers was one of the humanist psychologists who did not agree with the idea
that our actions are been controlled by certain forces. Abraham Maslow on the other hand is
famous for developing his ―Hierarchy of Needs‖ which provides more insight into this
approach. This school of thought was a simple reaction to disagreeing with psychoanalysis and
behaviorism. Humanistic psychology led to a particular form of therapy aimed at assisting
individuals to reach their full potential.

1.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY AND

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.
 Psychology refers to the scientific study of the human mind and its functions,
specifically those that affect human behaviour.

 Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the issues related to

education and acquisition of information by humans.

13 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  Thus, this is the main difference between psychology and educational psychology.

 Emphasis is another difference between psychology and educational psychology. The

emphasis in psychology is the overall scientific study of the human mind, its processes,
its relationship and impact on human behavior.

 Accordingly, it also studies the complexities associated with the human mind that can
harm the mental well-being of a person. Educational psychology, being a subcategory of
psychology, emphasizes more on the understanding and improvement of teaching and
learning in formal educational settings. Therefore, it investigates how students learn and
how teachers can help them to learn effectively, especially, with regard to students with
learning difficulties.

 The main concern in psychology is assisting individuals to overcome their psychological

issues or issues related to mental health through various psychoanalytical therapies and
treatments on the whole. Educational psychology concerns overcoming learning and
cognitive difficulties in students as well as in preparing teachers for more effective
education. Hence, this is another difference between psychology and educational
psychology.

1.11 UNIT SUMMARY:

This unit we have learnt that psychology refers to the scientific study of the human mind and its
functions, specifically those that affect human behavior. And that educational psychology is a
branch of psychology that studies the issues related to education and acquisition of information
by humans. We have also looked at the difference between psychology and educational
psychology where we said that psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behavior.
It includes various subfields among which educational psychology is also a distinct and
controversial branch of psychology. Accordingly, educational psychology specifically studies
the psychological issues concerned with human education and learning. From there we looked
at various branches of psychology among others.

1.12 ACTIVITY 1.

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 i. Define the term psychology and educational psychology.
ii. What is the difference educational psychology from general psychology?
iii. Differentiate the branches of psychology.
iv. Discuss any four [04] different approaches to psychology.
v. Why is it important to include Psychology to teacher education?
vi. What is the importance of Educational Psychology?

15 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT TWO
2.0 METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is a scientific study of the human mind, mental processes, and behavior. It is called
a scientific study because psychologists also do various systematic research and experiments to
study and formulate psychological theories like other scientists. Psychological researches
involve understanding complex mental processes, human behavior, and collecting different
types of data (physiological, psychological, physical, and demographic data), psychologists use
various research methods as it is difficult to obtain accurate and reliable results if we use a
single research method for collecting research data. The type of method they use depends upon
the type of research. Broadly, researches are divided into two types, i.e., experimental and non-
experimental researches. Experimental researches involve two or more variables, and it studies
the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (cause-effect relationship),
whereas non-experimental researches do not involve the manipulations of variables. The
concept of variables is briefly explained further in this article. Let‘s get familiar with some
widely used methods of collecting psychology research data.

2.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Discuss various methods of studying human behavior in psychology
 Introspection
 Experimental Method
 Observational Method
 Case Study
 Correlational Research
 Content Analysis
 Survey Research Method
 Direct Interviews
 Telephonic or Digital Surveys
 Questionnaires
16 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
  Psychological Testing

2.2 METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY

1. Introspection:
Introspection is a method of self-observation. The word ‗Introspection is made up of two Latin
words. ―Intro‖ meaning within and ―Aspection‖ meaning looking. Hence it is a method where
an individual is looking within one self. Angel considered it as ―looking inward‖. In
Introspection the individual peeps into his own mental state and observes his own mental
processes. Stout considers that ‗to introspect is to attend to the working of one‘s own mind in a
systematic way‘. Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect data about the
conscious experiences of the subject. It is a process of self – examination where one perceives,
analyses and reports one‘s own feelings.
Characteristics of Introspection:
 The subject gets direct, immediate and intuitive knowledge about the mind.
 The subject has actually to observe his own mental processes. He cannot speculate about
them.
 Introduction method was widely used in the past. Its use in modern time is being
questioned. It is considered unscientific and not in keeping with psychology which has
recently emerged out as a positive science however we may say that it is still being used
by psychologists and though its supremacy is undetermined, yet it is not totally
discarded.
Merits of Introspection Method:
 It is the cheapest and most economical method. We do not need any apparatus or
laboratory for its use.
 This method can be used anytime and anywhere you can introspect while walking,
traveling, and sitting on a bed and so on.
 It is the easiest method and is readily available to the individual.
 The introspection data are first hand as the person himself examines his own activities.
 Introspection has generated research which gradually led to the development of more
objective methods.
 It is still used in all experimental investigation.
 It is the only method with the help of which and individual can know his emotions and
feelings.
17 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 2. Experimental Method
To understand the experimental method, firstly we need to be familiar with the term ‗variable.‘
A variable is an event or stimulus that varies, and its values can be measured. It is to be noted
that we cannot regard any object as a variable; in fact, the attributes related to that object are
called variables. For example, A person is not a variable, but the height of the person is a
variable because different people may have different heights. In the experiment method of data
collection, we mainly concern with two types of variables, i.e., independent variables and
dependent variables. If the value of the variable is manipulated by the researcher to observe its
effects, then it is called the independent variable, and the variable that is affected by the change
in the independent variable is called the dependent variable. For example, if we want to study
the influence of alcohol on the reaction time and driving abilities of the driver, then the amount
of alcohol that the driver consumes is the independent variable, and the driving performance of
the driver is called the dependent variable. Experimental methods are conducted to establish the
relationship between the independent variable (cause) and dependent variables (effect). The
experiments are conducted very carefully, and any variables other than the independent variable
are kept constant or negligible so that an accurate relationship between the cause and effect can
be established. In the above example, other factors like the driver‘s stress, anxiety, or mood
(extraneous variables) can interfere with the dependent variable (driving ability). It is difficult to
avoid these extraneous variables; extraneous variables are the undesired variables that are not
studied under the experiments, and their manipulation can alter the results of the study, but we
should always try to make them constant or negligible for accurate results.

Control Group and Experimental Group

Experiments generally consist of several research groups that are broadly categorized into
control groups and experimental groups. The group that undergoes the manipulation of the
independent variable is called the experimental group, whereas the group that does not
undergoes the independent variable manipulation, but its other factors or variables are kept the
same as the experimental group, is called a control group. The control group basically acts as a
comparison group as it is used to measure the changes caused by the independent variable on
the experimental group. For example, if a researcher wants to study that how does the
conduction of exams affects the learning ability of the student, then, here, the learning ability of
the student is the dependent variable and exams are the independent variable. In this
experiment, some lectures will be delivered to the students of the same class and of nearly the

18 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

same learning abilities (based on their previous exam scores or other criteria), and then the
students are divide into different groups, one group is not subjected to give the exams, while the
other group has to give the exam of what they have learned in the lesson. The group of students
that were not subjected to give the exams is called the control group, and the group of students
that were subjected to give the exams is called the experimental group. The number of
experimental groups can be more than one based on how often does the exams are conducted
for each group. At the end of the experiments, the researcher can find the results by comparing
the experimental group with the control group.

Types of Experimental Method

i. Lab Experiments

It is difficult to conduct some experiments in natural settings as many extraneous variables can
become a problem for the research. So, researchers conduct the experiments in a controlled
manner in laboratories or research centers. It is easy to manage the independent and dependent
variables in the controlled settings. For example, if the researcher wants to study the effect of
different kinds of music like pop, classical, etc., on the health of the patients, then the researcher
will conduct this study in a room rather than in a natural environment as it‘s easy to keep
extraneous variables constant in the closed settings. Here, music is the independent variable and
health is the dependent variable. If the same experiment is conducted outside the lab, then
extraneous variables like sunlight, weather, noise, etc., may interfere with the study and
manipulate the results of the research.

19 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 ii. Field Experiments

Sometimes, lab experiment results face criticism for their lack of generalizability as they are not
conducted in real-life settings. Field experiments are conducted in the natural environment and
real-life settings like schools, industries, hospitals, etc., so they are more ecologically valid than
lab experiments. For example, if we want to study whether classroom learning or open
environment learning is the best teaching method for students, the researcher would prefer the
field experiment over the lab experiment. However, in field experiments, it is very difficult to
control the undesired or extraneous variables, which makes it difficult to establish an accurate
cause-effect relationship. Moreover, they consume more time than the lab experiments.

iii. Quasi Experiments

In lab experiments or fields experiments, sometimes, it is difficult to manipulate some variables

due to ethical issues or other constraints. Quasi-experiments are conducted in this situation. In
quasi-experiments, the researcher studies that how does a single or many independent variables
impact the dependent variable but without manipulating the independent variable. For instance,
if the researcher wants to study the effect of terrorism or bomb blasts on the children who have
lost their families, then it is difficult to create this situation artificially, so researchers use the
quasi-experiments approach. Here, the researcher selects the independent variable instead of
manipulating it and compare it with the dependent variable. The researchers will take a group of
children who have lost their families (experimental group), and the children who suffered the
bomb blast but did not lose their families (control group), and by comparing both these groups,
the researcher can analyze the effect of terrorism on the children who lost their families.

3. Observational Method
The observational method is a non-experimental and qualitative research method in which the
behavior of the subject under research is observed. An observational method is a great tool for
data collection in psychology because the researcher does not require any special types of
equipment to collect the research data. We observe several items throughout our day, but
psychological researches are different from our daily observations as it involves some important
steps such as selection of the area of interest, noting the observations, and analyzing the
obtained data. Gathering the data through observation is itself a skill as an observer should be
well aware of his actual area of research and he/she should have a clear picture in mind that
what qualities or attributes he should observe, and what he should avoid. The researcher should

20 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

have a good understanding of the correct methods of recording and analyzing the gathered data.
The major problem of the observational method is the observer‘s biases, there are high chances
that the observer may judge the event according to his/her biases rather than interpreting the
event in its natural form. We can relate it to a famous saying,

We see things as we are and not as things are‖

So, it is the responsibility of the observer to make accurate observations by minimizing his/her
biases.

Types of Observations

The observational methods are broadly categorized into the following types,

i. Naturalistic Observation

If the researcher has made the observations in real-life or natural settings such as schools,
institutes, homes, open environments, etc., without interfering with the phenomena under
observation, then it is known as naturalistic observation. In this type of observation, the
researcher does not manipulate or control any situation, and he/she only records the spontaneous
behavior of the subject (individual or event under investigation) in their natural environment.
Naturalistic observations provide more generalized results because of the natural settings, but
it‘s difficult to manage the extraneous variables in natural observations and ethical issues of
privacy interference and observer bias are some other major problems of naturalistic
observations.

21 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 ii. Controlled Observation

The observations that are conducted in the closed settings, i.e., their various conditions and
variable are highly under control, are known as controlled observations. In these observations,
variables are manipulated according to the need of the research. For example, if the researcher
wants to study the effect of induced workload on the worker‘s performance, the research should
be conducted in a controlled setting as the researcher can control the independent variable
(workload). However, due to the controlled settings approach, these observations are far less to
ecological validity than the naturalistic observations, and the behavior of the participants or
subjects that are being studied may change because of their awareness of being observed.

iii. Participant Observation

The types of observation in which the observer or the researcher itself becomes part of the
research are called participant observations. The other participants in the research may or may
not be informed about the presence of the observer in the group. However, if the participants are
not aware of the observer‘s presence, then the results gathered will be more reliable and satisfy
ecological validity. In participant observation as the researcher acts as an active member of the
observed group, the observer has to be cautious about the fact that other members of the group
won‘t recognize him/her, and he/she should maintain the proper relationships and a good
rapport with the participants under investigation. The strength of the participant observation is
that it provides the researcher a holistic approach to understand the process not only from
his/her own perspective but also from the participant‘s perspective, which reduces the research
biases. However, Participant observation is time-consuming, and the findings of this type of
observation are usually not generalizable because of the small research groups.

iv. Non-Participant Observation

In this type of research, the observer is not present in the research, but he/she uses other means
to observe the spontaneous activities or behavior of the individual or group members, this may
include installing the camera in the rooms that need to be observed. The main benefit of non-
participants‘ observation is that the actual behavior of the participants can be observed without
making them aware of being under observation. An example of non-participation observation is
a school principal who observes the classroom activities of the teacher and students through the
CCTV cameras in his/her office.

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Participation Observation Vs Non-Participation Observation in Psychology

4. Case Study
In the case study method, the researcher does qualitative research and in-depth analysis of a
specific case (subject under investigation). The results obtained from this method are highly
reliable; in fact, many famous theories such as the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud and
Jean Piaget‘s cognitive development theory are the results of well-structured and proper case
studies of the subjects. The case study method allows the researcher to deeply study the psyche
of the cases. The researcher does the case studies of the people or events that provide some
critical information about the new or less discovered phenomena of the human mind. The
number of cases can be one or more, or they are of different or same characteristics, for
example, a patient suffering from a mental disorder, a group of people belonging to the same
gender, class, or ethnicity, and effect on the people of various natural or man-made disasters
such as flood, tsunami, terrorism, and industrialization. Case studies involve the multi-method
approach as it uses various other research methods like unstructured interviews, psychological
testings, and observations to get detailed information about the subjects. It is the best method to
deeply understand and analyze the impact of certain traumatic events on the psychological
health of the individual, and it is widely used by clinical psychologists to diagnose various
psychological disorders of the patients.

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 5. Correlational Research
The researcher uses the correlational method if he/she wants to examine the relationship
between the two variables. It is to be noted that here researcher does not vary the independent
variable as he is only concerned about whether the two variables are linked to each other or not.
For example, if you are interested in finding the relation between yoga and the psychological
health of the person, then you simply try to find the relationship between these two factors
rather than manipulating anything. The degree of the association between the variables is
represented by the correlational coefficients ranges from +1.0 to -1.0. The correlation can be of
three types, i.e., positive correlation, negative correlation, or zero correlation. If we increase or
decrease the value of one variable, the value of another variable also increases or decreases
respectively, then it is called a positive correlation, and the value of the correlation coefficient
would be near +1.0. If we increase or decrease the value of one variable, the value of another
variable decreases or increases respectively, then it is called the negative correlation, and the
value of correlational coefficient would be near -1.0, and if the changes in the value of one
variable do not affect the other variable, then there does not exist any relationship between the
variables, and it is called zero correlation with the correlation value near or equal to zero.

6. Content Analysis
In content analysis research methods, the researcher analyses and quantifies various types of
content pieces such as articles, texts, interviews, researches, and other important documents to
get useful information about their area of research. Content analyses involve various steps that
are data collection, examining the research data, and getting familiar with it, developing ṭhe set
of rules for selecting coding units, making coding units (coding unit is the smallest parts of the
content that is analyzed) as per the developed rules, and then, finally, analyzing the findings and
drawing conclusions.

TYPES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis is generally of two types, i.e., conceptual analysis, and relational analysis.
These are briefly discussed below.

i. Conceptual Analyses

It involves the selection of the concept (word, phrase, sentence), and then examining the
occurrence of the selected concept in the available research data. In conceptual analyses, the

24 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

researcher selects the sample according to the research question and divides the content into
different categories, which makes it easier to focus on the specific data that gives useful
information about the research, and then coding and analyzing the results.

ii. Relational Analyses

The initial steps of the relational analyses are the same as the conceptual analyses like selecting
the concept, but it‘s different from the conceptual analyses because it involves finding the
associations or relationships among the concepts. In conceptual analyses, we analyze every
concept, but in relational analyses, the individual concepts do not have any importance, instead,
the useful information is assessed by finding the associations among the concepts present in the
research data.

7. Survey Research Method

Survey research is the most popular mean of data collection in almost every branch of social
sciences. It finds its applications in election poll results (election surveys), literacy rate, and
population rate analysis. The survey research methods help the researchers understand the actual
ground reality of the event by analyzing the social views, attitudes, behavior, and opinions of
the people. The researchers use various techniques of survey research methods, which are
briefly discussed below.

TYPES OF SURVEY METHODS

i. Direct Interviews
An interview process involves direct communication between the interviewer/researcher (who
asks the question) and the interviewee/respondent (who answers the questions). Interviews give
better in-depth results than any other technique of data collection as the researcher gets first-
hand information about the respondent‘s mind through communication and observation of
his/her behavior. Interviews may be structured or unstructured, when the researcher prepares the
sequential list of the questions about when and what questions to be asked in the interview, it is
called a structured interview, whereas if the questions to be asked in the interview are not pre-
planned, and flexibility is provided to the interviewer to ask questions according to the situation,
then it is called the unstructured interview. The responses to the questions in the case of
structured interviews are also specified to some extent, such questions are called close-ended
questions, while in the case of unstructured interviews, the respondent is free to answer the
questions according to his/her desire, and these types of questions are called open-ended
25 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
questions. For instance, if you ask the respondent whether he/she likes the coffee, then the
answer would be either yes or no, i.e., a close-ended question. However, if you ask the
respondents about their hobbies, then the respondent will answer it according to his/her will,
hence it is an open-ended question. An interview can be of the following types, depending upon
the number of interviewers and interviewees involved in the interview. For example,

One to One Interview: When only the interviewer and one interviewee are present in the
interview process.

Individual to group Interview: When one interviewer interviews a group of people.

Group to Individual: It is also called group panel interview, in this case, an individual is
interviewed by a group of interviewers.

Group to Group: When a group of interviewers, interviews a group of interviewees.

The most important thing in direct interviews is that the researcher/interviewer should have
good interviewing skills, and the ability to build a good rapport with the respondent and making
him/her comfortable enough to give accurate answers to the questions asked. The main purpose
of conducting an interview is to gather the data about the subject, but the interviewer should be
sensitive to the emotions and behavior of the respondent and should not pressurize him/her to
give the answers to which he/she is not comfortable enough. The process of the interview is
very time-consuming, so it is not much effective as in psychology researches, it would become
tedious to take interviews of a large section of society, which is why it is usually preferred for
some specific population that may include illiterate or blind people as the interviewer can
verbally ask them questions and make sure that whether they understood the questions or not.

ii. Telephonic or Digital Surveys

Telephonic surveys involve asking questions about the survey through direct calls or messages.
Digital surveys through ‗Google forms‘ are also commonly used these days. Telephone and
digital surveys are easy to conduct, and they do not consume much time. However, they have
many limitations such as the results obtained through them are not much reliable because in this
method the researcher does not have proper evidence of certain factors like respondents‘ age,
gender, and qualifications, etc., and the respondents may have given the manipulative or vague
answers.

26 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 iii. Questionnaires
Questionnaires consist of a well-structured set of questions that are distributed to the people to
mark or write the answers. The questions can be open-ended or close-ended, depending upon
the type of survey. It is one of the most commonly used survey techniques as it is easy to
conduct, less time-consuming, and a cost-effective method to collect research information. It is
a better method than the interview for obtaining accurate answers because, in this method, the
proper assurance of confidentiality is provided to the respondent, hence the respondent is more
likely to mark the accurate answer. Earlier, only paper-based questionnaires were used, but due
to the advancement of technology, digital questionnaires, which are sent to people through
emails or google forms, are also used these days.

iv. Psychological Testing

Psychological testing is also known as psychometrics. Psychological tests are scientifically
proven and standardized tests that are constructed by psychologists. These are used to assess the
various characteristics of humans such as attitude, aptitude, personality, intelligence quotient,
and emotional quotient. There are many psychological tests available these days such as
aptitude testing, mental health assessment, educational testing, personality assessment, etc.,
which are used for different purposes. The multiple-choice questions (MCQs) of the
psychological tests are carefully designed, and the factors like gender, age, class, qualification,
etc., are considered before conducting these tests. Psychological tests can be conducted offline
(pen-paper-based) or online (digital format), depending upon the applicability and availability.

2.4 UNIT SUMMARY:

In this topic you have about various types of methods that can be used to study psychology.
These include introspection, experiment, observation, survey among others. You have also
learnt about the advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods.

2.5 ACTIVITY 2.

1. Why is it important to apply scientific methods in studying psychology?

2. Discuss any five methods that can be used to study psychology?
27 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 3. Which method do you think is more scientific than the others?

28 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT THREE
3.0 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
In unit one you learnt about various concepts regarding the subject of psychology and
educational psychology in general. In this unit two, you will learn about the principles of human
development and growth. Therefore, the purpose of this unit is to learn about the many stages
which humans pass through in their growth and development from childhood to adolescence.
The Human Growth and Development stages (infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
aging). An understanding of the major theories and research related to the broad categories of
physical development, cognitive development, and social development is required, as is the
ability to apply this knowledge.

3.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Discuss conception as a concept
 Discuss the principles of genetic transmission
 Explain prenatal influence on foetal development
 Explain the hereditary and environmental influence on child development
 Discuss the physical development of a child

3.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS: GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT.
The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably. Actually, they are
conceptually different. Neither growth nor development takes place all by itself.

3.2.1 WHAT IS GROWTH?

 Growth refers to quantitative changes in size, which include physical changes in height,
weight, size, internal organs, etc. As an individual develops, old features like baby fat,
hair and teeth, etc., disappear and new features like facial hair are acquired. When
maturity comes, the second set of teeth, primary and secondary sex characteristics, etc.,

29 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 appear. Similar changes occur in all aspects of the personality. During infancy and
childhood, the body steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier. To designate this change
the term growth is used. Growth involves changes in body proportions as well as in
overall stature and weight. The term growth thus indicates an increase in bodily
dimensions. However, the rate of growth differs from one part of the body to the other.

3.2.2 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

 The term development refers to how people grow, adapt and change over the course of
their lifetime through physical development, personality development, social
development, emotional development and cognitive development as well as language
development.
 Development refers to the physiological, behavioural, cognitive, and social changes that
occur throughout human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature)
and by environmental influences (nurture).
 The understanding of development in psychology of education assists teachers to know
the various processes that determine both the physical and psychological makeup of
children. The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of
several processes, the biological, cognitive and social emotional. Thus, development
may be explained as the series of overall changes in an individual due to the emergence
of modified structures and functions that are the outcome of the interactions and
exchanges between the organism and its environment.

3.3 STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

There are basically two stages of child development. These stages are the Pre-natal and Post-
Natal stage of child development. Prenatal development refers to the period from conception to
the time the child is born, in humans, the process encompassing the period from the formation
of an embryo, through the development of a fetus, to birth (or parturition). Post-natal
development refers to a period after the child is born and can be broadly divided into the age
categories of: Neonatal (birth to 1 month), Infancy (1 month to 2 years), Childhood (2 years to
puberty), Puberty (12 years to mid-teens) and Young Adult a new category (late teens to early
twenties).

3.4 CONCEPTION AND PR-ENATAL STAGE OF CHILD

DEVELOPMENT
30 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 3.4.1 Conception in Humans
Conception occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father. In
humans, the conception process begins with ovulation, when an ovum, or egg (the largest cell in
the human body), which has been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and is
released into the fallopian tube. Ovulation occurs about halfway through the woman’s
menstrual cycle and is aided by the release of a complex combination of hormones. In addition
to helping the egg mature, the hormones also cause the lining of the uterus to grow thicker and
more suitable for implantation of a fertilized egg.

If the woman has had sexual intercourse within 1 or 2 days of the egg‘s maturation, one of the
up to 500 million sperm deposited by the man‘s ejaculation, which are traveling up the fallopian
tube, may fertilize the egg. Although few of the sperm are able to make the long journey, some
of the strongest swimmers succeed in meeting the egg. As the sperm reach the egg in the
fallopian tube, they release enzymes that attack the outer jellylike protective coating of the egg,
each trying to be the first to enter. As soon as one of the millions of sperm enters the egg‘s
coating, the egg immediately responds by both blocking out all other challengers and at the
same time pulling in the single successful sperm.

3.4.2 The Zygote stage

Within several hours (about 10 to 12 hours), half of the 23 chromosomes from the egg and half
of the 23 chromosomes from the sperm fuse together, creating a zygote—a fertilized ovum. The
zygote continues to travel down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

31 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

Although the uterus is only about 4 inches away in the woman‘s body, this is nevertheless a
substantial journey for a microscopic organism, and fewer than half of zygotes survive beyond
this earliest stage of life. If the zygote is still viable when it completes the journey, it will attach
itself to the wall of the uterus, but if it is not, it will be flushed out in the woman‘s menstrual
flow. During this time, the cells in the zygote continue to divide: The original two cells become
four, those four become eight, and so on, until there are thousands (and eventually trillions) of
cells. Soon the cells begin to differentiate, each taking on a separate function. The earliest
differentiation is between the cells on the inside of the zygote, which will begin to form the
developing human being, and the cells on the outside, which will form the protective
environment that will provide support for the new life throughout the pregnancy.

3.3.4 The Embryo stage

Once the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, it is known as the embryo. During the
embryonic phase, which will last for the next 6 weeks, the major internal and external organs
are formed, each beginning at the microscopic level, with only a few cells. The changes in the
embryo‘s appearance will continue rapidly from this point until birth.
While the inner layer of embryonic cells is busy forming the embryo itself, the outer layer is
forming the surrounding protective environment that will help the embryo survive the
pregnancy. This environment consists of three major structures: The amniotic sac is the fluid-
filled reservoir in which the embryo (soon to be known as a fetus) will live until birth, and
which acts as both a cushion against outside pressure and as a temperature regulator. The
placenta is an organ that allows the exchange of nutrients between the embryo and the mother,

32 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

while at the same time filtering out harmful material. The filtering occurs through a thin
membrane that separates the mother‘s blood from the blood of the fetus, allowing them to share
only the material that is able to pass through the filter. Finally, the umbilical cord links the
embryo directly to the placenta and transfers all material to the fetus. Thus the placenta and the
umbilical cord protect the fetus from many foreign agents in the mother‘s system that might
otherwise pose a threat.

3.3.5 The Fetus Stage

Beginning in the 9th week after conception, the embryo becomes a fetus. The defining
characteristic of the fetal stage is growth. All the major aspects of the growing organism have
been formed in the embryonic phase, and now the fetus has approximately six months to go
from weighing less than an ounce to weighing an average of 6 to 8 pounds. That‘s quite a
growth spurt.
The fetus begins to take on many of the characteristics of a human being, including moving (by
the 3rd month the fetus is able to curl and open its fingers, form fists, and wiggle its toes),
sleeping, as well as early forms of swallowing and breathing. The fetus begins to develop its
senses, becoming able to distinguish tastes and respond to sounds. Research has found that the
fetus even develops some initial preferences. A newborn prefers the mother‘s voice to that of a
stranger, the languages heard in the womb over other languages and even the kinds of foods that
the mother ate during the pregnancy. By the end of the 3rd month of pregnancy, the sexual
organs are visible.

3.4 HOW ARE TWINS FORMED

Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either monozygotic
('identical'), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos,
or dizygotic ('non-identical' or 'fraternal'), meaning that each twin develops from a separate egg
and each egg is fertilized by its own sperm cell.

33 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 3.4.1 Identical twins (Fertilized by one sperm).

This type of twin is formed from one fertilized egg being split in two. The eggs develop into
two individual embryos that share almost the same genetic material. When developing in the
womb, identical twins can share or have their own individual placentas. The same goes with
membranes. This sometimes makes it tricky to determine whether or not twin babies are
identical or fraternal. The twin babies are genetically nearly identical, however identical twins
fingerprints are different. Identical twins are almost always of the same sex, except in a few
very rare cases, where identical twins have been born male and female.

3.4.2 Fraternal twins (Fertilized by two sperms).

This type of twin is formed from two eggs being fertilized by two different sperm cells.
Fraternal twins are genetically speaking like siblings. They may feel a bit closer, though, as they
share a womb and are born at about the same time. As with identical twins there are some
patterns of fraternal twinning that are exceedingly rare.

3.5 How the environment affect the vulnerable fetus.

Prenatal development is a complicated process and may not always go as planned. About 45%
of pregnancies result in a miscarriage, often without the mother ever being aware it has occurred
(Moore & Persaud, 1993). The most vulnerable period for many of the fetal organs is very early
in the pregnancy—before the mother even knows she is pregnant. Harmful substances that the
mother ingests may harm the child. These include the following.

34 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  Cigarette smoking, for example, reduces the blood oxygen for both the mother and child
and can cause a fetus to be born severely underweight.
 Another serious threat is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), a condition caused by
maternal alcohol drinking that can lead to numerous detrimental developmental effects,
including limb and facial abnormalities, genital anomalies, and mental retardation.
 Maternal drug abuse is also of major concern and is considered one of the greatest risk
factors facing unborn children.
 The environment in which the mother is living also has a major impact on infant
development.
 Children born into homelessness or poverty are more likely to have mothers who are
malnourished, who suffer from domestic violence, stress, and other psychological
problems, and who smoke or abuse drugs. And children born into poverty are also more
likely to be exposed to teratogens.
 Mothers normally receive genetic and blood tests during the first months of pregnancy
to determine the health of the embryo or fetus. They may undergo sonogram, ultrasound,
amniocentesis, or other testing. The screenings detect potential birth defects, including
neural tube defects, chromosomal abnormalities (such as Down syndrome), genetic
diseases, and other potentially dangerous conditions. Early diagnosis of prenatal
problems can allow medical treatment to improve the health of the fetus.

3.5 THE PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

The following are the fundamental principles of growth and development.
1. Development follows a pattern or a sequence: Development tends to proceed from the
head downward. This is called the cephalocaudal principle. According to this principle,
the child first gains control of the head, then the arms, then the legs. Infants gain control
of head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few
months, they are able to lift themselves up using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age,
infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk. Development
also proceeds from the center of the body outward according to the proximodistal
principle. Accordingly, the spinal cord develops before other parts of the body. The
child‘s arms develop before the hands, and the hands and feet develop before the fingers
and toes. Fingers and toes are the last to develop.
2. Development proceeds from general to specific responses: It moves from a
generalized to localized behavior. The newborn infant moves its whole body at one time
35 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 instead of moving only one part of it. It makes random kicking with its legs before it can
coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or to walk.
3. Development is a continuous process: Development does not occur in spurts. Growth
continues from the moments of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes
place at slow regular pace rather than by ‗leaps and bounds‘. Although development is a
continuous process, yet the tempo of growth is not even, during infancy and early years
growth moves swiftly and later it slacken.
4. Different aspects of growth develop at different rates: Neither all parts of the body
grow at the same rate nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally. They reach
maturity at different times. Development also depends on maturation. Maturation refers
to the sequence of biological changes in children. These orderly changes give children
new abilities. Much of the maturation depends on changes in the brain and the nervous
system. These changes assist children to improve their thinking abilities and motor
skills. A rich learning environment helps children develop to their potential. Children
must mature to a certain point before they can gain some skills. For instance, the brain of
a four-month-old has not matured enough to allow the child to use words. A four-month-
old will babble and coo. However, by two years of age, with the help of others, the child
will be able to say and understand many words. This is an example of how cognitive
development occurs from simple tasks to more tasks that are complex.
5. Most traits are correlated in development: Generally, it is seen that the child whose
intellectual development is above average is so in health size, sociability and special
aptitudes.
6. Growth is complex: All of its aspects are closely interrelated. The child‘s mental
development is intimately related to his physical growth and its needs.
7. Growth is a product of the interaction of the organism and environment: Among
the environmental factors one can mention nutrition, climate the conditions in the home,
the type of social organization in which individual moves and lives.
8. There are wide individual differences in growth: Individual differences in growth are
caused by differences in heredity and environment.
9. Growth is both quantitative and qualitative: These two aspects are inseparable. The
child not only grows in ‗size‘; he grows up or matures in structure and function too.

36 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 10. Development is predictable: It is possible for us to predict at an early age the range
within which the mature development of the child is likely to fall. However, mental
development cannot be predicted with the same degree of accuracy.

3.6 POST-NATAL STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

Any development process proceeds through some stages and each development stage differs
from the other. Each stage of development has its characteristic. Psychologists have separated
human life span into stages or periods and identified specific changes that may be expected
during each stage. The transition from one stage to the next is gradual rather than sudden. The
age groups assigned to each stage of the development are general a shown below:

1. Pre-natal stage: It is a period from conception to birth, this is before the child is born it
involves the change or rather the development of the embryo or fetus to take on a human
shape basic this stage involves the physical development that takes place when the child
is still in the womb. This process usually takes nine month.
2. Infancy (Neonate) 0-2 years: This is a period from birth to 2 years. This stage is a
period from birth to two years. This stage is also called Baby hood. This stage is of rapid
growth and development. There are changes in body proportions as well as intellectual
growth.
3. Early childhood or Pre-school: This is a period from 2 to 6 years. This period is also
called the preschool period. It is also called the pre-gang age. In this stage, the child
seeks gain control over his environment. He also starts to learn to make social
adjustment.
4. Late childhood 6-12 years: This is a period from 6 to 12 years. This is the primary
school age. Here child is expected to acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are
considered essential for successful adjustment to adult life. He or she are also expected
to learn certain essential skills.
5. Adolescence: This is a period from 12 to 18 years. This is the period of physiological
change. It is the period when children become sexually mature. It is also the period of
intensified personal interaction with peers of the same and opposite sex.
6. Young adulthood: This is a period from 18 to 40 years. The responsibilities of
adulthood include important decisions like choosing a career, a life partner, etc. Young
adulthood begins with setting goals and aspirations.

37 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 7. Middle adulthood: This is a period from 40 to 60 years. After settling down in thirties
and having lived through with rooting phase, the individual starts feeling sense of
uprooting and dissatisfaction during the forties. A physical decline in the form of
wrinkles, thickening waistlines, greying and thinning hair start appearing. The changes
are often termed middle life transition, middle age revolt, mid-career crisis or middle-
age slump. These terms point U, the loss of youth and the coming of old age. In women,
hormonal changes of menopause (ending of menstruation) generate anxiety and
depression.
8. Late adulthood: This is a period from 60 and above. Aging is a process, which
causes loss of vitality. Aged adults are more concerned about their health and death.
Their visit to doctors is more frequent. Retirement has the worst impact on aged adults.
They gradually lose their sense of meaningfulness in life. Some develop interests in
social service and spend their time in financial planning, reading, travelling, visiting
religious places and enjoying nature.

3.7 BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

Birth control (also called contraception) is how you prevent pregnancy. Birth control methods
vary far and wide. There‘s a method for nearly every body and lifestyle. Planned Parenthood of
the Pacific Southwest (2015) has identified about 12 birth control methods. And those methods
range from non-hormonal and hormonal to single use and long-lasting use.
1. Permanent Birth Control: A surgical procedure that makes a person who can produce
sperm unable to cause a pregnancy or a person who can ovulate unable to become
pregnant. Permanent birth control is not reversible and prevents pregnancy 99% of the
time.
2. IUD (Non-hormonal/Hormonal): This is a small t-shaped device that is placed inside
of the uterus by a health care provider to prevent pregnancy 99% of the time. Less than 1
out of 100 women will get pregnant each year if they use an IUD. Available in non-
hormonal (copper) and hormonal options, the IUD is one of the most effective forms of
birth control and can last anywhere between 3 to 12 years depending on which type you
choose. Non-hormonal and hormonal IUDs work to prevent sperm from fertilizing an
egg.
3. Implant (Hormonal): A small rod placed under the skin in the upper arm by a health
care provider to prevent pregnancy 99% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women a
year will become pregnant using the implant. The implant, which lasts for 3-5 years,
38 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 releases the hormone progestin to stop the ovaries from releasing eggs, and it thickens
cervical mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to enter the uterus.
4. The Shot (Hormonal): An injection given by a medical professional of the hormone
progestin in the arm or hip that lasts three months and prevents pregnancy 96% of the
time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get pregnant each year if they always use the
shot as directed. The shot, also known as Depo-Provera, stops the ovaries from releasing
eggs and thickens the cervical mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to enter the uterus.
5. The Vaginal Ring (Hormonal): A flexible ring that is inserted into the vagina each
month that prevents pregnancy 93% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get
pregnant each year if they always use the ring as directed. The vaginal ring releases
hormones that stop the ovaries from releasing eggs and thickens cervical mucus, so it is
difficult for sperm to enter the uterus.
6. Patch (Hormonal): The patch is applied (like a sticker) weekly to approved areas of
skin and prevents pregnancy 93% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get
pregnant each year if they always use the patch as directed. The patch releases hormones
that stop the ovaries from releasing eggs, and it thickens cervical mucus, so it is difficult
for sperm to enter the uterus.
7. The Pill (Hormonal): A pill that should be taken at the same time every day for
maximum effectiveness, which is often used to reduce cramping and bleeding during
periods and that prevents pregnancy 93% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will
get pregnant each year if they take the pill each day as directed. The pill releases
hormones (progestin-only or a combination of hormones) to stop the ovaries from
releasing eggs and thickens cervical mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to enter the
uterus.
8. Condoms (Non-hormonal): Available in latex or polyurethane, condoms, which
prevent pregnancy 87% of the time when used correctly, are placed over an erect penis
to stop sperm from entering the vagina during ejaculation. 2 out of 100 women whose
partners use condoms will get pregnant if they always use condoms correctly.
Internal/female condoms are inserted into the vagina and prevent pregnancy 79% of the
time. This means that 5 out of 100 women will become pregnant if the inserted condom
is always used correctly.
9. Emergency Contraception (Hormonal & Non-hormonal): Emergency contraception
can be used up to five days after unprotected sex. It can come in the form of a pill or

39 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 IUD, which have varying degrees of effectiveness. Emergency contraception prevents
pregnancy from occurring by preventing ovulation and thickening cervical mucus, but it
does NOT cause an abortion.
10. Spermicide & Gel: This is made with sperm-killing chemicals, spermicides such as
foams, suppositories or film (used separately, not in combination) prevent pregnancy 79-
86% of the time. 18 out of 100 women will get pregnant each year if they always use the
spermicide as directed. Placed inside the vagina shortly before sex, spermicides block
the cervix and keep sperm from joining with an egg.
11. Fertility Awareness/ Natural Family Planning (Non-hormonal): Natural family
planning involves a woman tracking her monthly cycle from her period through
ovulation to determine when she is most and least likely to get pregnant. When used
correctly, this method prevents pregnancy 77-98% of the time. 24 out of 100 women
who use natural family planning will have a pregnancy if they use the method correctly.
12. Withdrawal/Pull-out Method (Non-hormonal): Withdrawal prevents pregnancy 78%
of the time by pulling the penis out of the vagina before ejaculation. 27 out of 100
women whose partners use withdrawal will become pregnant each year, even if used
correctly. Remember, there is always a chance of pregnancy if sperm is introduced to the
vagina.

3.8 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACILITATING GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD.
 What we know about the child is vast and impressive. However, what we do not know is
even more vast and overwhelming. Every new insight opens up new questions.
Therefore, as a teacher we need to update our knowledge about the problems of children,
in the context of the media explosion, economic strivings, resultant social, cultural and
value changes. With this, we will be able to make a reliable diagnosis and apply the
knowledge of child psychology to better their adjustment with themselves and with the
world around them.
 We, as a teacher, should know what to expect from the child (student), and what he
needs physically, socially and emotionally. The routine teacher-taught relationship
would not benefit him unless the students are dealt with empathetically as a social being,
as an individual self, and as a biological organism.

40 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  A teacher should accept and make our students accept the reality of physical and
biological changes so that the transition takes a smooth course without causing any
psychological disadvantage. We need to create such challenging conditions, which may
lead to the effective coordination of physical, mental and other functions in order to
ensure adequate adjustment to probable life situations. Yet another task that teacher
should ensure is to secure effective and desirable responses, and prevent or eliminate
ineffective or undesirable ones. One way is to arrange conditions in a way that make
desirable responses satisfying and not annoying.
 Positive training in self-direction and self-control should be given to students. Some of
the following points should be kept in mind while guiding them: Control and guidance
must come from the student himself under the teacher's supervision.
 A teacher need to receive adequate knowledge and skills with due preparedness in order
to handle their emotional and social needs. As a teacher, we need to appreciate the fact
that students at this stage are prone to revolt against established norms, rules, and
authority.
 They need supportive judgments to do things, which provide them self-confidence and
self- assurance.
 You need to use some plan of classification to secure homogeneous groups in respect of
significant abilities and achievements so that curricular and instructional needs can be
suitably met. Studies have indicated that in certain tasks a student's performance would
improve when others (teachers) are around. This phenomenon is called social
facilitation. However, this is not a universal phenomenon. Still other studies have
shown that when a student is first trying.
 To learn something new, the presence of others is detrimental. In such a situation, the
teacher has to assess the situation (considering the class as a social unit) and the
personality traits of his students and accordingly he should facilitate their growth and
development.

3.9 The principles of nature and nurture.

The question of heredity and environment named nature and nurture by Francis Galton has been
under scientific investigation since the year 1890. The subject has been intensively discussed in
educational psychology. However, there has been tendency on part of the a few psychologists
behave in an extremely partnership either towards heredity or environment.

41 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

Heredity is defined as the tendency of passing certain characteristics from generation to the
succeeding ones. These characteristics are obtained directly from the genes.
Environment is a term which covers all the outside factors that have acted on the individual
since s/he began life.
The Nature versus Nurture: The nature Nurture debate is the source of argument between
approaches to understanding human behavior including addiction. Theories that base their
understanding on nature focus on characteristics that we are born with, like genetic make-up,
stable personality traits and physical dispositions. In contrast, theories that base their
understanding of human behavior on nurture emphasize those experiences that mold and change
us throughout our lives such as how parents raised us what we were taught at school and our
culture. In simple terms Nature refers to Individual innate qualities whereas Nurture is
attributed to our personal experiences.

3.10 Education implication of nature and nurture.

With regard to the aspect of nature – nurture controversy, it is essential that for the sake of
developing, the child, total influence on the child must be conducive. In the classroom set up,
the teacher should understand the nature mechanism of the two bases of behavior. These two
concepts can help us to diagnose and guide the growth and the development of the child. To
enrich learning, the teacher should always stimulate the environment to the maximum. Without
environment stimulation no organism could live or grow in a vacuum.
Education is defined as a means the modification of the behavior of the child. Thus heredity and
environment are two great forces responsible for human behavior and personality and these both
should be studied by the teacher and the parent. Nature and Nurture are both potent factors in
the development of the child. One is seed and the other is soil. A successful teacher must know
all about it.
An average teacher needs to realize the tremendous significance of environment, heredity and
cultural factors for the child development. Attitude adjustment and behavior pattern have to be
structured to suit the child‘s ability and development.

3.11 UNIT SUMMARY:

42 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

In this topic you have learnt that it is very important that teachers understand the children they
teach. Legally life begins at birth, biologically it begins at conception. You have also leant that
in the classroom set up, the teacher should understand the nature mechanism of the two bases of
behavior. These two concepts can help us to diagnose and guide the growth and the
development of the child. To enrich learning, the teacher should always stimulate the
environment to the maximum. Without environment stimulation no organism could live or grow
in a vacuum.

3.12 ACTIVITY 3.

1. What is maturation?
2. Define the term growth and development
3. What are the implications of intellectual development?
4. Explain and discuss the importance of heredity and environment in human development.
5. Discuss and explain the educational implication of the Nature – Nurture controversy.
6. Explain and discuss the importance of child study for the teacher.
7. What are the main principles of child development?

43 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT FOUR
4.0 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Welcome to chapter four that looks at theories of cognitive development. Cognitive
development is primarily concerned with the ways that infants and children acquire, develop,
and use internal mental capabilities such as: problem-solving, memory, and language. Major
topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of
perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the
development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set
of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal.

4.1 Expected learning outcomes (by the end of this topic student
should be able to):

 Define cognitive development

 Explain Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
 State Piaget’s five stages of cognitive development.
 Define cognitive development according to Jerome Bruner

 Differentiate the two key ideas of Vygotsky’s work of development.

 Define the term self- regulation according to Vygotsky’s theory of development.

 Relate the concept of cognitive development to classroom situation.

4.2 JEAN PIAGET‘S THEORIES

Jean Piaget was a Swiss and born in 1896 and died in 1980 at the age 84. He was a biologist
specialized in biology, he studied knowledge and became an epistemologist. Piaget studies his
own three (3) children and compared their intellectual development with other children in
Europe. According to Piaget, intellectual development is not a simple physiological or
maturational process that takes place automatically, but made up of physical and mental
structures called schemata, , which a person uses to experience new events and acquire other
schemata. According to Jean Piaget, the child begins life with innate reflexes like crying,
grasping, sucking etc, which develop into complex activities.
44 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
This means that Piaget was not a naturalist or an environmentalist but an interactionist. His
theory was genetic, maturational and hierarchical. To Piaget cognitive development was a
product of interacting with the environment in ways that changes substantially as one develops
in each stage.

4.2.1 TERMS OF PIAGET’S THEORY

SCHEMATA FUNCTION

ORGARNISATION ADAPTATION

ASSIMILATION ACCOMMODATION

1. SCHEMATA
These are units or ―cell assemblies‖ that make up intellect. They vary with age and
differs from individual to individual and they depend on experiences. The reflex actions
of the child are the physical skills or structures.
2. FUNCTION
Function is intellectual processes engaged in by everyone regardless of age, individual
differences or material being. These change the schemata into organization and
adaptation.
3. ORGANIZATION
An active recall of past action for present use. This is the process of categorizing
systematizing and co-coordinating cognitive structures.
4. ADAPTATION
This is the process of adjusting to the environment, which involves taking in information
and changing the previous one.
5. ASSIMILATION
Is the process of acquiring or taking in the new information and making it part of you
e.g. differentiating a cow from a goat, fruit from vegetables etc.
6. ACCOMMODATION:
Is the process of adjusting an established cognitive structure in the light of new
information coming in.

45 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 NOTE: when an individual has assimilated and accommodated , the new information
then it is said learning has taken place (a state of equilibrium) but when an individual
fails to assimilate (a state of equilibrium) but when an individual fails to assimilate and
accommodate the new information then learning has not taken place (a state of
disequilibrium). Through assimilation and accommodate the new information then
learning has not taken place accommodation, a person‘s ideas as well as behavior
gradually change.

4.2.2 PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

4.2.2.1 SENSORI MOTOR STAGE (0-2 YEARS)
In Piaget‘s theory, the sensorimotor stage occurs first, and is defined as the period when
infants ―think‖ by means of their senses and motor actions. As every new parent will attest,
infants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even bite and chew objects.
According to Piaget, these actions allow children to learn about the world and are crucial to
their early cognitive development.
During this stage the child uses his sense and muscle when it comes to learning. Knowledge
takes place by doing or by action. The child sucks, waves, rattles throw the objects, etc to
check their behavior. According to Jean Piaget things come and go. Some adults maintain
this stage throughout their life.

4.2.2.2 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2- 6 YEARS).

During this stage the child has more internal form of thinking. He has the capacity to present
things to himself, (he is egocentric). The child has the capacity to imagine that things still
exist even though they are not there at the moment. The child can conserve matter e.g.
number, weight and volume, but cannot reverse an operation e.g. 2 x 3 =6 and 3 x2 =?
Answer unknown.
a) PRE-CONCEPTUAL (2- 4 YEARS).
At this stage children are not yet able to formulate concepts in the same way as older
children and adults concepts like formations relying on obstructing and discriminating
the characteristics of object/situations to form generations known as Inductive
reasoning. Where generations are used to describe particular instances is known as
deductive reasoning. Child at this stage tends to neither induction nor deduction. They
use transduction reasoning. They go from one particular instance to another particular
instance in order to form pre concepts.

46 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 b) INTUITIVE (4 – 6 YEARS).
The child begins this period of intellectual development very much dependent upon
superficial perceptions of the environment. Ideas are formed imperialistically – hence
the name intuitive stage.

4.2.2.3 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 -11 YEARS).

During this stage the individual begins to operate compensation and reversibility. He can
conserve matter like number, area, volume, capacity, mass etc with problems. The
individual can imagine things but is limited to concrete objects to solve, thus he is a
concrete thinker.

CONSERVATIONS
Which has more stones?

(a) Number (b) capacity (c) area (d) mass

The individual cannot , however solve problems by or oppositional reasoning for
instance , if X is twice as large as Y and Y four times as large as Z. what is the
relationship between X and Z?

4.2.2.4 FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12-19 YEARS)

During this stage the individual can apply proposition through the use of hypothesis e.g. If
a=b, b=c, c=d what is the relationship between a and d? The individual moves away from
concrete thinking to abstract thinking when solving problems. He tries to ask many
questions about the world e.g. what would happen if .........etc. most pupils from grades 8
and above are abstract thinkers.
PERIOD STAGE MENTAL AGE
RANGE IN YEARS
Sensor; Motor (i) Sensori motor 0- 2 years
Preparation for (ii) Pre-operational
And use for (a) Pre-concepture 2- 4
Co operations (b) intuitive 4-6 years
(or latency) (iii) Concrete operations 7 -11 ½ years
Former operations (iv) formal operations 11 ½ year on word.

47 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 4.3 PRACTICAL TIPS FOR THE TEACHER ON PIAGET‘S
STAGE

4.3.1 SENSORY MOTOR STAGE (0-2 YEARS).

(a) Provide children with sensory stimulation involving sound, light color, texture and body
movement.
(b) Encouragement and demonstrative different ways of playing with toys
(c) Reward children for such things as testing out their voices and making new sounds
(d) Allow and encourage imitation and interact with children intellectually

4.3.2 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2- 6 YEARS).

(a) Encourage vocalization and give the child as much freedom as possible to express
his ideas orally.
(b) Encourage the child to view to describe and to make drawings from several different
perspectives.
(c) Do not discourage socially acceptable imitations of peers and adult
(d) Continue to encourage and reward experimentations in the use of objects e.g. playing
with water, sand, and soil and with tins.

4.3.3 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11 YEARS).

(a) Encourage the child to explain his acts to talk about his ideas and give reasons for
his behavior and decisions.
(b) Present practical problems that are relevant to the child‘s experiences of basis for
solving many complex problems. Give concrete demonstrations of problems and
solutions.

4.3.4 FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12-19 YEARS)

At this stage the individual uses hypothesis to solve problems. He is an abstract thinker
and relies less on the use of concrete objects. The stage is characterized by critical
observations and questions certain issues e.g.
―if I were ...................would ― I wish the world ......to make peace etc
If a=b, b=b, c=d then d=?

(a) HETERONOMOUS MORALITY

48 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 In Piaget‘s theory of moral development, the stages at which children think that are
unchangeable and breaking them leads automatically to punishment.
(b) AUTONOMOUS MORALITY
In Piaget‘s theory of moral development, the stage at which a person makes rules that
punishment is not automatic.

4.4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (JEROME BRUNER‘S

THEORY)
Jerome Bruner- was an American Educationist who believes that knowledge or cognitive
development takes place through instructions. Poor instructions lead to poor learning. While
clear instructions lead to good learning. Unlike Jean Piaget who was an interactionist. Bruner
was an instructionist.
Bruner defines cognitive growth as:
(i) The application of those systems to the organization of newly acquired information
(ii) The development of internal systems of representation to deal with information
Bruner suggest that children go through three [3] stages as their way to acquiring the
maturity through processes of the adult. These are:-
Inactive, iconic and symbolic
1. INACTIVE – in which thinking is based upon doing. Inactive stage is a highly
manipulative mode, using neither imagery nor words. It operates through actions and
is apparent in for example motor skills which we learn by doing and would find
difficult to represent internally in terms of language or picture. This is the stage in
which thinking is based upon doing and the individual gains knowledge by acting,
initiating, playing and manipulating, objects etc. This stage is common to young
children and nearly the same as the sensory motor stage. However, adults use this
stage to learn complex psychomotor skill like playing a guitar, choir, drumming etc.
2. ICONIC: This is the stage in which imagery comes increasingly to be used as the
individual uses pictures and images to gain knowledge about foreign countries, lives
of great people, dramatic events etc. This stage is more advanced than the inactive
stage. It is more developed in that it does use imagery, though still does not employ
language. This imagery, which depends upon visual or other sensory organization,
represents a concept without fully defining it.

49 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 3. SYMBOLIC STAGE – in which complex symbolism including language is
employed. Bruner differs markedly with Piaget in his instance that although we
acquire these stage in chronological order, with symbolic coming last, we
nevertheless retain and use all the three throughout life. We do not grow out of the
earlier stages as in Piaget Model. The mature person is capable of using all three
systems, and acquires them one by one in child hood at ages determined both by
environmental opportunities and by motivation. The symbolic stage is the stage in
which complex symbolism including language comes to be employed. The
individual‘s gains knowledge, which increases the efficiency with which knowledge
can be acquired. This is the most advanced stage in cognitive development. It goes
beyond action and imagery and employs representation through language. Such
representation leads to thought and learning of much more abstract and flexible kind,
allowing the individual to engage in reflexive thinking, to consider propositions as
well as concrete examples to arrange concepts in a hierarchical structure.
Bruner postulate that, as development is organized children became increasingly
capable of abstract thought, of applying theories to solve problems. Bruner (1996), lists
the following bench marks of intellectual growth:
1. The ability to build mental models of the world which enable the child to go
beyond the information given, to hypothesize, and to predict events.
2. The ability to act independently of the nature of the immediate remains the same.
3. The ability to express oneself in language, to report own activities, and to bring
order to the environment.
4. The ability to deal with several alternatives simultaneously to meet the complex
demands of the real world.
5. The ability to interact with other people, to learn from other
Bruner says the abilities do not occur at all once; they are developed as children
progress through stages of intellectual growth. Although Bruner agrees with Jean Piaget
that there are distinct stages of cognitive growth, he does not agree that mental
development proceeds in fixed and unalterable sequences.

4.5 LEV VYGOTSKY VIEW OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist whose theories of cognitive development became
influential in North America. Vygotsky‘s work of development is based on two key ideas:-

50 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 (i) Intellectual development can be understood only in terms of the historical and cultural
context children experience.
(ii) Intellectual development depends on sign systems that individual grow up with, the
symbols that culture create to help to think, communicate and solve problems, e.g. a
culture‘s language writing system or counting systems.

4.6 HOW DEVELOPMENT OCCURS

Jean Piaget‘s theory suggest that development precedes learning i.e. specific cognitive structure
need to develop before certain types of learning can take place. While Lev Vygotsky‘s theory
suggests that learning precedes development. For Vygotsky, learning involves the acquisition
of signs by means of instruction and information from others. Development involves the child‘s
internalizing these signs so as to be able to think and solve problems without the help of others.
This ability is called SELF- REGULATION. Self –regulation is the ability to think and solve
problems without the help of others.

STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT SELF –REGULATION AND INDEPENDENT

THINKING.
(i) Learning that actions and sounds have a meaning. E.g. a baby leans that the
process of reaching towards an object is interpreted by other as a signal that the
infant wants the objects. In language acquisition, children learn to associate
certain sounds with meaning.
(ii) The infant practices gesture that will get attention.
(iii) The final step involves using to think and solve problems without the help of
others. At this point, children become self- regulating and the sign system has
become internalized.

A. PRIVATE SPEECH
 It is children‘s self- talk, which guides their thinking and action, eventually internalized
as silent inner speech. Private speech is a mechanism that Vygotsky emphasized for
turning shared knowledge into personal knowledge. He proposed that children
incorporate the speech of other and then use hat speech to help themselves solve
problems.
 Private speech is easy to see in young children, when frequently talk to themselves
especially when faced with different task. Studies have revealed that children who make
51 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 extensive use of private speech learn complex tasks more effectively than do other
children.
B. THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
 The zone of proximal development is a level of development immediately above a
person‘s present level. Vygotsky‘s theory implies that cognitive development and the
ability to use thought to control our own actions require first mastering cultural
communication systems and then learning to use these systems to regulate our own
thought process. The most important contribution of Vygotsky‘s theory is an emphasis
on the socio-cultural nature of learning (Vygotsky‘s, 1978).
 He believes that learning tasks place when children are working within their zone of
proximal development. Tasks within the zone of proximal development are ones that
assistance of more competent peers or adults. The zone of proximal development
describes the task that a child has not yet learnt but capable of learning at a given time.
Educators refer to a ―teachable moment‖ when a child or groups of children is exactly at
the point of readiness for a given concept. Vygotsky believed that higher mental
functioning usually exists in conservation and collaboration among individuals before it
exists within the individual.

C. SCAFFOLDING
 Scaffolding is the support for learning and problem solving, it might include clues,
reminds encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example,
or anything else that allows the students to grow in independence as a learner.
 The Vygotsky‘s notion of social learning is that of scaffolding, which the assistance is
provided by more competent peers or adults. It means providing a child with a great deal
of support during the early stages of learning and then diminishing support and having
the child an increasing responsibility as soon as she or he is able. Parents use scaffolding
when they teach their children to play a new game. A related concept is cognitive
apprenticeship, which describes the entire process of modeling, coaching, scaffolding
and evaluation that is typically seen when one to one instruction takes place.

4.7 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Maturation is an important concept in cognitive development and it implies a biological
basis to intellectual as well as physical development. A child cannot run before he/she can
stand before she/he has reached the right level on intellectual development.
52 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 IMPLICATION FOR THE TEACHER
 It does not help to teach a child something advanced requiring complicated logical
reasoning until the child is maturationally ready for it.
 Children do not think in the same way as adults.
 Their thought process forms different characteristic depending on which age of
development they are in instructions should be geared to each pupil‘s developmental
level.
 Child‘s active experience with objects, events and people is crucial to their cognitive
development. The child must do as well as watch especially in the early years.
 Also important is the exchange of ideas, in order to enhance cognitive development
through discussions and debate on controversial issues should be encouraged.
 Moderate novelty is the best. Cognitive development does not stagnate nor does it come
up against a wall because the ideas are too new or two different.
 Beginning lessons with concrete objects or ideas and gradually shifting explanation to
more abstract and general level is good approach when teaching.
 Pupils should be allowed to approach as an act of discovering – to engage increasingly
in learning with the autonomy of self-reward.
 Any idea or problem or body of knowledge can be presented in a form simple enough so
that any particular can understand it in a recognizable form.
Example: Mealie meal production
Enactive: Today we will got to Jamas Milling to see how Mealie meal is processed
Iconic: Today we will view some slides on the processing of mealie meal from millers.
Symbolic: Today we shall read a chapter from our texture on the production of mealie meal
in Zambia.

4.8 UNIT SUMMARY:

In this unit we have explored the theory of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget.
Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their
motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor
representations of objects. According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects

53 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

that infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects are solid, permanent, and
continue to exist when out of sight. Bruner differs markedly with Piaget in his instance that
although we acquire these stage in chronological order, with symbolic coming last, we
nevertheless retain and use all the three throughout life. While Vygotsky‘s theory suggests that
learning precedes development. For Vygotsky, learning involves the acquisition of signs by
means of instruction and information from others. Development involves the child‘s
internalizing these signs so as to be able to think and solve problems without the help of others.

4.9 ACTIVITY 4.

1. Why was Jean Piaget called an Epistemologist?

2. According to Jean Piaget how does cognitive intellectual occur or take place?
3. With the use of a diagram list six (6) terms of Piaget theory of cognitive development and
say what each terms means
4. What is the third stage of Piaget’s cognitive development?
5. What are the implications for the teacher to study the Jean cognitive development?
6. Define cognitive development according to Jerome Bruner.
7. Mention three bench marks of intellectual growth according to Bruner.
8. Name the three stages suggested by Bruner, that the children go through to acquire
maturity, and discuss in detail the third stage.
9. Differentiate the two key ideas of Vygotsky’s work of development.
10. Define the term self- regulation according to Vygotsky’s theory of development.

54 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT FIVE
5.0 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
From birth up to the age of five, children develop language at a very rapid pace. The stages of
language development are universal among humans. However, the age and the pace at which a
child reaches each milestone of language development vary greatly among children. Thus,
language development in an individual child must be compared with norms rather than with
other individual children. In general girls develop language at a faster rate than boys. More than
any other aspect of development, language development reflects the growth and maturation of
the brain. After the age of five it becomes much more difficult for most children to learn
language. Therefore, this unit aims at introducing to the concept of language development.

5.1 Expected learning outcomes (learning objectives).

By the end of this unit, students should be able to (SSBAT):

1. Define language development

2. Define language and thought
3. Describe the language development according to Noam Chomsky
4. Describe the language development according to the Behaviorist-Skinner
5. Discuss some influences that affect language development
6. Identify the main speech areas of the brain and language acquisition device
7. List some terms that are related to some form of language handicap
8. Analyze the factors that affect language development.

5.2 Language development.

From birth up to the age of five, children develop language at a very rapid pace. The stages of
language development are universal among humans. However, the age and the pace at which a
child reaches each milestone of language development vary greatly among children. Thus,
language development in an individual child must be compared with norms rather than with
other individual children. In general girls develop language at a faster rate than boys. More than
any other aspect of development, language development reflects the growth and maturation of

55 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

the brain. After the age of five it becomes much more difficult for most children to learn
language. Therefore, this unit aims at introducing to the concept of language development.

5.3 Development of language and thought.

Language acquisition is one of the controversial issues in psychology and has drawn attention to
many theorists.
Language is defined as:
1. The system of communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words
in a structured and conventional way.
2. The system of communication used by a particular community or country.

5.3.1 LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN

Within the brain is a motor context where speech areas are located. These speech areas are
located on the left hemisphere of the brain. There are three main speech areas:

(i) MOTOR SPEECH AREA (BROCAS AREA)

This is located on the occipital area of the cortex. This affects reading and writing
and also concerned with the production of sounds. The ability of producing sounds is
adversely affects. There is aphasia i.e the disturbance in the speech or inability to
understand or use language meaningfully.

(ii) AUDITORY SPEECH AREA (WERNICKES AREA)

56 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 This is located into temporal region. This is concerned with comprehension. If this is
damaged one cannot understand although s/he heard spoken words.
(iii) VISUAL SPEECH
It is also located in the occipital region and is also concerned with reading and
writing.

5.4 STAGES OF LANGAUGE DEVELOPMENT.

According to Wood, language acquisition takes place in six consecutive stages:

1. The pre-linguistic stage: [Takes place between in the first year]. This stage is also
called the babbling stage. During the first year of life the child is in a pre-speech stage.
Developmental aspects related to speech would include the development of gestures,
making adequate eye contact, sound repartee between infant and caregiver, cooing,
babbling and crying. Examples of such pre-speech sounds would be dadadada,
mamamama and waaaah.
2. The holo-phrase or one-word sentence: The child usually reaches this phase between
the age of 10 and 13 months. Although the child tends to utter a single word at a time, its
meaning is also supplemented by the context in which it takes place, as well as by
nonverbal cues. An example of such a one-word sentence would be a child leaning over
the edge of his cot and pointing to his bottle while laughing and saying ―botty‖ in a
commanding way. An adult in the situation could well interpret the child‘s holophrase as
meaning, ―Give me my bottle immediately (so that I can throw it over the edge of the cot
again and you can pick it up).‖ Another example would be ―Dada‖, which could mean
―Daddy, please come to me.‖
3. The two-word sentence: By 18 months the child reaches this stage. His or her
―sentences‖ now usually comprise a noun or a verb plus a modifier. This enables the
child to formulate a sentence which may be either declarative, negative, imperative or
interrogative. Examples of such ―sentences‖ are:
―Doggy big‖ (declarative)
―Where ball‖ (interrogative)
―Not egg‖ (negative).
4. Multiple-word sentences: [Takes place between 2 years to 2 and half]. The child
reaches this stage between the age of two and two and a half. Grammatical morphemes
in the form of prefixes or suffices are used when changing meanings or tenses.
57 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 Furthermore, the child can now form sentences with a subject and a predicate. Using the
examples which were listed in the previous stage, the sentences could now be the
following: ―Doggy is big‖, ―Where is ball?‖ and ―That is not egg‖ among others.
5. More complex grammatical structures: [Takes place between 2 to 3 years]. Children
reach this stage roughly between two and half and three years of age. They use more
intricate and complex grammatical structures, elements are added (conjunction),
embedded and permuted within sentences and prepositions are used. Wood gives the
following examples in this regard:
―Read it, my book‖ (conjunction)
―Where is Daddy?‖ (embedding)

6. Adult-like language structures: [Takes place between 5-6 years]. The five to six-
year-old child reaches this developmental level. Complex structural distinctions can now
be made, such as by using the concepts ―ask/tell‖ and ―promise‖ and changing the word
order in the sentence accordingly. Examples are: ―Ask her what time it is.‖ And ―He
promised to help her.‖

5.5 THEORIES EXPLAINING HOW CHILDREN ACQUIRE

LANGUAGE

5.5.1 The Innatist View (Noam Chomsky, 1959).

Chomsky is a leading advocate of the theory that children know the principles of language
before the first word is spoken. Chomsky suggests that children are genetically programmed to
acquire language and have innate language acquisition. Theorists who belong to this school
contend that the speech of adults is too chaotic for children to learn from it. Chomsky, says that
children are born with innate understanding of the structure of language. Every child is born
with a ―Language-Acquisition Device‖ (LAD) already wired. With this understanding, children
can speak sentences which have never been said before and understand sentences they have
never spoken-Neither of which would be possible if all learning depended on imitation and
reinforcement.

SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR INNATIST VIEW.

To substantiate their position, the Innatist theory gives evidences

58 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 1. Lennerbery (1964) showed that language was akin to other genetically determined skills
(e.g. learning to walk) and suggested in a critical period for language ending at puberty.
2. Slobin (1979), reviewed evidence of the brain development which supported the idea of
innate capacity for language not shared by other primates (apes). He suggested that
rather Chomsky‘s LAD, children possessed a process mechanism which they used to
make sense of linguistic data.
3. Donaldson (1978), suggested that children have a general capacity for inference i.e. to
make sense of things.

5.5.2 THE BEHAVIORIST VIEW (B.F SKINNER, 1975).

These believe that language is learned, like anything else, by imitation and reward. Language
pattern develop because certain sounds are reinforced or rewarded wherever they occur e.g
sounds like dada, mama are among the first to be learned because they bring joy to parents.
Your children imitate the speech that they hear and receiving a reward in the form of attention, a
smile from parents, or fulfillment of a request, repeat the response and in the process of
repetition they are learning the language.
Babbling – starting point for coordinating the child to associate particular objects/events with
particular sounds.
Language is a skill fabricated by trial and error.
Language is a skill reinforced by reward
Language is a skill extinguished by non-reward.
Three ways in which repetition of speech responses may be encouraged:
1. Child uses ECHOIC responses-imitate sound-approval in presence of object.
2. Child uses MAND responses-random sound-others attach meaning –Echoic follows
MAND expression.
3. Child uses TACT responses –CONTACT.
Language is a form of behavior and is learned as a function of its consequence. The
environment has a major impact on all learning-included language.

PROBLEMS WITH BEHAVIOURIST VIEW

1. What skinner say/implies is that language is simply the result of general learning capacity
plus a shaping environment. This suggests that there should be large difference in

59 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 language due to wide range of I.Q differences and environmental differences. This is not
the case.
2. Predicts that other primates should be able to learn human-like language. This is not the
case.
3. Research by Brown (1973), and others have indicated that children are reinforced by
parents for meaning of what they say, NOT for correct grammatical form.
4. Children are observed NOT to learn specific sentences but the principles underlying the
ways language is constructed and used.
Young children do not always imitate adult‘s forms of speech. Parents are not very selective
about the things they reward. The child who is screaming in a temper tantrum may get
immediate attention (a major form of reward). The child who quietly requests more bread may
just as likely be impatiently told ―wait a minute‖.

5.6 LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT DEVELOP

INDEPENDENTLY.
Piaget believes that language and thought develop independently and that intelligence evolves
before language begins at all, during the sensory-motor period. Internal thought assumes the
existence of internationalized language, he suggests, but intelligence appears before infants
possess the verbal symbols of language (Piaget, 1967). While verbal ability enhances
intelligence, permitting, greater speed in the thinking process and making possible abstract as
well as concrete thought, cognitive activity takes place without language.
This view point is supported by research (Furth and Youss, 1965) in which deaf children were
found to do well on non-verbal logical tasks as children with normal hearing.
In support of Piaget view, we might also point to the many children who can verbally describe
the rule or principle but not apply it. David (1968), has written that: ―language is deceptive with
respect to thought. Teachers of middle-class children understand more than they actually
comprehend (pg. 77).

5.7 THINKING DEPENDS ON LANGUAGE.

 Despite Piaget‘s preeminence in other areas of cognitive development, he stands pretty
much alone in this position of the relative importance of language and thought.
 The prevailing view is expressed by Jerome Brunner, who argues that language is essential
to thought and that; in fact, the highest form of thought is language. Brunner maintains, as

60 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 we have seen, that thinking processes are present in very young infants, prior to the
development of language. On the other hand, he also insists that the advanced stage of
cognitive development is dependent on language, the stage he also terms as symbolic
representation.
 ―In children between 4 and 12 language comes to play an increasingly powerful role as an
implement of knowing.‖
 Without language, children can refer to concrete objects in actually by pointing and in their
minds by forming images. They cannot easily think of abstractions or of things that are not
immediately present.
 As children mature, they can think of abstractions and use symbolic representation to deal
with information. This is evident in such a situation as a game of twenty questions. Young
children will ask questions that are stabs in the dark, just guesses; if they get a NO to one
question they ask another, totally unrelated. Older children, using language to think
abstractly, ask related questions that test theories in a logical manner, working from the
general to the specific (deduction method).
 As Brunner (1964), puts it, ―language provides a means not only for representing
experience, but also for transforming it. Once the child has succeeded in internalizing
language as a cognitive instrument, it becomes possible for him to represent and
systematically transform the regularities of experience with far greater flexibility and
power than before.‖
 If language determines thought, then perceptions of the world may differ in different
societies using different languages. This is the theory of linguistic determinism or linguistic
relativity. For example, Eskimos who live in a country landscape have many different
words for snow. According to this hypothesis, they perceive snow differently from the way
English do, with their own single all inclusive word. Differences in thinking in short may
come from differences in language.
 We are never resolve this particular chicken-and-egg controversy but we can state that,
whichever comes first, this language is an aid to thought, young children perceive through
imagery but older children (and adults) reason, both out and internally, through language.
 Another hypothesis is by Vygotsky=language=thought start from different origins at birth
and gradually, but only partially, merge in the early years of life.

61 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 5.8 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
As young children are forming their own grasp on language, there are several factors that might
influence development. Children between the ages of two and five are especially vulnerable to
these influences, so it's important for parents and caregivers to be aware of them. These factors
include:
1. Health and physical development: Illness can affect hearing which, in turn, will cause
problems with understanding spoken language or other auditory cues. Hearing problems
can, in turn, effect speech development. Children who are ill also lack enthusiasm to
speak and communicate non-verbally. This can hinder development of language and
communication. In addition to illness, physical development can influence language.
2. Intelligence level: It's been suggested that there's a correlation between intelligence and
early speech. Children who pick up on the language early show an increased level of
cognitive development. They tend to develop early use of proper sentence structure and
strong vocabulary. It should be noted, however, that children who are slow to develop
language skills are not necessarily slow cognitively, as there may be other factors at
play.
3. Gender: Oddly enough, gender has been known to play a role in a child's language
development. Around the age of two, girls tend to start developing language at a faster
rate than boys. They begin to communicate more fluently, and understanding of the
spoken language develops quicker. This is sometimes attributed to children's
relationships or closeness to their parents.
4. Number of siblings: Some doctors and scientists suggest that children who come from
one-child homes tend to have a stronger grasp on the understanding and use of language.
This is because there is no competition for the attention of parents or caregivers, and
adults tend to communicate with single children in a more fluent manner, thereby setting
a better example. Others argue, however, that the opposite is true. More siblings can
mean more opportunities for language use, which can result in quicker and stronger
language development.
5. Motivation: Is the child being forced to learn, or do they want to learn the language?
When a child understands the importance of understanding a language and can see how
it directly applies to their life, they learn faster. We have found that a contextual, theme-
based curriculum can help get students more excited to dive into language learning.
62 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 When they are interested in learning a language and they see meaningful connections to
their lives, they begin to take risks to produce language, which helps them to acquire it
faster.
6. Support at home: Is another language spoken at the child‘s home? What‘s their
exposure level to different languages? We have found that exposure is an important
factor in language comprehension and acquisition. If a child‘s family only speaks one
language, are they able to provide help when the student needs it? It also matters how
much value parents place in learning an additional language. Parents who prioritize
language learning are more likely to push their child to keep trying even when it feels
difficult.
7. Prior linguistic knowledge: Is the language they are learning their first foreign
language? Once a child has studied and acquired a language, their skill at learning
another will increase. Language learners have the ability to translate skills from one
language to another because they‘re able to recognize the rules and patterns of language,
even if the vocabulary is different.
8. Teaching Strategies: How is the language taught? The strategies a language teacher
uses have a big impact on language learning. For example, watching a film in the target
language and writing and performing skits in the target language reach multiple learning
styles. Offering an immersion experience helps students connect the language learning
to their everyday lives, but rote vocabulary memorization and grammar drills create
'meaning-less' language lessons.
9. Student personality: Is the student introverted or extroverted? A student‘s personality
can affect how they learn a second language. More introverted students have been
shown to take longer to acquire a language because they‘re more hesitant to make
mistakes. Extroverted students, on the other hand, are more likely to go out on a limb
and try out their newly learned vocabulary.
10. The Age of the child: How old is a student when they start learning a foreign language?
While students of all ages can learn a foreign language, there is consensus that certain
aspects are affected by the age of the learner. It becomes harder for students to have
native pronunciation from the teen years. Some students also find that it‘s more difficult
to fully acquire a foreign language as they get older, but this isn‘t true of everyone.

63 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 5.9 ADULT STRATEGIES TO HELP CHILDREN ACQUIRE
LANGUAGE:
 Recasting: Rephrasing something child says; allows indicating interest and
elaborating interest.
 Expanding: Restating in linguistically sophisticated from what child says.
 Labeling: Identifying the nature of objects and experiences; original word game.

5.10 UNIT SUMMARY.

In this topic you have learnt that Language is the he system of communication, either spoken or
written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way. Chomsky says that
children are born with innate understanding of the structure of language. You also leant that
every child is born with a ―Language-Acquisition Device‖ (LAD) already wired. With this
understanding, children can speak sentences which have never been said before and understand
sentences they have never spoken-Neither of which would be possible if all learning depended
on imitation and reinforcement. You have leant the various factors that may affect language
development of the child, such as intelligence, home environment, and number of sibling in the
home, teaching strategies among others.

5.11 ACTIVITY 5.

1. What is language development?

2. Describe the language development according to Jean Piaget
3. Discuss the two theories of language development
4. What is language acquisition device?
5. State any four (04) factors that may influence language development.

64 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 REFERENCES
Keagan, G. (1998). Introduction to Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Company.

Kudu C.L. and Tutoo D. N, (1998). Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Sterling
Publisher.
Lahey, B. (2008). Psychology: An introduction. New York: McGraw Hill Company.

Mangal S.K (1998). General Psychology. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd.

Mangal S.K (1995). An introduction to psychology. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers

Pvt Ltd.
Santrock, J.W. (2009). Educational psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Company.

Slavin, R.E. (2009). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. New Jersey:
Pearson international Edition.

65 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 WELCOME TO
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

TERM II

66 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT ONE.................................................................. 69
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ...........................................................69
1.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). ...........................................69
1.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS .....................................................................................................69
1.2.1 DEFINATION OF DEVELOPMENT. ..................................................................................69
1.2.2 DEFINATION OF PERSONALITY. .....................................................................................70
1.3 THE FOUR DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT............................................................70
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY. ................................................................................71
1.5 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PERSONALITY. ....................................................................71
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONALITY ....................................................................................72
1.6 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY ....................................................................................73
1.7 APPLYING PERSONALITY THEORIES IN A CLASSROOM PRACTICE (PERSONALITY TESTS AND
TESTING). ..........................................................................................................................................74
1.8 UNIT SUMMMARY: ...........................................................................................................74
1.9 ACTIVITY ONE. ...................................................................................................................75

UNIT TWO ................................................................. 76

2.0 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................76
2.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). ...........................................76
2.2 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT. ..........................................................................................76
2.3 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT ...........................................................................................77
2.3.1 HANS JUNG EYSENCK'S PEN MODEL OF PERSONALITY.................................................77
2.3.2 SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. ......80
2.3.3 SIGMUD FREUD: THE PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. .....83
2.3.4 ERICK ERICKSON: PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. ............85
2.4 DIANA BAUMRIND’S THEORY OF PARENTING STYLES ........................................................88
2.4.1 What is Parenting? ........................................................................................................88
2.5 URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT. .........................91
2.6 THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT. .............................................................................94
2.6.1 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT. ......................................95
2.8 UNIT SUMMARY: ...............................................................................................................98
2.9 ACTIVITY TWO ...................................................................................................................99

UNIT THREE ........................................................... 100

3.0 THEORIES OF LEARNING..................................................................................................100
67 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 3.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). .........................................100
3.2 Definition of terms ..........................................................................................................100
3.3 The Concept of Learning .................................................................................................101
3.4 TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH LEARNING ............................................................................101
3.5 Theories of learning ........................................................................................................102
3.5.1 Behavioral Learning Theories......................................................................................102
3.5.1 Social Learning theory (Modelling). ............................................................................110
3.5.2 Cognitive learning. ......................................................................................................111
3.6 Factors that influence learning .......................................................................................115
3.7 UNIT SUMMARY: .............................................................................................................116
3.8 ACTIVITY THREE...............................................................................................................117

UNIT FOUR ............................................................. 118

4.0 MEMORY AND FORGETFULLNESS ...................................................................................118
4.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). .........................................118
4.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS ....................................................................................................118
4.3 THE PROCESS OF MEMORY .............................................................................................119
4.4 LEARNING AND MEMORY ...............................................................................................119
4.5 THE THREE TYPES OF MEMORY ......................................................................................120
4.6 Factors that facilitate memory........................................................................................120
4.7 Factors that determine memory .....................................................................................122
4.8 THE CONCEPT OF FORGETTING ......................................................................................122
4.9 Causes of forgetting ........................................................................................................123
4.10 UNIT SUMMARY. .............................................................................................................124
4.11 ACTIVITY FOUR ................................................................................................................124

REFERENCES ......................................................... 126

68 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
In this unit you will be introduced to the concepts of personality development. Developmental
psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their
life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include
adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists
aim to explain how thinking, feeling and behavior change throughout life. This field examines
change across three major dimensions: physical development, cognitive development, and
socio-emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics
including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social
change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.

1.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).
By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 State the three domains of development

 Explain how imitation, admiration and culture each influence the development of
personality
 List three major factors which influence personality development
 Discuss how personality theory is applied in the classroom
 Define personality and social development

1.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS

1.2.1 DEFINATION OF DEVELOPMENT.

The term development refers to how people grow, adopt and change over the course of their
lifetime through physical development, personality development, social development, emotional
development and cognitive development (thinking and language development). The
understanding of development in psychology of education assists teachers to know various
processes that determine both the physical and psychological makeup of children.
69 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several processes
which include the biological, cognitive and social as well as emotional development.

1.2.2 DEFINATION OF PERSONALITY.

 Personality has been defined differently for instance, Pervin (1997), defines personality
as those characteristics of a person that account for consistent patterns of feeling,
thinking and behaving. Personality means ―the total quality of an individual‘s behavior‖,
or is a person‘s broad long lasting patterns of behavior. (Personality consists of broad
and long lasting pattern of behavior).

 Carso (et al) (2004), defines personality as particular patterns of behavior and thinking
that prevails across time and situations and differentiate one person to the other.

 Personality development is the relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors that distinguish individuals from one another. The dominant view in the field
of personality psychology today holds that personality emerges early and continues to
change in meaningful ways throughout the lifespan. Adult personality traits are believed
to have a basis in infant temperament, meaning that individual differences in disposition
and behavior appear early in life, possibly even before language or conscious self-
representation develop.

1.3 THE FOUR DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

1. Biological or Physical development: It refers to genetic make-up, ethnicity, race,
gender, nutrition and diet, exercise, sleep patterns, use of tobacco, alcohol or other drugs,
stress and stressful life events, environmental toxins and socioeconomic status
Produce change in the child‘s body that is the height and weight, motor skills and
puberty and it is also responsible for brain development.
2. Cognitive development: Cognitive development refers to the ability to learn and
understand from experience, acquire and retain knowledge, respond to new situations
and solve problems. This involves changes in the child‘s thinking, intelligence and
language. Cognitive development processes enable a growing child to memorize a poem,
image how to solve a math‘s problem, come up with a creative strategy or speak
meaningful sentences.
3. Socio-emotional: Process involves change in the child‘s relationship with other people
changes in emotion and changes in personality. It involves peer influence, popularity,

70 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 community and societal context.
4. Moral Development: Moral development refers to knowing right from wrong.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY.

 Every personality is the product of heredity and environment.
 Every personality is the product of the process of learning and acquisition of
experience
 Every person‘s personality has one distinguishing feature that is aiming to an end-
towards, some specific goals.
 Personality is something unique and specific. Every one of us has specific
characteristics for making adjustments.

1.5 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PERSONALITY.

(i) Physical Factors: You may be a short person, you may be a tall person, and like that
each people have different physical appearances. Physique of a person affects his
personality. That is biological makeup or body type of a person is a factor that
determine personality of that person. Therefore, physical appearances determine our
personality to some extent, for example a bodily defect may alter the whole
personality. Ugly people and beautiful behave different. So pupil‘s appearance can
also determine his/her personality. In addition brain disorder may cause remarkable
changes in personality

(ii) Heredity: Heredity is something that passes from generation to generation. You may
possess some skills your father or your mother have. It is transferred to you as an
inborn character from your parents. Traits, skills that is passed to you from your
parents in the form of genetic transfer can determine your personality.
(iii) Biological factors: Difference in biological factors like gender, hormone level,
functioning of endocrine glands like thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary gland, adrenal
gland, gonads etc. will affect personality of a person. This determines how an
individual behaves in certain situations. These biological factors enable a person to
mold the social environment according to his requirements.
(iv) Nervous System: Central nervous system which includes brain and the spinal cord
has a fundamental and important role in determining behavior of a person. The brain
and the spinal cord play an important role in a person‘s reaction and adjustments to a

71 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 situation. Thus, growth and functioning of nervous system affects personality of a
person.
(v) Intelligence: Persons with different intelligence behaves or adjust differently in
social environments surrounding them. They are different in dealing with society,
have different habits, etc. Thus, it is considered as a factor that determine personality
of a person.
(vi) Social factors: Social factors or environmental factors are those factors which
surrounds a person. This is the process in which individuals are taught to develop
actual behavior, which is desired and acceptable to both the individual and the
group. In most cases, social goes together with moderation. An individual is born and
nurtured in society. He acts in response to environmental stimuli (demands). Social
rules, prohibitions or taboos regulate the individual‘s customs, manners and conduct.
Personality is the product of the individuals nurture (smoking is normal).

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONALITY

Personality can be classified into three groups, namely introvert, extrovert and
ambivert.
(a) Introverts: An introvert is a person with qualities of a personality type known as
introversion, which means that they feel more comfortable focusing on their inner
thoughts and ideas, rather than what‘s happening externally. They enjoy spending
time with just one or two people, rather than large groups or crowds. Introverts are
people with reserved personalities, who may give the impression of being unfriendly.
They have the opposite characteristics of the extroverts. Introverts retreat when
difficulties arise in order to avoid conflicts.
(b) Extroverts: Extroversion is a personality trait typically characterized by
outgoingness, high energy, and/or talkativeness. In general, the term refers to a state
of being where someone ―recharges,‖ or draws energy, from being with other people;
the opposite, drawing energy from being alone is known as introversion. Extroverts
are people whose interest lie outside themselves, making them sociable and
unreserved. They constantly make new links with other people and things.
(c) Ambiverts: An ambivert is someone who exhibits qualities of both introversion and
extroversion, and can flip into either depending on their mood, context, and goals.
Ambiverts have also been called: Outgoing introverts: An introvert who can be
outgoing in certain situations, around certain people, or when they absolutely need
72 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 to. Having or showing both characteristics of the introvert and extrovert personality.

1.6 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY

Personality tests provide measures of such characteristics as feelings and emotional states,
preoccupations, motivations, attitudes, and approaches to interpersonal relations. There is a
diversity of approaches to personality assessment, and controversy surrounds many aspects of
the widely used methods and techniques. These include such assessments as the interview,
rating scales, self-reports, personality inventories, projective techniques, and behavioral
observation.
(i) Observation: The observation method involves human or mechanical observation of
what people actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption
situation. ―Information is collected by observing process at work.‖
(ii) Interview: In an interview the individual under assessment must be given considerable
latitude in ―telling his story.‖ Interviews have both verbal and nonverbal (e.g., gestural)
components. The aim of the interview is to gather information, and the adequacy of the
data gathered depends in large part on the questions asked by the interviewer. In an
employment interview for example, the focus of the interviewer is generally on the job
candidate‘s work experiences, general and specific attitudes, and occupational goals. In a
diagnostic medical or psychiatric interview considerable attention would be paid to the
patient‘s physical health and to any symptoms of behavioral disorder that may have
occurred over the years.
(iii) Rating scale: The rating scale is one of the oldest and most versatile of assessment
techniques. Rating scales present users with an item and ask them to select from a
number of choices. The rating scale is similar in some respects to a multiple choice test,
but its options represent degrees of a particular characteristic. Rating scales are used by
observers and also by individuals for self-reporting. They permit convenient
characterization of other people and their behavior.
(iv) Self-reports: Self-report personality tests are used in clinical settings in making
diagnoses, in deciding whether treatment is required, and in planning the treatment to
be used. A second major use is as an aid in selecting employees, and a third is in
psychological research. An example of the latter case would be where scores on a
measure of test anxiety that is, the feeling of tenseness and worry that people
experience before an exam might be used to divide people into groups according to how
upset they get while taking exams.
73 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
(v) Experimental tests: The experimental method involves the manipulation of variables to
establish cause and effect relationships. The key features are controlled methods and the
random allocation of participants into controlled and experimental groups. An
experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested.
(vi) Word association tests: The list of projective approaches to personality assessment is
long, one of the most venerable being the so-called word-association test. Jung used
associations to groups of related words as a basis for inferring personality traits (e.g.,
the inferiority ―complex‖). Administering a word-association test is relatively
uncomplicated; a list of words is presented one at a time to the subject who is asked to
respond with the first word or idea that comes to mind.
(vii) Situation Judgment Tests (SJT): and Situational judgment tests present applicants
with a description of a work problem or critical situation related to the job they are
applying for and ask them to identify how they would handle it.
(viii) Questionnaire tests: Questionnaires are a written self-report technique where
participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to. They can be
administered in person, by post, online, over the telephone, or to a group of
participants simultaneously.

1.7 APPLYING PERSONALITY THEORIES IN A

CLASSROOM PRACTICE (PERSONALITY TESTS AND
TESTING).
 The interest in personality can be both educational and vocational for teacher, for
example.
 Psychological personality tests by teachers can help the teacher in providing
competent guidance in growth of personality and evaluation of pupils in proper and
balanced way.
 Tests on personality are used by educationists and psychologists to gather information
or data on pupils (learners). The knowledge of personality of the pupils is an index of
efficiency on what teachers can do for pupils.
 Knowledge of pupil‘s personality by teachers help teachers to identify retarded and
gifted children in the class.

1.8 UNIT SUMMMARY:

74 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
In this unit we have introduced you to the concept of human development. We have defined
personality development as the process of how people grow, adopt and change over the course
of their lifetime through physical development, personality development, social development,
emotional development and cognitive development. We have also seen that the pattern of child
development is complex because it is the product of several processes which include the
biological, cognitive and social as well as emotional development. We further on looked at
personality development and the factors that affect it.

1.9 ACTIVITY ONE.

1. Define the term personality.

2. Why is the pattern of development complex?
3. Explain any three factors that may affect personality of an individual.
4. What is the difference between introvert and extrovert personality
5. How does imitation influence upon personality development
6. Mention and explain the three [03] domains of development

75 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT TWO
2.0 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
In unit ONE of this term we began by introducing you to the concepts of human development
and personality development in general. In this unit we want you to learn some of the theories
associated with personality development. Theories of development provide a framework for
thinking about human growth, development, and learning. But why do we study development?
What can we learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever wondered
about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide
useful insight into individuals and society. We will begin by looking at Sigmund Freud‘s
psychosexual theory of personality development.

2.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

 Define Psychoanalysis
 Name the three structures of human personality and explain in details their principles.
 Identify the five main Freud’s psych sexual phases of development.
 Explain what is involved in the latency phase of personality development (6 -12 years).
 Describe the genital phase of development (13 -19 years) according to Freud’s sexual
phase of development.
 Identify the eight different stages that one passes through in personality development
according to Erickson psychosocial theory.

2.2 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT.

i. Biological or physical development produce change in the child‘s body that is
height and weight, motor skills and puberty and it is also responsible for brain
development.
ii. Cognitive development – involves the changes in the child‘s thinking, intelligence
and language, cognitive development processes enable a growing child to memorize
a poem, image, how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy or
76 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 speak meaningful sentences.
iii. Social – emotional process involves changes in the child‘s relationship with other
people, changes in emotion and changes in personality.

2.3 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

In this module, there are four units which cover the following;

 Social Development (Hans Jung Eysenck's Pen Model, Sigmund Freud‘s

Psychosexual theory, Erick Erickson‘s Psychosocial and Albert Bandura`s social
learning theory).
 Moral Development: Teaching values and attitude (Jean Piaget and Lawrence
Kohlberg‘s theories of moral development.
 Parenting styles and ecological theories of development by (Bronfenbrenner).
 Educational implications of Theories of Development.

2.3.1 HANS JUNG EYSENCK'S PEN MODEL OF PERSONALITY

Using factor analysis to design his theory, Hans Eysenck identified three personality factors:
psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism (PEN). His personality theory is based on
biological factors, arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their
ability to learn and adapt to the environment. Each of Eysenck‘s factors is a bipolar dimension,
which means that each has an opposite.

1. Extraversion vs. Introversion

2. Neuroticism vs. Emotional stability

3. Psychoticism vs. Normality (added to the model in 1976)

Eysenck believed that biological factors, including cortical arousal and hormonal levels, along
with environmental factors such as learned behavior, influence a person‘s score on these
personality dimensions.

It should be noted that Eysenck really changed the term ―psychoticism‖. When used in his
model, it refers to certain antisocial behaviors, not mental illness. Before developing the PEN
model, Eysenck sought to measure personality in two dimensions: extraversion-introversion and
neuroticism-emotional stability.

1. Extraversion-Introversion
77 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
People with high levels of extraversion participate more in social activities. They tend to be
more communicative and feel more comfortable in a group. In general, extroverts enjoy being
the focus of attention and often accumulate a larger social network of friends and associates.
Extraversion is measured on a continuum, ranging from high (extrovert) to low (introvert).

On the other hand, introverts tend to be quieter, shy away from large social gatherings, and may
feel uncomfortable interacting with strangers. Instead, they keep smaller groups of close friends
and are more likely to enjoy contemplative exercises.

Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung suggested that levels of extraversion-introversion depended on

the focus of an individual‘s psychic energy. In extroverts, he believed that this energy was
directed towards the outside, towards other people, which resulted in more social interactions.
Meanwhile, the psychic energy of introverts is projected inwards, which makes them engage in
less sociable activities (Jung, 1921).

However, Eysenck believed that extraversion was related to levels of brain activity or cortical
excitation. Extraverts experience lower levels of cortical excitation, which makes them seek
excitation from external stimuli. The higher activation levels in introverts make them avoid
stimuli that can lead to a great excitation.

On the other hand, according to the Yerkes-Dodson law, levels of excitement can affect an
individual‘s performance capabilities. The theory states that excitement and performance follow
a bell-shaped curve, and the second decreases during periods of high or low arousal.

2. Neuroticism-Emotional stability

Hans Eysenck also proposed a second dimension: emotional stability or neuroticism. People
with a high neuroticism score tend to experience higher levels of stress and anxiety. They worry
about relatively insignificant issues, exaggerate their meaning, and feel unable to cope with
stressors.

A focus on the negative aspects of a situation rather than the positive aspects can make a person
adopt a disproportionately negative perspective. They may feel envious or jealous of others
who, according to them, are in a better position.

Eysenck characterizes neuroticism by perfectionism and dissatisfaction. On the other hand, a

person with a low neuroticism score will generally experience greater emotional stability. We

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speak of people who, for the most part, feel more capable of coping with stressful events and
setting goals that are suited to their abilities. People with a low neuroticism score tend to be
more tolerant of others‘ failures and remain calmer in demanding situations.

3. Psychoticism-Normality

Psychoticism was a late addition to Hans Eysenck‘s personality theory. It was included in 1976.
This third personality dimension ranges from normality (low psychoticism) to high
psychoticism. People with higher psychoticism are more likely to participate in irresponsible or
poorly calculated behavior. These people can also contravene accepted social norms and be
motivated by a need for immediate gratification, regardless of its consequences.

However, psychoticism also has more positive associations. In a 1993 study, Eysenck compared
the participation scores of the Barron-Welsh Art Scale and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
and found that people with high psychoticism scores tended to have more advanced creative
skills.

Eysenck suggested that psychoticism was influenced by biological factors and correlated with
levels of hormones such as testosterone. According to the PEN model, high levels of
psychoticism reduce a person‘s ability to respond to conditioning, which means that it would be
harder to adapt to the social norms that we usually learn through reward and punishment.

As a result, the theory suggests that people may be more prone to criminal behavior as they seek
to satisfy their own interests while violating the rules of behavior accepted by others. The
association of personality traits, such as psychoticism, with criminal tendencies, along with
Eysenck‘s emphasis on genetics that affects these traits, has resulted in criticism of his theory
for adopting a deterministic view of behavior.

Criticisms of Eysenck’s theory

Researchers can use twin studies to see if personality is genetic. However, the findings are
contradictory and inconclusive. Shields (1976) found that monozygotic (identical) twins were
significantly more similar in the introverted-extroverted and psychotic dimensions than
dizygotic (nonidentical) twins. Loehlin, Willerman, and Horn (1988) found that only 50% of the
variations in personality dimensions scores are due to inherited traits. This suggests that social
factors are also important.

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One virtue of Eysenck‘s theory is that it considers both nature and education as influencing
factors. He argues that biological predispositions towards certain personality traits, combined
with conditioning and socialization during childhood, condition our personality.

2.3.2 SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT.
Freud was Swiss psychologist who development developed the psychoanalytic theory of
psychosexual development. Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis who created on entirely new approach to the understanding of the human
personality. Freud is commonly referred to as the father of psychoanalysis and regarded as one
of the most influential and controversial minds of the 20th Century.

PSYCHOANALYSIS.

This is the name that applies to a specific method of investigating unconscious mental processes
and form of psychotherapy? The term refers as well to the relationship of the conscious and
unconscious mental processes.
THE LEVELS OF PERSONALITY

The levels of personality are made up of the conscious, pre-conscious and the unconscious.
Sigmund Freud compared the Human mind to ice berg. The tip above the water represents
consciousness and the vast region below the conscious mind includes everything that we have
forgotten.
i. The conscious mind: This includes everything that we are aware of our mental
processing that we can think and talk about rationally. It relates to phenomena that we
are aware of at any given moment. The conscious operates merely on the surface of
personality and plays relatively minor role in personality development and functioning.
ii. Pre-conscious mind: This relates to phenomena we can be aware of if we attend to
them. Usually we could access them with little effort.
iii. Unconscious mind: This is the reservoir of feelings thoughts, urge, wishes, fear, ideas
and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness and we have forgotten. Most
of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant such as feeling of pain,
anxiety or conflict.
According to Freud the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience,
even though we are unaware of these underlying influences. Unconscious thoughts
influence on conscious process and most commonly by such anomalous phenomena such

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 as dreams etc. A key point in his theory is that such repressed memories seek expression
in various defensive, disguised and distorted ways. Unconscious ideas, memories and
experiences may continually interfere with conscious and rational behavior.
STRUCTURE OF HUMAN PERSONALITY

Sigmund Freud discovered that the conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious was limited in its
ability to explain the structure of human personality. In the 1920‘s he introduced the structure
model in which he divided human personality or mind into three significant components:- ID-
(the pleasure principle), EGO-(The reality principle) and Superego-(The morality
principle).

a) THE ID (birth to 2 years): Acts according to the pleasure principle, demanding immediate
gratification of its needs regardless of the external environment. The ID is the source of
Libido and the only structure present at birth. It is selfish part of personality desires. The id
is totally unconscious. The ID is the reservoir of biological urges, wishes and effective
motives. The id in most cases is behind people‘s temptation, infant nation, envy, jealously
and competitive behavior. In addition it is the ID that brings about impulse buying and
loves at first sight. The ID is an important part of our personality because as new born it
allows us to get our basic needs met. The Id wants whatever feels good at the time with no
consideration for the reality of the situation. When a child is hungry the ID wants food the
child cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants
attention the Id speaks up until his or her needs are met. The ID does not care about reality
about the needs of anyone else, only its own satisfaction. If you think about it babies are not
real considerate of their parent‘s wishes. They have no care for time, whether their parents

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 are sleeping, relaxing, eating dinner or baking. When Id wants something nothing else is
important.
b) The Ego. (From 3 years to about 5 years): Within the next three years, as the child
interacts more and more with the World, the second part of personality begins to develop.
Freud calls this part, the EGO. The ego is based on the reality principle conscious,
awareness resides in the Ego, and its task is to find a balance between primitive drives and
reality while satisfying the Id and superego. Ego‘s main concern is with individual‘s safety
and allows some of Id‘s desires to be expressed, but only when consequences of these
actions are marginal. In real life situation is it the Ego that makes most people accept the
situation. According to Freud the ego should be strong so that it can satisfy the needs of id
whilst not upsetting the superego and still take into consideration the reality of every
situation. But if the Id gets too strong, impulses and self-gratification takes over the
person‘s life. If the superego becomes too strong the person would be driven by rigid
morals, customs and traditions.
c) The Superego (5 and above): By the ages of five superego develops, superego is the moral
part of the mind which is responsible for some social control and pays much emphasis to
the standard of the society, stresses emphasis to the act which should be to the standard of
the society. Suppose, you thought of stealing the desired food from someone else. The part
of personality that would stop you from stealing is called superego. It is the part of the mind
which appreciates where perfection is a goal rather than the pleasure. It distinguishes the
wrong from the right.
The Ego (reality principle) acts an adjuster between the real requirements of the ID and
the censure of the superego. To bring about a resolution of demands of Id and constraints
of the superego, the ego resorts to defense mechanism.
Freud saw, Ego as part of personality that satisfies the demands of the Id without
offending the superego. Thus if the Id is not satisfied, the person feels an intolerable
tension, anger or desire. If superego is not obeyed, the person feels guilty and inferior.
And if outside reality is ignored, the person suffers much outcomes as striation dislike by
others. However, the superego can also create conflicts and problems. It is sometimes
overly harsh, like a very strict parent. The superego can also be a source of guilt-feelings
which come from mild as well as serious deviations from what is defines as ‗Right‘.
Sigmund Freud‘s psychosexual theory of personality development is based on the
pleasure principle. If physical pleasure or love is denied in the early phases of life, the

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 individual‘s social and personality development suffers in later years.

2.3.3 SIGMUD FREUD: THE PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT.
Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development. Freud used
the word sex to mean any pleasurable physical sensation such as hugging, suckling, cuddling,
etc. This theory is based on the pleasure principle.
WHAT IS PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT?

Proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the theory of psychosexual development
describes how personality develops during childhood. While the theory is well-known in
psychology, it is also one of the most controversial theories. Freud believed that personality
develops through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the ID
become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described
as the driving force behind behavior. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development
and continue to influence behavior later in life. The following are the five stages or phases of
Freud‘s psychosexual development.

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT.

i. Oral Phase: From 0 -2 Years. During this phase, the erogenous zone is in the mouth.
The individual‘s pleasure is derived from putting things in the mouth and sucking. If
pleasure is satisfied, the child will develop normal social behavior. But if the pleasure is
denied, the child personality will be affected later in life. The individual child may
develop some of the following characteristics:-
 Eating and drinking beer too much
 Smocking too much
 Finger biting
 Sarcastic and use of abusive language
 Highly self-centered and self-controlled
 Chewing bubble gums
ii. Anal Phase: From 2 -3 Years: At this phase, the erogenous is very much concerned in
the anus. The infant finds pleasure in passing urine and feaces. If the infant is
encouraged with this pleasure, the child will develop normal social behavior.
However, if the pleasure is denied through condemnation, scolding and punishment,
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 the child may develop some of the following social and personality behavior later in
life:
 Stingy and hostile
 Rigid adult
 Obstinate/stubborn to change one ‗s opinion
 Hoarding tendency and Compulsive cleanliness
iii. Phallic Phase (4-5 Years): During this phase, the erogenous zone is in the sex organs.
The child becomes curious about sex and sex differences and the origin of birth. The
child experiences the Electra (girl child) and they boy child experiences Oedipus
complexes. Electra complex is when the girl child has a crash on her father while
Oedipus complex is when the boy child has a crash on his mother. In play they
interchange but each child finds pleasure in manipulating his/her genital organs and
also find pleasure in masturbation.
If the child is encouraged and finds the truth about himself or herself, he/she will
make health sexual adjustment in later life, but if punished or ridiculed he/she may
find it difficult to develop normal sexual behaviour and may in later life turn out to:
 Homosexual – Lesbian or gay
 Fetishism and voyeurism
 Castration anxiety
 Impotence
 Frigidity
iv. Latent Phase (6 – 12 Years): During this phase, the sex energy called the ―Libido‖ is
dormant. Both sexes forget their earlier conflicts. The child‘s life is characterized by
the development of the reality principle. In this age group the children will mostly be
doing their primary education. They will most times be busy with members of their
own sex and learn skills and sex roles.
During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the
ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time
that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which the
sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual
pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social
and communication skills and self-confidence.

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 v. Genital Phase (13 -Later Years): This is the phase of puberty and adolescence. The
individual is concerned about his/her physical changes. In girls there is the
enlargement of breasts, hips and menstruation and in boys there is development of
spermatozoa. The deepest feelings of pleasure come from heterosexual relationships.
If not well handled or counseled she/he may develop deviant personality and become
maladjusted. It is a period of ―storm and stress‖ as the individuals do not know what
is happening to them physically.

EVALUATING FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE THEORY.

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female
psychosexual development. His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the
libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been
conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory. Future predictions are too vague. How can we know
that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time
between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the
two variables. Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud
based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of
children.

2.3.4 ERICK ERICKSON: PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT.
While Sigmund puts more emphasis on the dynamics of personality development, Erickson puts
more emphasis on the dichotomies of personality development. According to Erick Erickson
different ages are characterized by crashes between desired traits and undesired traits. Sigmud
Freud has five (5) stages which he calls phases of personality development, while Erick
Erickson has eight (8) different stages that one posse through in personality development.

WHAT IS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT?

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of

personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality
develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory
describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. One of the main elements of
Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the
conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our

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ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our
daily interactions with others.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates
behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in
an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person
will emerge with a sense of inadequacy. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a
conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are
centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During
these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

ERICK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT

1) Trust Versus Mistrust (0-1 Year): During this stage the baby depends on the mother to
provide all basic needs like food, shelter, water, love, security and social contact. If these
needs met, the individual will establish constructive relationships with others in a
meaningful way later in life. However, if these needs are not met, the individuals will
grow up to be fearful and suspicious of people.
2) Autonomy Versus Shame/Doubt (2-3 Years): During this stage the child begins to
walk, run, climb and explore his environment. At this time the child wants to be
autonomous, he/she will be able to deal with situations in the environment effectively.
But if scolded and punished through beatings and strong words, he/she will develops
shame and doubt. He/she may also have feelings of inadequacy.
3) Initiative Versus Guilt (4 -5 Years): During this stage the child tries out things by
playing with his/her genitals and experiment on his /her body. If parents are co-
operative, patient and show encouragement for the child to use initiative the child will
develop:
a. Self confidence
b. Into an independent thinker
c. Feeling of discovering things
But if the child ridiculed, or punished or over-protected he/she may develop a
personality of
(a) Use of defensive mechanisms.
(b) Guilt feeling
86 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 (c) Over- correcting him/herself
(d) Projection, rationalize and regression
4) Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 Years): This is the period when the child becomes
industrious by imitating parents doing practical work like housekeeping for girls,
gardening and hunting for boys, they both like games, etc. If the child is encouraged and
praised s/he will develop a personality of hard work. But if discouraged and punished,
the individual feels inferior, develop feeling of inadequacy and may fail to make it up in
later life.
5) Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-20 Years) Adolescence: During this period,
the child is pre occupied with his/her future role in adult society. Roles like finding a job,
a life partner, to have children etc s/he fells as an adult and should be treated as such. If
she/he is well treated she/he may identify his/herself as an adult and behave like one. But
if he is treated like a child but expected to behave like an adult, he gets confused, and
may resent adult authority and may become a juvenile delinquent. This may make
him/her maladjusted (Gonena/sex worker).
6) Intimacy versus Isolation Young Adult 21 -40 Years): During this stage, the
individual wants to be associated with others in competitive, combative and intimate
relationships. If there are no barriers created by him/her or others s/he develops intimacy
with others. If there are barriers, s/he is likely to feel isolated and like a lonely life. This
will be a period of isolation for him/her.
7) Generality versus Self –Absorption (Middle Age 40-60): In this stage the individual
wants to guide the young so that they can have a better life than him i.e. producing a
better world. If s/he succeeds, s/he feels proud of his/her results and becomes generous.
But if s/he lacks maturity to guide them, s/he may become self-centred (absorption) and
have things as they are.
8) Integrity Versus Despair (Old Age 60 Years and above): During this stage, the
individual accepts old age and death becomes a reality and is prepared for it. If s/he
looks back with success and satisfaction s/he becomes happy and fees good with
integrity. But if s/he looks back with dissatisfaction, she/he becoming unhappy and
reduces him/herself to infantile behavior, as time for him/her to start a new life is too
short. S/he lives in despair.
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological.

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 PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS
According to Erickson, the set of critical issues that individuals must address as they
pass through each of the eight life stages.

2.4 DIANA BAUMRIND ’S THEORY OF PARENTING STYLES

The first three parenting styles (parenting style theory) were identified by Diana
Baumrind, a developmental psychologist at the University of California, Berkeley, in her
1967 study, ―Child Care Practices Anteceding Three Patterns of Preschool Behavior.‖
Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin at Stanford University in 1983 added the fourth
parenting style, uninvolved or neglectful. Maccoby and Martin also identified a
conceptual structure combining different levels of demandingness and responsiveness to
distinguish the 4 parenting styles in their 1983 book chapter ―Socialization in the Context
of the Family: Parent-Child Interaction‖ inside ―Handbook of Child Psychology:
Socialization, Personality and Social Development‖ (4th edition), edited by P.H. Mussen.

2.4.1 What is Parenting?

Parenting is the process of raising and nurturing children from infancy to adulthood. Parenting
involves providing emotional, social, and physical support to ensure a child‘s well-being and
development. Parenting activities include teaching, disciplining, and caring for children.
Parenting styles are the practices, behaviors, and attitudes parents use when interacting
with children. Parenting styles define the global climate in the home and influence
children‘s development. Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved are
the four types of parenting styles often used in psychology studies. A parent‘s child-
rearing style affects how they discipline, communicate, make decisions, and socialize
children. The following are the types of parenting styles.

1. Authoritative Parenting

 Authoritative parenting involves high levels of control or demandingness, warmth, or

responsiveness. Authoritative parents have high expectations of their children‘s maturity, set
clear boundaries, and explain the reasons behind family rules. Authoritative parents use
positive discipline to teach values and independence rather than punish. Authoritative
parents are warm, nurturing, and supportive. Parents encourage open communication, listen
to children‘s perspectives, offer praise, and promote prosocial behavior.

 Psychologists consider authoritative parenting the most effective parenting style. The
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 biggest advantage of authoritative parenting is that children have the best outcomes,
including adjustment, performance, and mental health. The biggest disadvantage is that
significant time and energy are needed for parents to be consistently responsive, set clear
expectations, and engage in open communication.

 The effects of authoritative parenting on children include better self-esteem, emotional

regulation, academic success, social competence, and problem-solving.

2. Authoritarian Parenting

 Authoritarian parenting uses high levels of control or demandingness. Authoritarian

parenting involves low levels of warmth or responsiveness. Authoritarian parents have high
expectations of conformity. They are highly controlling and intolerant of misbehavior.
Authoritarian parents expect children to comply with strict rules without questions. Parents
ignore children‘s feedback and rely on ―because I said so‖ to substantiate rules.
Authoritarian parents use harsh punishment to discipline when children do not meet the
―absolute standard‖ of conduct set by the ―authority figure.‖ Authoritarian parents are cold
and insensitive, not nurturing and unsupportive. Authoritarian parents tend to show little
affection to their children and often equate children‘s fear of punishment with respect.

 The biggest advantage of the authoritarian parenting style is that parents often achieve
immediate behavioral control in their presence, creating the illusion that their children are
always well-behaved. The biggest disadvantage of the authoritarian parenting style is that
children often suffer mentally. Children with authoritarian parents tend to have lower self-
esteem and life satisfaction and grow up with inferior outcomes.

 The effects of authoritarian parenting on children include low self-esteem, emotional

regulation difficulty, behavioral issues, academic failure, and mental health issues.

 Baumrind believed that verbal hostility and psychological control were among the most
damaging aspects of authoritarian behaviors, leading to incompetence and maladjustment in
adolescents, as detailed in her 2010 study, ―Effects of Preschool Parents‘ Power Assertive
Patterns and Practices on Adolescent Development,‖ published in Science and Practice.

3. Permissive Parenting

 Permissive parenting (indulgent parenting) involves low levels of control or demandingness

89 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 and high levels of warmth or responsiveness. Permissive parents have minimal expectations
of children‘s behavior and set few rules. Permissive parents are reluctant to punish when
boundaries are crossed. Indulgent parents are warm, open, and nurturing. Indulgent parents
promote open communication and children are free to explore and express opinions.

 The biggest advantage of the permissive parenting style is that children have high self-
confidence, according to a 1991 study, ―Patterns of competence and adjustment among
adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families,‖ published
in Child Development. The biggest disadvantage of permissive parenting is that children
have lower self-control and are more prone to drug abuse.

 The effects of permissive parenting on children include impulsivity, lack of self-discipline,

poor decision-making, academic underachievement, and entitlement.

 Baumrind‘s research shows that permissive parents are low on behavioral control and
household management, two kinds of demanding practices expected to have beneficial
effects on children. Baumrind believes that unconstrained freedom of choice results in
indeterminacy and groundlessness rather than empowerment and self-sufficiency.
Adolescents from permissive families had significantly lower cognitive competence than
those from either authoritative or democratic families, according to Baumrind‘s 2010 study,
―Effects of Preschool Parents‘ Power Assertive Patterns and Practices on Adolescent
Development,‖ published in Parenting: Science and Practice.

4. Uninvolved Parenting

 Uninvolved parenting (neglectful parenting) involves low levels of control or

demandingness and low levels of warmth or responsiveness. Uninvolved parents are
minimally involved in their children‘s lives. Parents rarely communicate with children and
provide little physical or emotional needs, guidance, or discipline. Children are expected to
raise themselves. Uninvolved parents are neglectful, cold, and uncaring and do not respond
to their children‘s needs.

 The biggest advantage of uninvolved parenting is that it requires little effort and allows
parents to focus on their needs. The biggest disadvantage of uninvolved parenting is that
children have the worst outcomes in self-regulation, achievement, and psychological well-
being.

90 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  The effects of uninvolved parenting on children include low self-esteem, emotional
detachment, difficulty with emotional regulation, poor social skills, and mental health
disorders.

 Baumrind believes that uninvolved parents are disengaged parents who are not committed.
Baumrind expects children from uninvolved families to have the worst outcomes and
lowest competence among the four parenting types.

2.5 URIE BRONFENBRENNER‘S ECOLOGICAL THEORIES

OF DEVELOPMENT.
 American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner was critical of previous theories of child
development. He argued that studies of children in unfamiliar laboratory environments
with one other person, usually a stranger, were ecologically invalid. Bronfenbrenner
(1974) claimed most earlier studies were ‗unidirectional‘, meaning that the laboratory
studies observed the influence of A on B (e.g. a stranger/mother with a child), rather than
looking at the possible influence of the child on the stranger/mother, or any other third
party‘s influence. Bronfenbrenner maintained that these laboratory features of
research are not characteristic of environments that children actually live and develop in.
Bronfenbrenner recognized there are multiple aspects of a developing child‘s life that
interacts with and affects the child. His work looked beyond individual development,
taking into account wider influencing factors and the context (or ecology) of
development.
THE FIVE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO BRONFENBRENNER

Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the environment of the child is a nested arrangement of
structures, each contained within the next. He organized them in order of how much of an
impact they have on a child. He named these structures the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. Because the five systems are interrelated, the
influence of one system on a child‘s development depends on its relationship with the others.
The diagram below shows the five ecological systems.

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 1. The Microsystem layer:

The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner‘s theory, and are the things that have direct
contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and
school peers. Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be
influenced by other people in their environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and
actions of other people too. Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their
microsystem can influence how they treat them in return. The interactions within microsystems
are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and supporting the child‘s development. If a
child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect
on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child.

2. The Mesosystem layer.

The second layer is the mesosystem which encompasses the interactions between the child‘s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child‘s parents and teachers, or between
school peers and siblings. The mesosystem is where a person‘s individual microsystems do not
function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another. For
instance, if a child‘s parents communicate with the child‘s teachers, this interaction may
influence the child‘s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.

According to the ecological systems theory, if the child‘s parents and teachers get along and

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have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the child‘s development, compared
to negative effects on development if the teachers and parents do not get along.

3. The Exosystem layer.

The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie

Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which
do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the
microsystems. Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent‘s workplaces, parent‘s
friends and the mass media. These are environments in which the child is not involved, and are
external to their experience, but nonetheless affects them anyway. An instance of exosystems
affecting the child‘s development could be if one of the parents had a dispute with their boss at
work. The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a result of
something which happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative effect on development.

4. The Macrosystem layer.

The macrosystem is the fourth component of Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological systems theory that
focuses on how cultural elements affect a child‘s development, such as socioeconomic status,
wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence
their beliefs and perceptions about events that transpire in life.

The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture which the
child is developing in. This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic
location and ideologies of the culture. For example, a child living in a third world country would
experience a different development than a child living in a wealthier country.

5. The Chronosystem

The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem. This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events.
These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include non-
normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.

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CLASSROOM APPLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

The Ecological Systems Theory has been used to link psychological and educational theory to
early educational curriculums and practice. At the center of the theory is the developing child,
and all that occurs within and between the five ecological systems are done so to benefit the
child in the classroom.

To strengthen the development between the ecological systems in educational practice

according to the theory, teachers and parents should keep good communication with each other
and work together to benefit the child.

Teachers should also understand of the situations their student‘s families may be experiencing,
including social and economic factors that are part of the various systems.

According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good relationship, this should shape the
child‘s development in a positive way.

Likewise, the child must also be active in their learning, engaged both academically and
socially. They must work as a team with their peers and get involved in meaningful learning
experiences to enable positive development (Evans, 2012).

2.6 THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT.

As children develop a sense of self and an identity they also develop morality. Moral
development has important implications in the classroom, e.g. a strong moral sense may
increase the likelihood that students will consider other‘s feelings. Moral development concerns
rules and conventions about just interactions between people. These rules can be studied in three
domains; cognitive, behavioural and emotional.
Moral Development focuses on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality from
infancy through adulthood. Morality develops across a lifetime and is impacted by an
individual‘s experiences and their behaviour when faced with moral issues through different
period‘s physical and cognitive development. In short, morality concerns an individual‘s
growing sense of what is right and wrong; it is for this reason that young children have different
moral judgment and character than that of a grown adult. Morality in itself is often a synonym
for "rightness' or "goodness'. It refers to a certain code of conduct that is derived from ones
culture, religion or personal philosophy that conducts their actions, behaviours and thoughts.

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 2.6.1 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT.
Kohlberg‘s theory stressed that moral development primarily involves moral reasoning and
occurs in stages. Kohlberg arrived at his theory after interviewing children, adolescence and
adults (primarily males) about their views on a series of moral dilemmas.
Kohlberg‘s stage theory of moral reasoning is an elaboration and refinement of Piaget‘s. Like
Piaget, Kohlberg studied how children and adults reason situations. Kohlberg contributed a
theory of moral development that has three main levels with two understanding Kohlberg‘s
theory is internalization, which refers to the development change from externally controlled
behavior to internally controlled behavior.
Level one –preconvention reasoning.
This is the lowest level of moral development in Kohlberg‘s theory. At this level, the
child shows no internalization of moral values. Moral reasoning is controlled by external
reward and punishment.
Level two-conventional reasoning.
The second, or intermediate, at this level the child‘s internalization is intermediate. The
child abides internally by certain standards, but they are essentially the standards
imposed by other people, such as parents or by society‘s laws.
Level Three- Post-conventional Reasoning.
This is the highest level in Kohlberg‘s theory. At this level, morality is completely
internalized and not based on external standards. The student recognizes alternative
moral courses, explores options, and then decides on the moral code that I best for him
or her.
(i) PRE- (ii) CONVENTIONAL POST
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL CONVENTIONAL
LEVEL
Rules are set down by others Individuals adapts rules and People define own values
Stage 1 will sometimes subordinate in terms of ethical
Punishment and obedience own needs to those of the principles they have
orientation. groups. Expectations of chosen.
Physical consequences of action family groups, or nation seen Stage 5: Social contract
determines its goodness or as valuable in own right, orientation.

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 badness. regardless of immediate and What is right is defined in
Stage 2 obvious consequences terms of general
INSTRUMENTAL Stage 3 ― individual‘s rights and in
RELATIVIST good boy good girl” terms of standards that
ORIENTATION orientation have been agreed on the
What is right is whatever Good behavior is whatever whole society. In contrast
satisfies ones own needs and pleases or helps other and is to stage 4, Laws are not
occasionally the needs of others. approved of by them. One ―frozen‖- They can be
Elements of fairness and earns approval by being charged for the good of
reciprocity are present, but they ―nice‖ society.
are mostly interpreted in a ―you Stage 4 Stage 6
scratch may back I, will scratch Law and order orientation Universal ethical
yours‖ fashion. Principle orientation
Right is doing one‘s duty, What is right is defined
showing respect for authority, by decision of conscience
and maintaining the given according to self-chosen
social order for its own sake. ethical principles are
abstract and ethical (such
as the golden rule), not
specific moral.
Prescriptions (such as the
Ten commandments).

FURTHER EXPLAINATIONS ON THE STAGES.

1. PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
The child at the first and most basic level, the pre-conventional level, is concerned with
avoiding punishment and getting needs met. This level has two stages and applies to
children up to 10 years of age. Stage one is the Punishment-Obedience stage. Children obey
rules because they are told to do so by an authority figure (parent or teacher), and they fear
punishment if they do not follow rules. Children at this stage are not able to see someone
else's side. Stage two is the Individual, Instrumentation, and Exchange stage. Here, the
behavior is governed by moral reciprocity. The child will follow rules if there is a known
benefit to him or her. Children at this stage also mete out justice in an eye-for-an-eye

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 manner or according to Golden Rule logic. In other words, if one child hits another, the
injured child will hit back. This is considered equitable justice. Children in this stage are
very concerned with what is fair.
Children will also make deals with each other and even adults. They will agree to behave in
a certain way for a payoff. "I'll do this, if you will do that." Sometimes, the payoff is in the
knowledge that behaving correctly is in the child's own best interest. They receive approval
from authority figures or admiration from peers, avoid blame, or behave in accordance with
their concept of self. They are just beginning to understand that others have their own needs
and drives.

2. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
This level broadens the scope of human wants and needs. Children in this level are
concerned about being accepted by others and living up to their expectations. This stage
begins around age 10 but lasts well into adulthood, and is the stage most adults remain at
throughout their lives.
Stage three, Interpersonal Conformity, is often called the "good boy/good girl" stage. Here,
children do the right thing because it is good for the family, peer group, team, school, or
church. They understand the concepts of trust, loyalty, and gratitude. They abide by the
Golden Rule as it applies to people around them every day. Morality is acting in accordance
to what the social group says is right and moral.

Stage four is the Law and Order, or Social System and Conscience stage. Children and
adults at this stage abide by the rules of the society in which they live. These laws and rules
become the backbone for all right and wrong actions. Children and adults feel compelled to
do their duty and show respect for authority. This is still moral behavior based on authority,
but reflects a shift from the social group to society at large.

3. POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL:
Some teenagers and adults move beyond conventional morality and enter morality based on
reason, examining the relative values and opinions of the groups with which they interact.
Few adults reach this stage.
Correct behavior is governed by the sixth stage, the Social Contract and Individual Rights
stage. Individuals in this stage understand that codes of conduct are relative to their social

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 group. This varies from culture to culture and subgroup to subgroup. With that in mind, the
individual enters into a contract with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and kindly
and to respect authority when it is equally moral and deserved. They also agree to obey laws
and social rules of conduct that promote respect for individuals and value the few universal
moral values that they recognize. Moral behavior and moral decisions are based on the
greatest good for the greatest number.
Stage six is the Principled Conscience or the Universal/Ethical Principles stage. Here,
individuals examine the validity of society's laws and govern themselves by what they
consider to be universal moral principles, usually involving equal rights and respect. They
obey laws and social rules that fall in line with these universal principles, but not others they
deem as aberrant. Adults here are motivated by individual conscience that transcends
cultural, religious, or social convention rules. Kohlberg recognized this last stage but found
so few people who lived by this concept of moral behavior that he could not study it in
detail.

2.8 UNIT SUMMARY:

In this unit we want you to learn some of the theories associated with personality development.
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development,
and learning. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in
which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This
psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Unlike
Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage
theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction. Finally we looked at Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological systems
theory which views the child development as a complex system of relationships affected by
multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to
broad cultural values, laws, and customs. According to the theory, to study a child‘s
development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also
at the interaction of the larger environment as well. Bronfenbrenner divided the person‘s

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environment into five different systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the
macrosystem, and the chronosystemm.

2.9 ACTIVITY TWO

1. What is psychosocial theory

2. Mention or list
a. The first three phase of psychosexual theory of personality development, according
Sigmund Freud.
b. The last three phases of psychosocial theory of personality development according to
Erick Erickson
3. Discuss any two of Erick Erickson different ages which are characterized by crashes
between the desired traits and undesired traits.
4. Discuss the theory of ecological development according to Urie Bronfenbrenner.

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 UNIT THREE
3.0 THEORIES OF LEARNING
The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. The major
concepts and theories of learning include; Classical condition- learning by association, Operant
conditioning- learning through reinforcement, Social learning (modifying) – learning by
observing and imitating, Cognitive learning- learning through mental processing. Therefore, this
unit gives you an introduction to various theories of learning. It introduces philosophical
concepts about theories of learning and its development. We believe history provides a firm
foundation for the future.

3.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Define the term learning
 State the different types of learning
 Explain the various theories of learning

3.2 Definition of terms

Let us begin by giving a definition of learning.

 The term learning, broadly speaking, stands for all those changes and modifications in
the behaviour of the individual which he undergoes from his birth till death. Mangal
(1998: 168), learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour
that comes about because of experience.

 Learning is the process by which we acquire and retain knowledge, attitudes, skills,
understanding and capabilities that cannot be attributed to inherited behavioural patterns
or physical growth.

 The capacity for learning is related to innate physiological factors, while the rate of
learning depends on both the inherited and environmental factors.

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 3.3 The Concept of Learning
Conceptually, ―learning‖ in the conventional sense is the process of assimilation of
knowledge resulting from the interaction between the teacher and the taught. Below, you
have been given important points which you should remember about learning. Take some
time to study the information given.

 Learning is defined as modification through experience and the acquisition of new

behavioral patterns,
 Learning is the process of acquisition of new behavior or strengthening or weakening of
old behavior as a result of experience.
 Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes, it involves new ways of
doing things and it operates on an individual as he attempts to overcome obstacles or as
he tries to adjust to a new situation.
Learning represents progressive changes in behavior. It enables an individual to satisfy interests
to attain a goal.
The definitions given reveal the following facts, that;

(i) Learning is a process and not the product

(ii) Learning prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment and adaptation.

(iii) Learning does not include the changes in behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue,
illness or drugs.

3.4 TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH LEARNING

There are different forms of learning and you will come across different terminologies when
you are reading about learning theories. Let us look at some of these terms.

1. Affective learning: Learning in the affective domain relates to changes in interest,

attitudes, values and to the development of appreciation and the adjustment needed for
affective learning. Affective learning therefore refers to the type of learning which is
concerned with feelings and emotions and therefore influences our values, attitudes and
personality.

2. Psychomotor learning: Psychomotor learning has to do with the development of skills

which requires efficient co-ordination between our brains and muscles as when we read,

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 write or carry out physical activities such as balancing, skipping or juggling. It is mainly
to do with the manipulation of materials.

Psychomotor learning has three characteristics;

1. Response chains: This considers the learning of skills involving the use of a chain of
motor responses, for example using muscular movements such as swimming or driving a
car.

2. Movement coordination: This involves the coordination of perception and motor skills
such as what happens when a child learns how to ride a bicycle.

3. Response patterns: This involves the organisation of stimulus response chains into
large response patterns. For example, once the skill of riding a bicycle is mastered, the
child can continue riding without struggling.

3.5 Theories of learning

Several different theories have emerged to explain how people learn. Some of the main theories
of learning include:

1. Behavioral learning theory

2. Social learning theory

3. Cognitive learning theory

4. Constructivist learning theory

5. Experiential learning theory

3.5.1 Behavioral Learning Theories

During the early part of the twentieth century, many psychologists became increasingly
interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. These psychologists, known as
behaviorists, argued that psychology needed to study only things that could be measured and
quantified to be more scientific.

According to behaviors, we do not need to consider the internal cognitive processes to

understand how learning works. Instead, we must examine how someone interacts with the
environment to see how information is acquired. Important types of learning in behavioral

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theory include classical conditioning (which involves learning by association) and operant
conditioning (which involves learning through reinforcement and punishment).

Classical conditioning or learning by association:

 It is simply a stimulus / response type of learning. Pavlov`s theory considers learning as
a habit formation and is based on the principle of Association and Substitution. It is
simply a stimulus- response type of learning where in place of a natural stimulus like
food, water, sexual contact, the artificial stimulus like the sound of a bell, sight of light
of a definite colour, can still produce a natural response. See the diagram below:

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning theory of learning

 In his experiment as shown above, Ivan Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and
tied it on an experimental table which was fitted with a mechanically controlled device.
Food was given to the dog through automatic devices. Every time the food was
presented to the dog, he also arranged for the ringing of a bell. When food was presented
to the dog and the bell rung, the dog salivated automatically. The activity of presenting
the food accompanied with a ringing of a bell was repeated several times and the amount
of saliva secreted by the dog was measured. After several trials, the dog was given no
food but the bell was rung. The amount of saliva secreted was recorded and measured. It
was found that even in the absence of food (the natural stimulus), the ringing of the bell
(artificial stimulus) caused the dog to salivate (natural response). By associating food
to a ringing bell, the dog was able to salivate at the ringing of the bell even when there
was no food.

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  In another experiment, a child who was afraid of rabbits was able to overcome the fear
after associating the food he was given to eat in the presence of a harmless rabbit which
was placed at a distance at first but was drawn closer every other day until the boy was
able to have it on his laps.

The experiment above teaches us four essential elements of the conditioning process:-

(i) The first element is the natural stimulus known as unconditioned stimulus i.e. food.
(ii) It results in a natural response called unconditioned response
(iii) The stimulus like the ringing of the bell is called a conditioned stimulus (CS). It is
substituted in place of the natural stimulus (food).
(iv) The chain of the conditioning response (CR).
The process of conditioning does not only help us in learning what is described, but also helps
in eliminating, avoiding or ―un learning‖ of many undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes such
as fear, superstition and other phobias through conditioning.
Can you at this point explain what classical conditioning is?

The diagram below explains how we learn involving responses.

N UCS UCR
PAIRED WHICH
(Neutral (Unconditioned NATURALLY (Un conditioned
WITH
PRODUCES
Stimulus) stimulus) Response)

CS CR
BECOMES

Conditional PRODUCES conditioned Becomes

Stimulus responses

Fig. 1

If we pair a neutral stimulus with unconditional stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus and it produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. An
example:

Sight of experimenter (N) + food (UCS) = salivation UCR

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 Sight of Experimenter (CS) → Salivation

Figure: 2. Pavlov’s method of conditioning in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a
learned, neutral stimulus.

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner’s Little Albert Experiment

Ivan Pavlov showed that classical conditioning applied to animals. The question is did it also
apply to humans? In a famous (though ethically dubious) experiment, John B. Watson and
Rosalie Rayner showed it did. Conducted at Johns Hopkins University between 1919 and 1920,
the Little Albert experiment aimed to provide experimental evidence for classical conditioning
of emotional responses in infants.

At the study‘s outset, Watson and Rayner encountered a nine-month-old boy named ―Little
Albert‖ (his real name was Albert Barger) – a remarkably fearless child, scared only by loud
noises. After gaining permission from Albert‘s mother, the researchers decided to test the
process of classical conditioning on a human subject – by inducing a further phobia in the child.
The baseline session occurred when Albert was approximately nine months old to test his
reactions to neutral stimuli.

Albert was reportedly unafraid of any of the stimuli he was shown, which consisted of ―a white
rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, with [sic] masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning
newspapers, etc.‖ (Watson & Rayner, 1920, p. 2).

Approximately two months after the baseline session, Albert was subjected during two
conditioning sessions spaced one week apart to a total of seven pairings of a white rat followed
by the startling sound of a steel bar being struck with a hammer.

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However, what did startle him and cause him to be afraid was if a hammer was struck against a
steel bar behind his head. The sudden loud noise would cause ―little Albert to burst into tears.
When Little Albert was just over 11 months old, the white rat was presented, and seconds later,
the hammer was struck against the steel bar. After seven pairings of the rat and noise (in two
sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was presented
without the loud noise.

By now, little Albert only had to see the rat and immediately showed every sign of fear. He
would cry (whether or not the hammer was hit against the steel bar), and he would attempt to
crawl away. The two conditioning sessions were followed by three transfer sessions. During the
first transfer session, Albert was shown the rat to assess maintained fear, as well as other furry
objects to test generalization.

Complicating the experiment, however, the second transfer session also included two additional
conditioning trials with the rat to ―freshen up the reaction‖ (Watson & Rayner, 1920, p. 9), as
well as conditioning trials in which a dog and a rabbit were, for the first time, also paired with
the loud noise.

This fear began to fade as time went on, however, the association could be renewed by
repeating the original procedure a few times. Unlike prior weekly sessions, the final transfer
session occurred after a month to test maintained fear. Immediately following the session,
Albert and his mother left the hospital, preventing Watson and Rayner from carrying out their
original intention of deconditioning the fear they have classically conditioned.

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Here are some terminologies that you need to define.

Stimulus : Anything that elicits a response

Response : A reaction to a stimulus

Unconditioned : A stimulus that automatically elicits a response such as meat causing

salivation

Unconditioned An automatic response to a particular natural stimulus, such as

response salivation to meat. In the case of Albert, the Unconditioned Response
was Albert‘s fear response to the loud noise – crying and showing
distress.

Conditioned A previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with a natural
stimulus (or unconditioned) stimulus. After several pairings in the case of
Albert, the previously Neutral Stimulus (the rat) becomes the
conditioned stimulus, as it now elicits the fear response even without
the presence of the loud noise.

Conditioned A response to a stimulus that has brought about learning- for example,
response. salivating at the word sausage. In the case of Albert, the conditioned
response was Albert‘s fear of the rat. Even without the loud noise, he
became upset and showed signs of fear whenever he saw the rat.

Operant Conditioning Theory of learning.

 This section deals with operant conditioning. By definition, operant conditioning is a

learning force which affects the desired response more frequently by providing a
reinforcing stimulus immediately following the response. Therefore this refers to
learning through reinforcement.

 B.F. Skinner (1958), propagated a theory related to stimulus response relationship

and reinforcement. The Psychologist is most closely associated with Operant
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 Conditioning. He believed that most behaviour is influenced by reinforcement of either
rewards or punishment. The nature of the reinforcement depends on the effect it has on
the learner. Some of the reinforcements in society include: Social approach, money and
extra- privileges.

 Reinforcement is some behavioural activities that follow a response and strengthens

the tendency to repeat that response. Reinforcement can either be positive or negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens the tendency to repeat a response by
following it using the addition of something pleasant while negative reinforcement
strengthens a response by following it with taking away or avoiding something
unpleasant. The two types of reinforcement are: - Primary reinforcement and
Secondary reinforcement.

 The primary reinforcement is of the first and greatest importance. It is very

necessary for survival, for example food and water. The possibility of obtaining one of
these when you perform an action is the strongest incentive to learn. While the
Secondary reinforcement is anything that comes to represent a primary re-enforcer e.g.
108 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 money, because money can buy food and drink, it therefore represents these primary re-
enforcers.

 Operant Conditioning is the type of learning by which behaviour is learned or

avoided as a result of its consequences.

Here are some definitions related to reinforcement.

Reinforcement- Something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency

to repeat that response.

Primary reinforcement Something necessary for psychological survival that is used as a

reward

Secondary reinforcement Anything that comes to represent a primary reinforces, such as

money, in place of food

Positive reinforcement- Something which strengthens the tendency to repeat a response.

This could be something pleasant which is given as a reward for
an action performed.

Negative reinforcement Something given and it results in weakening the response. This
happens when an action is followed by an unpleasant reward.
The subject thus tries to avoid something unpleasant.

Punishment An unpleasant consequence. The process of weakening a

response is by following it with unpleasant consequences.

How we learn voluntary responses:

Voluntary FOLLOWED Reinforcement THEREFORE Responses is response

BY likely to occur again

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  If we receive reinforcement for a voluntary behaviour, we will probably perform the
voluntary behaviour again in the future. In Operant Conditioning, learning activities are
divided into many small steps or tasks and reinforced one by one. The operant i.e. the
response/ behaviour or act - is strengthened so as to increase the probability of its
recurrence in the future.

3.5.1 Social Learning theory (Modelling).

Social learning centres on observation and imitation of other people. We lean appropriate
behaviours by watching other people and imitating them. This theory was propagated by Albert
Bandura- He claims that, it is the most important aspect of learning theory compared to those
propagated by Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner and Watson. Bandura says that much of our behaviour
is acquired by observational learning. Thus we learn the pattern of behaviour (activities) by
watching others and deciding what to imitate. This is why it is termed ―learning by observation
and imitation‖. Social learning applies to all learning that occurs in a social situation as shown
in the diagram below. While observational learning is a form of social learning in which the
organism observes and imitates the behaviour of others.

There are three central theses on which this theory hinges on. People can learn through
observation (observation learning): In his experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children,
who observed aggressive adult models, become aggressive themselves as a result. The children
watch adults in action, when left alone; they imitate the adult‘s behaviour. The theorist Bandura
says, the child does not require a specific reinforcement such as food for learning to occur.
Social learning can occur by exposure and imitation alone. Social learning centres on
observation of other people. We learn appropriate behaviour by watching others and imitating
them.

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The second thesis is that mental states are important to learning (Intrinsic learning):
Bandura noted that external environment was not the only factor which influences learning and
behaviour. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of external rewards such as pride,
satisfaction and sense of accomplishment. He emphasised on internal thoughts theories and
cognition help connecting learning to cognitive developmental theories. He described this
approach as social learning theory to become social cognitive learning theory. Thus, Bandura‘s
theory changed from earliest social leaning theory to become the social cognitive learning
theory. In the social cognitive learning theory both social factors and individual internal
cognitive process were viewed as critical to bring about meaningful learning. Bandura called
interaction between environmental factors and personal factors as reciprocal determinism.

The third theses is that Learning does not necessary lead to a change in behaviour: In as
much as behaviourists asserted that learning does led to a permanent change in behaviour,
observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviours. Note that according to Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory, human
behaviour is determined by internal forces and impulses often operating below the level of
consciousness. In contrast, social learning theory maintains that human behaviour is learnt
through interaction and observation of environment.

3.5.2 Cognitive learning.

Cognitive theorists have made investigations to show that people learn by perceiving,
comprehending and conceptualising problems. They believe that learning is a question of both
insight formation and of successful problem solving. Problem solving denotes a higher type of
learning. Such type of learning requires the use of cognitive ability like reasoning thinking and
the power of observation. This is why it is known as learning through mental processing.
Cognitive learning is sometimes called the learning of concepts, principles and problem solving.
It is a way of learning based on abstract mental process and previous knowledge. Concept
learning is in the form of a mental image which denotes a generalized idea about things or
events. For example our concept of a tree is a mental image that brings us the characteristics or
common properties of all the different trees we know.

We will call a thing ―tree‖ when it has some specific characteristics, the image of which we
have already acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception or rich
imagination. The formation of such concepts on accounts of previous experience is called

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concept learning. Thus what we do, what we say, understand, reason and judge, is to a great
extent controlled by the quality of our concept learning.

Cognitive learning is the focus of a currently popular area of psychology that studies the
meaning and use of knowledge. The methods, by which knowledge is used, manipulated,
processed, and organized are the subjects of cognitive research. The cognitivists in arguing that
people grasp a thing as a whole are opposing the behaviourist approach to teaching which
employs drills to memorise the information.

Cognitive learning is achieved by mental process such as reasoning, remembering (recall) and
recognition of knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities and skills. Cognitive
learning is known as the knowledge competence of educational objectives. It helps in problem
solving, developing new ideas and evaluation.

There are six stages of cognitive learning.

1. Knowledge; Remembering of previously learnt information.

2. Understanding; ability to grasp the meaning of the learnt content.

3. Application; ability to use learnt content in a new and concrete situation.

4. Analysis; ability to break down materials into its component parts so that its
organizational structure is understood.

5. Synthesis; ability to put parts together to form a new whole.

6. Evaluation; value judgment of any statement, learner achievement, learning content or

material.

3.5.3 Constructivist Learning Theories

The constructivist approach to learning characterizes learners as active participants in the

process who play a role in constructing their knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning
were influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the importance of collaboration and social interaction
in the learning process.

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Two important concepts of constructivist learning theories are the more knowledgeable other
and the zone of proximal development:

More knowledgeable other: Vygotsky described the more knowledgeable other as anyone
with an understanding or ability level higher than the learner. This can often be a teacher or
adult, but it can also refer to peers with more knowledge about a specific concept, task, or
process.

Zone of proximal development: Vygotsky described the zone of proximal development as the
range of knowledge or ability that a person can display with the help of the more knowledgeable
other, but that they are not yet capable of performing independently. Gradually expanding this
zone is how people can learn and improve their skills over time.

3.5.4 Experiential Learning Theories

This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-on experience. The theory was formally
introduced by psychologist David Kolb but was influenced by the work of other theorists,
including Jean Piaget and John Dewey.

According to Kolb, there are four stages in experiential learning. The first two, abstract
conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to how people grasp experiences. The final
two, active experimentation and reflective observation, refer to how people transform
experiences.

David Kolb’s Experiential Model Theory

In the experiential model, Kolb described two different ways of grasping experience:

 Abstract Conceptualization

 Concrete Experience

He also identified two ways of transforming experience:

 Active Experimentation

 Reflective Observation

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These four modes of learning are often portrayed as a cycle. According to Kolb, concrete
experience provides information that serves as a basis for reflection. From these reflections, we
assimilate the information and form abstract concepts.

Theory of Kolb's Learning Cycle

The learning styles described by Kolb are based on two major dimensions: active/reflective and
abstract/concrete.

1. The Converger: People with this learning style have dominant abilities in the areas of
Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation. They are highly skilled in the
practical application of ideas. They tend to do best in situations where there is a single
best solution or answer to a problem.

2. The Diverger: Divergers dominant abilities lie in the areas of Concrete Experience and
Reflective Observation, essentially the opposite strengths of the Converger. People with
this learning style are good at seeing the "big picture" and organizing smaller bits of
information into a meaningful whole. Divergers tend to be emotional and creative and
enjoy brainstorming to come up with new ideas. Artists, musicians, counselors, and
people with a strong interest in the fine arts, humanities, and liberal arts tend to have this
learning style.

3. The Assimilator: Assimilators are skilled in the areas of Abstract Conceptualization

and Reflective Observation. Understanding and creating theoretical models is one of
their greatest strengths. They tend to be more interested in abstract ideas than in people,
but they are not greatly concerned with the practical applications of theories. Individuals
who work in math and the basic sciences tend to have this type of learning style.
Assimilators also enjoy work that involves planning and research.

4. The Accommodator: People with this learning style are strongest in Concrete
Experience and Active Experimentation. This style is basically the opposite of the
Assimilator style. Accommodators are doers; they enjoy performing experiments and
carrying out plans in the real world. Out of all four learning styles, Accommodators tend
to be the greatest risk-takers. They are good at thinking on their feet and changing their
plans spontaneously in response to new information. When solving problems, they

114 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 typically use a trial-and-error approach. People with this learning style often work in
technical fields or in action-oriented jobs such as sales and marketing.

3.6 Factors that influence learning

Now that you have discussed cognitive learning, it is important that you know the factors that
influence learning. Learning is influenced and controlled by a number of factors connected with
the learner, the learning material, the learning processes and learning situations or environment.
These factors include;

1. Knowledge of results and feedback: The learning or training process is very much
influenced by the knowledge of results and feedback provided to the learner. The result
of an action or performance is called Feedback. The learners who are very much
informed or acquainted with the level of their performance or the corrections of their
responses, show improvement in terms of leaning gain, compared to those who are not
provided with such opportunity. Feedback in terms of telling the learners their mistakes
helps them to improve their performance. It always proves beneficial because it leads to
getting better results in learning.

2. Methods of learning: Learning is always influenced and controlled by the methods,

devices and techniques through which it is being carried out by learners. All the
psychological methods of learning using democratic and child centred approaches
bring appreciable results in terms of learning gains. Those using methods which are
teacher or subject centred do not yield much in terms of learning gains.

3. Motivational variables: You can understand what is meant by motivational variables if

you can state what motivation is. Motivation refers to that thing or situation which
compels and energizes an individual to act or behave in a particular pattern. Motivation
is a central factor in any process of learning. In all its shapes and forms, it is always
related to the arousal of interest in learning. Some type of motivation must be present in
all learning. Effective learning gains depend upon the learner‘s motivational state. For
example, if having a good grade can lead to a university qualification, a student might be
motivated to work hard in order to gain entry into a university.

4. Fatigue: Learning is very much influenced by physical or mental fatigue. After

engaging ourselves in the process of learning, there may come a time when we feel that
our energy is exhausted. This is what is called fatigue. Fatigue is caused by many
115 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 physiological factors. Lack of interest, improper methods of learning, inappropriate
learning situations or environment and lack of motivation may lead to fatigue.

5. Learning transfer: The theory of similar though not identical element advocated by
Thorndike states that the relationship between learning situations could be due to the
fact that they have elements of general principles which are similar though not
identical. Learning transfer can be defined as the ability of a learner to successfully
apply the behavior, knowledge, and skills acquired in a learning event to the job, with a
resulting improvement in job performance. Learning transfer can be positive or negative.

6. Positive transfer: The following can bring about positive learning transfer;

 The methods of memorization can improve transfer

 Attitude of students towards learning can improve transfer

 The degree of mastery of the material learned in one condition

 Methods of instruction can also improve transfer

 The generalization of an experience helps transfer.

7. Negative transfer

What is implied here is that a second task containing the same stimuli but requiring totally
unrelated responses should produce negative transfer.

The following conditions reduce negative transfer.

 Low similarity

 Punishment of particular attempts when they are done wrongly

 Extinction of wrong action which will reduce negative transfer.

3.7 UNIT SUMMARY:

In this unit you learned WE looked at the definitions of key terms such as learning. We have
also looked at various types of learning such as the classical condition- learning by association,
116 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
the operant conditioning- learning through reinforcement, the social learning (modifying) –
learning by observing and imitating and the cognitive learning- learning through mental
processing. We later on looked various factors that learning is influenced and controlled by a
number of factors connected with the learner, the learning material, the learning processes and
learning situations or environment. We hope that you have leant that and that you are now ready
to go to the next unit.

3.8 ACTIVITY THREE

1. State the educational facts which are revealed by the definition of learning.

2. Differentiate affective learning from Cognitive learning

3. List the six stages of cognitive learning

4. What is social learning theory?

117 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT FOUR
4.0 MEMORY AND FORGETFULLNESS
This unit is about memory or remembering. In the previous unit, we discussed learning theories
and the various factors that affect it among others. We shall start by looking at the objectives of
this unit.

4.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Define memory and remembering

 Explain the importance of memory in learning

 Outline the levels of memory

 State the factors which facilitate and determine memory

 What is forgetfulness

 What causes forgetfulness

4.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

It is important that you begin by defining the key terms in the study of memory. Below are
some definitions.

 Memory: Memory refers to special ability in our mind to conserve, store or retain
what has been previously experienced or acquired through learning and then at some
later stage to enable us to make use of it by its reproduction or retrieval. Retrieval
involves a form of recall or recognition. Memory is a psychological concept, a mental
record of past experiences in our heads. It is the ability to reproduce at a later time what
we have experienced earlier. The memory record is cumulative, that is, each new
experience adds to the existing record.

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 4.3 THE PROCESS OF MEMORY

The process of memory involves mental operations or processes which deal with remembering,
retention, and recall as shown below.

i. Encoding: For an event or environment to change, for example from something

physical to something mental, an encoding process is required to create mental
representations of actual events.
ii. Storage: The process of encoding on its own would not be meaningful. For
memory to endure, mental representation must be stored over time so that they
can be available for use on later occasions.
iii. Retrieval: Encoding and storing memories are not enough. Stored memory is only
useful if you can access it. For memory to have impact later, it must be retrievable
from its storage area.

4.4 LEARNING AND MEMORY

 The term learning, broadly speaking, stands for all those changes and modifications
in the behaviour of the individual which he undergoes from his birth till death. Learning
is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour
as a result of experience.

 Learning and memory are interdependent: That is without the ability to encode, store
and retrieve information from memory, you can`t learn or build on that information in

119 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 subsequent experiences, and without acquiring new information there would be nothing
to store in memory and in such a situation, learning cannot take place.

4.5 THE THREE TYPES OF MEMORY

 We shall discuss in this part the forms of memory as given below. Try to remember
these forms and develop the ability to differentiate one from the other.

i. Sensory memory: It is the initial representation of proximal stimuli within a sensory

system and lasts for just a moment.
ii. Short term memory: This form of memory is long lasting, but it is still temporary. The
contents of short term memory typically are available to consciousness for only 15 to
20 seconds after initial input. This memory may fade unless the contents are
repeatedly refreshed or rehearsed. For example, it would be necessary to repeat an
unfamiliar phone number over and over to yourself to keep it in short- term memory
long enough for you to dial it.
iii. Long term memory: Long- term memory lasts indefinitely. It consists of all of a
person‘s stored knowledge and past experiences.

4.6 Factors that facilitate memory

Memory plays an important role in the lives of teachers and their pupils. This calls for an
examination of some of the factors that facilitate the retention of information. These are
discussed below.

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i. Recognition: Recognition refers to the ability to bring to mind the object previously
seen or the experience previously gone through. Recognition is the product of two
sets of information one being the stimulus and the second information related to the
stimulus already existing in long-term memory.
ii. Rehearsal: When the information received in the sensory region is selected or further
processed, the processing which is set in motion is known as rehearsal. There are two
types of rehearsal; maintenance rehearsal and elaborate rehearsal. If the information
needs to be remembered for only a short time, maintenance rehearsal is used. However
if the information needs to be remembered for a longer period of time elaborate
rehearsal is used.
iii. Meaningfulness: If the information being learned has meaning, it will be retained in
long-term memory.
iv. Organization: Information to be learned must be well organized. One way of
organizing information is by breaking it into smaller units and trying to link these to
each other in the way they relate so that remembering one unit can lead to remembering
yet another unit.
v. Mnemonic devices: These are special phrases or symbols which may be used to group
information. For example H.O.M.E.S may be used to stand for the names of the five
great lakes of Canada`s Great lakes:- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior.
vi. Ridiculous association: Learning is facilitated when the known is associated with the
unknown. For example, Bupe may be associated with a gift.
vii. Intelligence: Do you know what intelligence is? You should know by now that it has
something to do with your brain`s ability to process and retrieve information that has
been stored in your brain quickly and accurately.
Here are some observations for you about the factors that influence memory.
 People with high intelligence have better memory than those of lower intelligence
 Those with visual memory tend to see things in their mind
 Those with auditory memory remember what they hear easily.
 There are some people who can be said to possess photographic memory. Such people for
example, literally see pages of the books they have read.
Why then do people remember things? What must you possess to be able to remember things
quickly and clearly? The information given next will help you to answer these questions.

121 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 4.7 Factors that determine memory

The factors that determine memory include;

i. Relevance, interest and meaningfulness: Children best remember those things that
apply directly to their experience and feelings. Material which is more understood by
the child is more memorable than that which is not.
ii. Learning methods: Methods of learning affect how well we can remember and recall.
Learning is greatly attached to association, remembering and recall.
iii. Association, Recognition and Recall: Unfamiliar material is remembered more
effectively when objects and activities are associated to what we encountered in our
past experience. Cues are provided which help us to recognize and remember the things
we have encountered. This greatly facilitates learning.
iv. Environmental factors: It is not possible to learn efficiently if your attention is
distracted, or if worries affect your concentration or practice and if revision is
prevented by circumstances. All the above factors suggest that the training of memory
is better approached by controlling the manner in which learning takes place.

4.8 THE CONCEPT OF FORGETTING

 Forgetting simply refers to failure to retrieve information from memory when it is

needed. Psychologists have defined forgetting in the following way:

 Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability to recognize something

learnt early.

 Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do

so or to perform an action previously learnt.

 Forgetting is a failure of an individual to revive in consciousness an idea or group

of ideas without the help of the original stimulus.

 In all these definitions, forgetting is termed as failure, meaning that forgetting is just
the opposite of remembering and essentially a failure in ability to recall experiences
lived through in the past.

122 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 4.9 Causes of forgetting

The following are the causes of forgetting:-

i. Passive decay: We forget previous experience as a result of the passage of time and
due to inability to make use of the previous experience frequently. (Passive decay is the
oldest explanation used to account for forgetting. It is important to note that every time
a person experiences something that is processed and stored in his memory, a memory
trace is formed. A memory trace may be described as a mark or presentation of an
experience stored in one‘s brain or nervous system.)

ii. Systematic distortions of memory: People may remember things that may never have
taken place, or which occurred in a way different from what is reported. According to
the theory of systematic distortion, forgetting occurs at the time an event is
perceived rather than over time. The way we perceive an event when it occurs
determines whether our memory of the event will be clear and explicit or distorted and
blurred. It is possible to retell certain experiences with considerable amount of
distortion.

iii. Interference: This theory proposes that forgetting occurs as a result of what happens
between point A, when the information is learned, and point B, when the person is
required to show what he learned a while ago. There are two types of interference:
Retroactive and Proactive inhibition. In Retroactive inhibition, new learning affects
old learning so that as more learning is acquired, the old learning fades away or is
forgotten. In proactive inhibition prior learning, that is old learning, may interfere with
new learning.

iv. Motivated forgetting (Repression): Motivated forgetting can be influenced by a

feeling of anxiety or guilt or discomfort or pain if it is activated. Every one probably
has certain unpleasant past experiences that he/she would rather forget to spare
himself/herself from the pain of relieving them. We forget certain events as a matter of
choice.

v. Duplex theory: There are two memory storage mechanism, namely short-term
memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM). The STM storage mechanisms is used
to store information that has just been perceived, whereas the LTM stores information
123 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 that has been established as a result of repeated practice over time. This is how it
happens. The in-coming information is transmitted to STM for a certain period, during
which it is easily retrievable. However information is only stored in STM for a short
time due to a limited amount of space. As more information enters the chambers,
existing information is pushed out or passed on to LTM. If this happens, the
information in this chamber is not easily forgotten, and the appropriate cues can be
retrieved when required. In other words forgetting occurs only if information is
inadequately processed while in short-term memory. If it is adequately processed by
means of practice and rehearsal and then passed on to long-term memory it will be
retained for an indefinite period.

vi. Consolidation theory: The premise of consolidation theory is that the change that
occurs in the nervous system following learning depends on time. The memory trace
undergoes a consolidation phase after leaning has occurred. During this phase the
memory trace is rather unstable and subject to obliteration or deletion should there be
any interference. Once the memory of what has been learned is secured and if there is
no interference while the information is processed, the memory trace will not only be
consolidated, but will also become resistant to extinction. The position may be
supported by the fact that people who have sustained head injuries are unable to
remember events which occurred immediately before the injury, although they have no
problem remembering events that occurred long before this. This form of forgetting is
known as retrograde amnesia.

4.10 UNIT SUMMARY.

In this unit you learned WE looked at the definitions of key terms such as memory and
forgetting. We defined memory as the special ability in our mind to conserve, store or retain
what has been previously experienced or acquired through learning and then at some later stage
to enable us to make use of it by its reproduction or retrieval. Forgetting means failure at any
time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so or to perform an action previously learnt.

4.11 ACTIVITY FOUR

124 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 i. Define memory
ii. Explain what is meant by encoding, storage and retrieval.
iii. Differentiate long term and short term memory
iv. Explain what the mind does to facilitate memory
v. What is retrograde Amnesia?
vi. Explain interference in memory.
vii. What is forgetting?
viii. What causes forgetting?

125 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 REFERENCES
Lionel N. (2008-2nded), Introduction to Psychology, Cape Town, UCT Press.
Munsaka, E. & Matafwali, B. (2013). Human Development from Conception to Adolescence:
Typical and Atypical Trends. Lusaka: University of Zambia Press.
Mwamwenda, T. S. (1995). Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. (2nd Edition).
Durban: Butterworth.
Revelle, W. (2016). Hans Eysenck: Personality theorist. Personality and Individual Differences,
103, 32–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.007.
Rice, F.P. & Dolgin, K. G. (2002). The Adolescent; Development, Relations, and Culture.
(10th Edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Santrock, J. W. (2004). Child Development. New York: McGraw.
Santrock, J. W. (2008). Child Development. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Taylor, S. J. & Bogdan, R. (1998). Introduction to Qualitative Research methods: A Guide
and Resource (3rd Edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Woolfolk, A. E. (2010). Educational Psychology. Boston: Houston Mifflin.
Woolfolk, A. Hughes; M & Walkup, V. (2008). Psychology in Education. Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.

126 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 WELCOME TO

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

TERM III

127 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT ONE................................................................ 131
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION ...................................................................................131
1.2 LESSON OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................131
1.3 DEFINATION OF MOTIVATION ........................................................................................131
1.4 TWO TYPES OF MOTIVATION ..........................................................................................132
1.4.1 INTRINSIC (INTERNAL) MOTIVATION ..........................................................................132
1.4.2 EXTRINISIC (EXTERNAL) MOTIVATION. .......................................................................133
1.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION.............................................................................................133
1.5.1 ABRAHAM MASLOW’S THEORY OF MOTIVATION. .....................................................133
1.5.2 WEINER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF MOTIVATION ...................................................135
1.5.3 LOCKE AND LATHAM’S GOAL-SETTING THEORY OF MOTIVATION. ............................138
1.5.4 ROBERT K. MERTON’S SELF FULFILMENT PROPHECY .................................................139
1.5.5 THE CONCEPT OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS ................................................................139
1.5 CAUSES OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS ..............................................................................140
1.6 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE LEARNERS LEVEL OF MOTIVATION ..................................141
1.7 CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS OF THEORY OF MOTIVATION ............................................141
1.8 UNIT SUMMARY: .............................................................................................................142
1.9 ACTIVITY 1. ......................................................................................................................142

UNIT TWO ............................................................... 144

2.0 INTRODUCTION TO INTELLIGENCE............................................................................................144
2.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). .........................................144
2.2 CONCEPT ON INTELLIGENCE ...........................................................................................144
2.3 NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE ..............................................................................................145
2.4 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE..................................................................................................147
2.5 FUNCTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE ........................................................................................147
2.6 MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE .................................................................................147
2.7 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST .........................................................................................148
2.8 CALCULATING INTELLIGENT QUOTIENT (IQ). ..................................................................149
2.9 EDUCATIONAL USES OF INTELLIGENCE ...........................................................................151
2.10 UNIT SUMMARY: .............................................................................................................152
2.11 ACTIVITY 2. ......................................................................................................................152

UNIT THREE ........................................................... 153

128 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
 3.0 EDUCATION MEASUREMENT, TESTING AND ASSESSMENT ......................................................153
3.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). .........................................153
3.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS ...................................................................................................153
3.2.1 Concept of Educational Measurement .......................................................................153
3.2.2 Definition of Educational Measurement.....................................................................153
3.2.3 Assessment vs. Grading (Evaluation). .........................................................................154
3.3 WHY DO WE ASSESS? ......................................................................................................154
3.4 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING.
155
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF ASSESSMENT...................................................................................158
1.6.1 Formative, Summative and Diagnostic Assessment. ..................................................158
1.6.2 Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Assessment. ..........................................160
1.6.3 Formal and Informal Assessment. ..............................................................................160
1.7 TEST INSTRUMENTS. .......................................................................................................160
1.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A TEST. ............................................................................161
1.9 UNIT SUMMARY: .............................................................................................................164
1.10 ACTIVITY THREE...............................................................................................................165

UNIT FOUR ............................................................. 166

4.0 STATISTICAL EDUCATION MEASUREMENT .....................................................................166
4.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES). .........................................166
4.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS ...................................................................................................166
4.2.1 Statistics ......................................................................................................................166
4.2.2 Definition of Data. .......................................................................................................166
4.3 TYPES OF DATA................................................................................................................167
4.3.1 Primary Data. ..............................................................................................................167
4.3.2 Secondary Data. ..........................................................................................................167
4.4 MEASUREMENT OF CENTRAL TENDENCY. ......................................................................168
4.4.1 The Mean. ...................................................................................................................168
4.4.2 The Median .................................................................................................................169
4.4.3 The Mode. ...................................................................................................................170
4.5 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABILITY ....................................................................................172
4.5.1 The Range....................................................................................................................173
4.5.2 The Variance ...............................................................................................................173
4.5.3 The Standard Deviation...............................................................................................176
4.6 UNIT SUMMARY: .............................................................................................................177

129 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 4.7 ACTIVITY 4. ......................................................................................................................178
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................179

130 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION
The knowledge of how to stimulate the students to participate meaningfully in classroom will
go a long way in assisting the teachers. In fact many learners fail their studies because of lack of
motivation mostly from their teachers. This unit therefore provides the learners the opportunity
to understand different theories of motivation and how to apply these theories to their day-to-
day classroom teaching/learning activities.

1.2 LESSON OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define motivation
 Mention the two types of motivation
 Discuss Maslow and Murray’s theories of motivation
 Write on the classroom implications of Maslow’s theory of motivation.

1.3 DEFINATION OF MOTIVATION

 Motivation can be defined as an inspiration that propels someone into an action. It is an
internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts, feelings, and
actions (Lahey, 1995). In the opinion of Oladele (1998), motivation is a process by
which the learner‘s internal energies are directed toward various goal objects in his/her
environment. These energies or arousals push an individual in achieving his goals. An
individual may be highly motivated to perform well in a task and completely
unmotivated in another. This means that when people are motivated, they will work
tirelessly to achieve their aspirations.
 Maslow (1970), believed that motivation leads to growth and development, and that
need satisfaction is the most important sole factor underlying motivation. Maslow
furthered explained that man is perpetually in needs and that the resources to satisfy
those needs are limited. In view of this, man places his/her wants on the scale of
preference, that he/she selects the most pressing need. After this need has been satisfied,

131 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 it becomes less important, paving way for the next on the rank. The needs of man may
either be primary or secondary. Primary needs are the physiological wants of man. It
may be the need for water, rest, sexual intercourse, hunger and thirst. Secondary needs
are the desire for autonomy, affection, or the need for safety and security. For example,
the desire of a labourer to take a glass of water after thirst is a primary need. At the same
time, craving of the students to stay in a serene classroom environment is a secondary
need.
 Motivation is regarded as something which prompts, compels and energies an individual
to act or behave in particular fashion or time for attaining some specific goal or purpose.
Motivation is through to resort from Drives that is, forces which push or pull organism
into action in order to reach a goal e.g. if you are thirsty, you have a need for water and
you are driven by the body to seek it. Motivation is concerned with the cause of
behavior and strategies used in arousing the interest of pupils in a class activities and
maintaining this interest in order to ensure effective learning. Human behavior is a
consequence of motivation.

1.4 TWO TYPES OF MOTIVATION

There are two types of motivation or arousals. They can either be internally or externally driven.
The desire for food or sex arises from within us (intrinsic), while the yearning to obtain
recognition or approval is influenced by the conditions in our environment (extrinsic). In view
of the above explanation, motivation is divided into intrinsic and extrinsic.

1.4.1 INTRINSIC (INTERNAL) MOTIVATION

This is self - propelled motivation. It comes from within the individual as a result the individual
enjoying doing something e.g. Pupils like learning certain subjects because they enjoy doing
them. Teachers can enhance intrinsic motivation by ensuring that their pupils get satisfaction
from learning. Is an internal force or motive within the individual which propels him/her into
emitting certain behavior? It is an innate or genetically predetermined disposition to behave in a
particular way when he/she faces a particular situation. This type of motivation can make an
individual to have the feelings of self-confidence and competence (Deci and Ryan, 1985). A
student who is intrinsically motivated may carry out a task because of the enjoyment he/she
derives from such a task. In another way, a dog that sees a bone and runs for it, did that because
of the satisfaction it derives from eating bone. This type of behaviour does not require any prior
learning. Sighting the bone changes the behaviour of the dog and propels it to act.

132 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 1.4.2 EXTRINISIC (EXTERNAL) MOTIVATION.
Is the external or environmental factor which sets the individual‘s behavior into motion? It is
the incentive/reinforcer that drives an individual‘s behavior towards a goal. A student that is
extrinsically motivated will execute an action in order to obtain some reward or avoid some
sanctions. For example, a student who read hard for the examination did so because of the
desire to obtain better grade. The case also goes for a runner who wants to win a prize, he/she
will need constant practice than a person who wants to run for the fun of it. Extrinsic rewards
should be used with caution because they have the potential for decreasing exiting intrinsic
motivation. For example extrinsic incentive may spur a student to actively participate in the task
for which the student has no interest, but may undermine intrinsic and continuing motivation in
him/her (Deci et al, 1985). Therefore, students‘ motivation automatically has to do with the
students‘ desire to participate in the learning process. It also concerns the reasons or goals that
underlie their involvement or non-involvement in academic activities.
Lack of motivation can lead to serious class control problems.

1.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Several theories on motivation have been developed by different psychologists. Notable among
them are (Abraham M) – Humanistic theory, Attribution Theory of Learning, Self Fulfilment
Prophecy, Goal Setting Theory and Self Fulfilment Prophecy. In this paper, attempt will be
made to discuss all of them.

1.5.1 ABRAHAM MASLOW’S THEORY OF

MOTIVATION.
Abraham Maslow was a foremost Psychologist. He developed a theory (Human Needs) in
which he identified seven vital human needs according to level of urgency or exigency. These
needs according to the Maslow are:
i. Physiological Needs
ii. Security and Safety Needs
iii. Love and Belongingness Needs
iv. Achievement Needs/Self-esteem needs
v. Self-Actualization Needs

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 i. Physiological Needs: These are the biological or survival needs of man. They are the
most basic needs that control the other needs. Until these needs are fulfilled or satisfied,
man will not be able to go to the next level. Examples of these needs are the desire to eat
food when hungry, drink water when thirsty or the need for rest, sex, air or to excrete
unwanted materials from the body systems. After these survivals needs have been
adequately taken care, they become less important and one moves to the next which is
the desire for security and safety.
ii. Safety and Security Needs: Human beings require safety and protection from danger or
external aggressors. After one has successfully dealt with physiological needs, it is
desirable to cater for psychological needs. At this point, man will be thinking of where
to live and efforts will be made to keep him/herself from impending dangers, threats or
hazards. The hallmark of these needs is the quest by an individual to seek for conducive
or peaceful abode. For example, the desire of war victims to migrate from their original
country to become refugees in another country is the need for safety and security. Also,
a chicken that quickly hibernates under its mother on sighting an eagle did so because of
its desire for safety.
iii. Love and belongingness needs: This involves the aspiration of man to establish a
cordial relationship with others. It is the need of man to love and be loved. At this level
of need, people will like to extend their hands of fellowship or comradeship to their
friends, mates, co-workers or neighbours. They equally will expect that such gestures be
reciprocated by others. Onyehalu (1988) believes that this need is manifested in our
affiliations and friendships.
iv. Self-Esteem Needs: These are the things we desire in order that our ego will be boosted.
After the individual has been accorded respect or recognition by others, the next thing
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 for him/her is to start seeking for the things that will make him/her enjoy considerable
influence from others. The ability of someone to fulfill this condition makes him/her feel
superior and self-confident. Inability to fulfill this need, makes a person feel dejected or
inferior.
v. Self-Actualization Needs: When a person has successfully achieved or gained the most
basic needs or wants, then such an individual will want to get a rare opportunity. It is the
time when a person will like to distinguish him/herself, by seeking for power or extra-
ordinary achievement. At this point person is said to have reached the peak of his
potentials.

1.5.2 WEINER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF

MOTIVATION
According to Weiner‘s attributions are perceptions about the causes of success and failure that
takes place even in schools. Suppose that you as student get a low mark on a test and are
wondering what caused the low mark. You can construct various explanations to make various
attributions about this failure. Maybe you did not study very hard; maybe the test itself was
difficult; maybe you were unlucky; maybe you just are not smart enough.

Each explanation attributes the failure to a different factor. The explanations that you settle
upon may reflect the truth accurately—or then again, they may not. What is important about
attributions is that they reflect personal beliefs about the sources or causes of success and
failure. As such, they tend to affect motivation in various ways, depending on the nature of the
attribution (Weiner, 2005).

Locus, Stability, and Controllability.

Attributions vary in three underlying ways: locus, stability, and controllability.

 The locus of attribution is the location (figuratively speaking) of the source of success or
failure. If you attribute a top mark on a test to your ability, then the locus is internal; if
you attribute the mark to the test‘s having easy questions, then the locus is external.

 The stability of attribution is its relative permanence. If you attribute the mark to your
ability, then the source of success is relatively stable—by definition, the ability is a
relatively lasting quality. If you attribute a top mark to the effort you put into studying,

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 then the source of success is unstable—effort can vary and has to be renewed on each
occasion, or else it disappears.

 The controllability of attribution is the extent to which the individual can influence it. If
you attribute a top mark to your effort at studying, then the source of success is
relatively controllable—you can influence effort simply by deciding how much to study.
But if you attribute the mark to simple luck, then the source of the success
is uncontrollable—there is nothing that can influence random chance.

The Figure above shows the Attribution theory model.

 As you might suspect, the way that these attributions combine affects students‘
academic motivations in major ways. It usually helps both motivation and achievement
if a student attributes academic successes and failures to factors that are internal and
controllable, such as effort or a choice to use particular learning strategies (Dweck,
2000). Attributing successes to factors that are internal but stable or controllable (like
ability), on the other hand, is both a blessing and a curse: sometimes it can create
optimism about prospects for future success (―I always do well‖), but it can also lead to
indifference about correcting mistakes (Dweck, 2006), or even create pessimism if a
student happens not to perform at the accustomed level (―Maybe I‘m not as smart as I
thought‖). Worst of all for academic motivation is attributions, whether stable or not,
related to external factors. Believing that performance depends simply on luck (―The
teacher was in a bad mood when marking‖) or on the excessive difficulty of material
removes the incentive for a student to invest in learning. All in all, then, it seems
important for teachers to encourage internal, stable attributions about success.

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Influencing Students’ Attributions

 One way or another, effective strategies involve framing teachers‘ own explanations of
success and failure around internal, controllable factors. Instead of telling a student:
―Good work! You‘re smart!‖ try saying: ―Good work! Your effort really made a
difference, didn‘t it?‖ If a student fails, instead of saying, ―Too bad! This material is just
too hard for you,‖ try saying, ―Let‘s find a strategy for practicing this more, and then
you can try again.‖ In both cases, the first option emphasizes uncontrollable factors
(effort, difficulty level), and the second option emphasizes internal, controllable factors
(effort, use of specific strategies).

 Such attributions will only be convincing, however, if teachers provide appropriate

conditions for students to learn—conditions in which students‘ efforts really do pay off.
There are three conditions that have to be in place in particular. First, academic tasks and
materials actually have to be at about the right level of difficulty. If you give problems
in advanced calculus to a first-grade student, the student will not only fail them but also
be justified in attributing the failure to an external factor, task difficulty. If assignments
are assessed in ways that produce highly variable, unreliable marks, then students will
rightly attribute their performance to an external, unstable source: luck. Both
circumstances will interfere with motivation.

 Second, teachers also need to be ready to give help to individuals who need it—even if
they believe that an assignment is easy enough or clear enough those students should not
need individual help. Readiness to help is always essential because it is often hard to
know in advance exactly how hard a task will prove to be for particular students.
Without assistance, a task that proves difficult initially may remain difficult indefinitely,
and the student will be tempted to make unproductive, though correct, attributions about
his or her failure (―I will never understand this,‖ ―I‘m not smart enough,‖ or ―It doesn‘t
matter how hard I study‖).

 Third, teachers need to remember that ability—usually considered a relatively stable

factor—often actually changes incrementally over the long term. Recognizing this fact is
one of the best ways to bring about actual increases in students‘ abilities. A middle-years

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 student might play the trumpet in the school band at a high level of ability, but this
ability actually reflects a lot of previous effort and a gradual increase in ability. A
second-grade student who reads fluently, in this sense may have a high current ability to
read; but at some point in the distant past that same student could not read as well, and
even further back he may not have been able to read at all. The increases in ability have
happened at least in part because of effort

1.5.3 LOCKE AND LATHAM’S GOAL-SETTING

THEORY OF MOTIVATION.

 Locke and Latham provide a well-developed goal-setting theory of motivation. The

theory emphasizes the important relationship between goals and performance. Research
supports predictions that the most effective performance seems to result when goals are
specific and challenging, when they are used to evaluate performance and linked to
feedback on results, and create commitment and acceptance. The motivational impact of
goals may be affected by moderators such as ability and self-efficacy. Deadlines
improve the effectiveness of goals. A learning goal orientation leads to higher
performance than a performance goal orientation, and group goal-setting is as important
as individual goal setting.
 A goal is defined simply as what the individual is consciously trying to do. Locke and
Latham postulate that the form in which one experiences one‘s value judgments is
emotional. That is, one‘s values create a desire to do things consistent with them. Goals
also affect behavior (job performance) through other mechanisms. For Locke and
Latham, goals, therefore, direct attention and action. Furthermore, challenging goals
mobilize energy, lead to higher effort, and increase persistent effort. Goals motivate
people to develop strategies that will enable them to perform at the required goal levels.
Finally, accomplishing the goal can lead to satisfaction and further motivation, or
frustration and lower motivation if the goal is not accomplished.
Application of Goal setting theory of motivation in education.
 Goal-setting theory (GST) could be used in different domains such as teaching and
classrooms setting. In teaching, for example, this theory could be used as an
instructional procedure to improve students‘ writing performance for those who have
difficulty in learning writing. By setting specific goals of what will be written in each
paragraph, students may perform better in their writing class.

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  In addition, Nebel, et al. (2017) mentions that GST can also be used while using
educational video games such as Minecraft; goal setting can reduce students‘ cognitive
load when they set specific goals. Moreover, players who use educational video games
and follow a specific learning goal can be impacted affectively by goal setting. In other
words, students tend to become more engaged and show greater passion in finishing the
task when they have clear goals.
 Moreover, Idowu, et al. (2014) invited 80 senior secondary school students to
investigate whether goal setting skills are effective for students‘ academic performance
in English, and the results indicated that the incorporation of a goal setting strategy can
enhance students‘ academic performance in English. In other words, teachers can
encourage students to create goals that can support their academic performance.

1.5.4 ROBERT K. MERTON’S SELF FULFILMENT

PROPHECY
 A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief or expectation that influences a person's behavior
and ultimately shapes reality.
 This phenomenon suggests that people create consequences based on their previous
knowledge of a subject. The term was coined by American sociologist Robert K. Merton
and is commonly used by sociologists to study student performance, deviant or criminal
behavior, and the impact of racial stereotypes on targeted groups.
 The Pygmalion effect is another name for the self-fulfilling prophecy. In a self-fulfilling
prophecy, an individual's expectations about another person or entity eventually result in
the other person or entity acting in ways that confirm the expectations.
 Self-fulfilling prophecies can yield both negative and positive results, and the
interpersonal communication whereby this process often transpires can have enormous
implications for society. For example, if the teacher has high expectation from the
learners and that expectation became true, the learner may be motivated. On the other
hand if the teacher has low or poor expectation from the learner and that expectations
becomes full flied them then a self-fulfilling prophecy has been attained.

1.5.5 THE CONCEPT OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

 The term was coined in 1967 by the American psychologists Martin Seligman and
Steven Maier. The pair was conducting research on animal behavior that involved
delivering electric shocks to dogs. Dogs that learned that they could not escape the
shock stopped trying in subsequent experiments, even when it became possible to avoid
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 the shock by jumping over a barrier. The researchers later realized they had picked up on
a slightly different behavior, learning control, but studies have since confirmed that
learned helplessness occurs.
 Seligman later developed the concept of learned optimism: By explaining events to
ourselves in a constructive manner and developing a positive internal dialogue, people
can break free from their cycle of helplessness.
 Learned helplessness occurs when an individual continuously faces a negative,
uncontrollable situation and stops trying to change their circumstances, even when they
have the ability to do so. For example, a smoker may repeatedly try and fail to quit. He
may grow frustrated and come to believe that nothing he does will help, and therefore he
stops trying altogether. The perception that one cannot control the situation essentially
elicits a passive response to the harm that is occurring.

1.5 CAUSES OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

 Learned helplessness is frequently the result of experiencing stress or trauma. People
may feel that they have little to no control over the situation. Because of the lack of
control, people may feel helpless and unmotivated to take action.
Common causes that can lead to learned helplessness include:
 Abuse
 Childhood neglect
 Difficult
 Domestic violence
 Natural disasters
 Trauma
Overcoming Learned Helplessness
 Learned helplessness can often be successfully decreased, particularly if intervention
occurs during the early stages. Long-term learned helplessness can also be reduced,
although it may require longer-term effort. Strategies that can help include:
 Psychotherapy: Therapy can be effective in reducing symptoms of learned
helplessness. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a form of psychotherapy that can be
beneficial in overcoming the thinking and behavioral patterns that contribute to learned
helplessness. The goal of CBT is to help patients identify negative thought patterns that
contribute to feelings of learned helplessness and then replace these thoughts with more
optimistic and rational thoughts. This process often involves carefully analyzing what
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 you are thinking, actively challenging these ideas, and disputing negative thought
patterns.
 Self-Care Strategies: One animal study suggested that exercise may help reduce
symptoms of learned helplessness. Other self-care strategies, such as getting enough
sleep, managing stress levels, and eating a healthy diet, can also help people foster a
greater sense of control over their life.
 Social Support: Getting social support and encouragement from others may also be
helpful. When you feel helpless in the face of a challenge, supportive people can help
you feel more motivated and encouraged to keep trying. With time and continued
practice, you can eventually acquire successful experiences that help you feel more in
control.

1.6 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE LEARNERS LEVEL OF

MOTIVATION
Factors which influence learner‘s level of motivation are:-
 Need for recognition
 Need to achieve the best
 Need to be a valued pupil (learner)
 Need for self- respect and for friendship
 Need for merit awards

1.7 CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS OF THEORY OF

MOTIVATION
Class Management and motivation are very closely related to each other. A well motivated
class is easier to manage than one which is poorly motivated.
 It is important for the teacher to know the basic needs of his/her students and cater for
these according to level of their important. For example, the teacher needs to think first
of students‘ food, rest or health before thinking of teaching them.
 When the teacher praises his/her students for doing well in their study or assignment,
they will be spurred to sustain that effort.
 A classroom which is well decorated or adorned with beautiful charts and learning
materials will be students‘ friendly. The students‘ minds will always be attracted to the
activities in a beautifully adorned classroom.
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  In the classroom, students like being recognized or respected. When their views are
recognized or respected, they will have their confidence boosted and developed.
 From the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should endeavor to make his/her students
know possible outcome of the lesson. It is when the students know what they are likely
to achieve from the lesson that their attention will be arrested and sustained.
 Feedback is necessary if the interest of the students must be sustained in the classroom.
So the teacher should always strive to let them know how they are performing in the
teaching-learning activities.
 The teacher should also provide/plan for extra-curricular activities for his/her students.
When the teacher does this, the students will have opportunity of establishing a genuine
interaction among them. Besides, they will be able to showcase their hidden talents.
 When dealing with the students in the classroom, the teacher should take into
consideration, the developmental changes and differences in the students before
deciding on the particular motivation pattern to be employed.

1.8 UNIT SUMMARY:

Motivation is regarded as something which prompts compels and energies an individual to act
or behave in particular fashion or time for attaining some specific goal or purpose. Motivation is
through to resort from Drives that is, forces which push or pull organism into action in order to
reach a goal e.g. if you are thirsty, you have a need for water and you are driven by the body to
seek it. Motivation is concerned with the cause of behavior and strategies used in arousing the
interest of pupils in a class activities and maintaining this interest in order to ensure effective
learning. Human behavior is a consequence of motivation.

1.9 ACTIVITY 1.

1. Define the term motivation.

2. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
3. Discuss the Need of theory of Motivation according to Maslow.
4. Explain how the following factors to influence learners level of motivation.

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  Need for merit awards.
 Need to achieve the best.
 Need to be a valued learn

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 UNIT TWO
2.0 INTRODUCTION TO INTELLIGENCE
You know that every individual is a unique being. Along with the features and characteristics
shared with over people, i.e. the universal ones, each individual had many particular
characteristics. The individual is born as a man, but only gradually with the help of adults and
through his own activity, becomes an individual. As for the adult‘s influence, the decisive role
in this process is played by education which is purposeful, planned, professional and
institutionalized. However, the development of the individual is influenced both by internal and
external influences. In the process of education and development of personality, the pupil is not
only the object of education but also the subject of his own development. These subjective
tendencies are intelligence, attitude, aptitude, creativity and interest which are particularly the
concern of psychology.

2.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Discuss the concept of intelligence
 Discuss the types of Human Intelligence
 Discuss the importance of intelligence testing
 Demonstrate the use and misuse of intelligence tests
 Discuss the concepts of over achievements and
 Under achievement in learners
 Discuss the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
 Discuss the IQ in relation to race, gender

2.2 CONCEPT ON INTELLIGENCE

 The word intelligence forms part of own ordinary stock of words which we use every day.
In the field of psychology too, the word intelligence finds a fairly comprehensive use. In
fact, there are as many definitions of intelligences as there are writers on the subject.

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  In general terms, intelligence means the manner with which an individual deals with
facts and situations. First, intelligence is defined in terms of observable objective
behavior. Second, most definitions refer both to an individual‘s capacity to learn and to
knowledge that has already been acquired. Many definitions also suggest that the ability
to adapt to the environment is a sign of intelligence.
 Ability to Adjust: According to this group, intelligence is general mental adaptability to
new problems and new situations of life. Some definitions come under this group are as
follows.

 Binet (1905): ―Intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his behavior towards a
goal‖.
 Ability to Learn: This group of definitions of Intelligence stresses the ability to learn.
The more intelligent the person, the more readily and extensively he is able to learn and
enlarge his field of activity and experience is the key words of these definitions.
 Buckingham (1921) ―Intelligence is the learning ability.‖
 Ability to do abstract reasoning: This group of definitions maintains that intelligence
is the ability to carry on obstructs thinking. This implies the effective use of ideas and
efficiency in dealing with symbols, specially numerical and verbal symbols.
 L. M. Termon (1921): ―An individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry on
abstract thinking.‖

2.3 NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

 The nature of intelligence was first though of by a brilliant English Scientist Sir Francis
Galton. His general conclusion that intelligence is a hereditary trait is reflected by the title
of his book ―Hereditary Genius.‖
 As you see that the definition of intelligence is defined differently, so the nature of
intelligent is also described by different persons in different ways. For example the school
teacher may describe a student as bright, if the learns his lesson easily. The manager of a
Super Bazar may regard a Salesman as intelligent and smart if he can satisfy customers
and dispose them of quickly. The workshops manager may regard an apprentice as
intelligence if the he is skillful in using his hands and his tools. In the above cases, the
word ‗intelligent‘ has been used in the sense of ―efficient behavior.‖
 The nature of intelligence also differs according to the nature of work if can do. For
example handing ideas and symbols such as words, formulas, numbers and diagrams

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 abstract intelligence is required. A person with abstract intelligence is able to discover
relations among symbols and to solve problems. Professionals like doctors, lawyers,
literary men as well as business men and statesmen are supposed to possess a high degree
of abstract intelligent.
 We do not usually find a student who is very good in one subject and poor in all other
subjects. It is rare to find a person who can do only one task very well. On the other hand,
it may be found that even average people perform to be positively related, we have
discussed on the concept and nature of intelligence. On that basis we can generalize the
important nature and characteristics of intelligence as follows.
 Intelligence is inherited: The amount of intelligence that a person possesses in inherited
and fixed. The amount though fixed does not reveal itself at the start of life with the
growth of the child, the amount inherited by a child also grows. The general belief is that
the growth of intelligence stops and it reaches it‘s limit at the age of sixteen. But you
know and it is also true that a man of forty knows more than he was a boy of sixteen. But
this does not mean that the amount of intelligence possessed by him has increased. This
may be due to his experience. As regards his intelligence, his positions remains the same.

 Intelligence is influenced by environment factors: Love, affection, concern &

generosity judiciously bestowed on growing children, have very desirable effects. Poor
environment retard development of intelligence.

 Intelligence helps in adjustment & inventions: An intelligent person has the ability to
adjust himself to the changing circumstances with ease, efficiency and speed. He has the
capacity to assimilate ideas very quickly and clearly. He can cope? With new situations
very successfully. All the inventions of the word can be attributed to persons of very high
intelligence.

 Intelligence has no sex differences: Various studies have been conducted by

psychologists and researcher to find out whether women are more intelligent that men and
vice versa. The result of these researches hangs in one way or the other. In some of the
cases no significant difference has been found. Research studies also so that the average
scores of the sense are strongly similar. Therefore it is proper to think that difference in
sex does not contribute towards difference in intelligence.

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  Intelligence has no racial or cultural differences: Now, students we will see whether a
particular race, caste or cultural group is superior to other in intelligence. This hypothesis
are also examined by so many research workers, the results of earlier studies proved that
intelligence is not the birth right of particular race of group. The bright and the ‗dull‘ can
be found in any race, caste or cultural group. In this regard Franze Boas states, ―If we were
to select the most intelligent, imaginative, energetic and emotionally stable third of
mankind, all races would be represented. ―you can also take any study & prove if.‖

2.4 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE.

 Students, you know that all the individuals are not same in their physical appearance. Here
you will also able to know that all people are not having same type and same amount of
intelligence in solving all problems. According to Thurstone intelligent behavior can be
recognized in three broad areas.

 Abstract Intelligence: Abstract intelligence is the ability to understand and manage

ideas and symbols. Such as words, numbers etc. In the case of students this is very close
to scholastic aptitude.
 Mechanical Intelligence: Mechanical intelligence is the ability to clean, understand and
manage things and mechanisms, such as a knife, a gun, a moving machine and
automobile etc.
 Social Intelligence: social intelligence is the ability to understand and mange men and
women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations.

2.5 FUNCTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE

 Intelligence directs one‘s behavior towards a goal.
 It helps one to adjust to new situations.
 It helps an individual to adapt to physical and social environment.
 It helps to learn new things and to solve new problems.
 It directs the individual to think rationally and act purposefully.

2.6 MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

 Let us discuss how intelligence can also be measured. All of you may be very curious to
know if. It is important to note that intelligence is inferred from a variety of elements i.e.
behavior and speed of doing things correctly etc. In ancient India intelligence was

147 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 measured through conversation, physical features, gestures, gait, speech, changes in the
eye and facial expression. But today, many intelligence tests are widely which primarily
measures abstract intelligence as exemplified by competence in dealing with symbols in
a meaningful way. A number of tests measuring social intelligence as well as
mechanical intelligence have also been developed. An intelligence test is an objective
and a standard measure.

2.7 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST

 General (or abstract) Intelligence test: The general intelligence test was first designed
by psychologists for use in schools. These were intended to serve primarily as tools in
determining a child‘s ability to carry on schools work, to use symbols and numbers
quickly and accurately and to read with comprehension. It is for this reason that tests
designed to measure abstract abilities came to be known as general intelligence tests.
Another purpose of designing such tests was to measure the abilities that distinguishes
the bright child from the dull. Since this distinction is significant for schools and
vocational success and also for social adjustment, the intelligence test is an important
tool in psychology.
 Types of Intelligence Test: The general intelligence tests have been classified
into three groups. Individual, group and performance tests.
 Individual Test: The individual intelligence test is administered to only one individual
at a time. A trained psychologist is expected to administer the test for a definite period
of time and interpret the result. These tests cover age group from 2 years to 18 years.
These are (i) The Binet simon tests, (ii) Revised tests by Terman, (iii) Mental scholastic
tests of Burt and (d) Weschler test.

 Group Test: The group intelligence tests are meant for assessing the intelligence of a
large number of individuals in one sitting. There are two kinds of group intelligence
tests verbal and nonverbal.

 Verbal: The verbal group test requires an individual to read out certain problems and
write out solutions of these problems.

 Non-Verbal: The non-verbal group tests present similar problems as the verbal test but
in a different way. The problems are presented in the form of pictures, diagrams, puzzles

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 and mazes. If does not require the individual to read or write, but only to be able to make
a mark with a pencil.

 Performance Test.
Performance tests are designed to test problem solving ability using certain objects such
as pictures and blocks, instead of words. These tests are especially useful with young
children, illiterates, persons with speech defects and persons who do not have
proficiency in language. Some of the famous tests are (i) Koh‘s Block design test (ii)
The cube construction tests and (iii) The Pass Along tests. Group tests had their birth in
America when the intelligence of the recruits who joined the army in the First World
War was to be calculated. These are (i) The Army Alpha and Beta test (ii) Terman‘s
group tests, (iii) Out self-administrative tests. Intelligence tests consist of different types
of questions to test the intelligence of individual. These questions are based on the
following factors.
 Vocabulary: The extent of an individual‘s vocabulary is one of the most reliable
indices of his intelligence. It can be tested through arranging words in difficult
order or giving synonym or antonym of a word.
 Digit symbol test: The subject is required to match each one of series of printed digits
with an appropriate symbol, using a prescribed code. These are different verbal and non-
verbal factors on which questions are framed to test the intelligence of the individual.
But this process of determining the intelligence is a complicated process. It involves a
comparison and establishment of a relationship between chronological age (C. A.) and
mental age (M. A.). This relationship is expressed by the term I. Q. (Intelligent
Quotient).
Now we will discuss the concept of age, chronological age & intelligent quotient.

2.8 CALCULATING INTELLIGENT QUOTIENT (IQ).

 IQ, (from ―intelligence quotient‖), is a number used to express the relative intelligence
of a person. It is one of many intelligence tests.
 A person's IQ score was originally calculated by dividing a person's mental age by their
chronological age and then multiplying by 100. Or, MA ÷ CA × 100.
 Chronological age was simply the child's biological age or how old the child was.
 Mental age was derived via an intelligence test and seeing how the child scored. This
score was then compared with how other children did on the test. It was found that as

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 children get older; their score on the test would improve. Mental Age was then defined
as the age at which a typical child exhibits a particular level of performance on the test.
Or, how old is the average child when they score that high on the test? So IQ is a
measure of the mismatch between a child's mental and chronological ages.
 Intelligent quotient: The intelligent quotient represents the degree of brightness
possessed by an individual. It expresses intelligent as the ratio of the metal age of the
chronological age. When the mental age is divided by the chronological age and the
quotient is multiplied by 100 the result is I. Q. So the formula of finding out I. Q is.
I. Q. = M. A. X 100
C. A.
If a child has a mental of 25, and a chronological age of 19 calculate the IQ.
IQ=MA/CAx100
IQ=25/19x100
IQ=132.
 The fraction is multiplied by 100 in order to remove the decimal point and to give the I.
Q. a value of 100 when mental age is equal with chronological age. This if the M. A. is
above the C. A. I. Q. will be above 100. If the M. A. is less than the C. A. the resulting I.
Q. will be less than 100. thus the scale has the same meaning from one age to another. I.
Q, may also be regarded as an index of brightness.

 The following table shows the relationship between I.Q. and the degree of brightness
given by Dr. Merrily based on the studies by Terman Merely Revision.

IQ CLASSIFICATION PERCENTAGE

140 and above Very superior 1.5

119-139 Superior 11

110 – 119 High - Average 18

90 – 109 Average 47

80 – 89 Low Average 14

70 – 79 Borderline defective 6

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 Below 70 Mentally retarded 2.5

2.9 EDUCATIONAL USES OF INTELLIGENCE

In educational situations intelligence tests helps in:

 Selection of Courses: Selection of courses for pupils can be made on the basis of
intelligence tests. Some subject‘s required higher order of intelligence and other require
low order of intelligence.
 Selection of pupils to Schools: In good school there is always a rush of admission. All
the applicants though eligible for admission cannot be admitted. In this case, intelligence
tests help a lot to meet out this difficulty.
 Classification of pupils: Children can be classification into various categories on the
basis of intelligence tests. We have children who are of superior intelligence, average,
intelligence, dull and feeble minded. Children having the same I. Q. may be grouped
together and constitute a class. This helps in avoiding educational wastage and
developing progress among children according to their ability.
 Detections of various types of pupils: In order to classify the pupil into homogeneous
group, we have to detect them. This can be done with the help of intelligence tests.
 Award of Scholarships: On the basis of intelligence and achievement tests scholarship
may be awarded to suitable candidates.
 Promotion of pupils: Intelligence tests are also used to promote pupils. In case of gifted
child, we give double promotion.
 Prediction of success: Student‘s success can be predicted on the basis of intelligence
tests.
 Assessment of Teacher’s work: The achievement of students when compared to their
intelligence indicates the teacher‘s work.
 Evaluation of Methods and Instructional Material: Intelligence tests also help in
evaluating the importance of different methods & reading materials relating to different
subject & text books.

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  Educational Guidance: Educational guidance like selection of courses, streams etc, can
be given to students on the basis of the results of intelligence tests.
 Vocational uses: Intelligence tests may be of great use in Vocational guidance.
Vocational guidance can be given on the basis of the result of intelligence tests.
 Uses in Army and Civil Services: Intelligence tests are extensively used in the Army
since the First World War. Army Alpha and Army Beta tests have used on lakhs of
persons.
 Uses in Industry: Intelligence tests very useful in Industry in the selection of
individuals for particular positions in the industry, in locating workers who require
training and to study working conditions. They are also used together with other
methods of selection like interview and application forms containing data of previous
experience and qualifications.
 Uses in Research: Intelligence tests are very useful for research in selecting the area of
research etc.

2.10 UNIT SUMMARY:

This unit we have learnt that psychology refers to the scientific study of the human mind and its
functions, specifically those that affect human behavior.

2.11 ACTIVITY 2.

i. Explain the meaning and nature of intelligence.

ii. Explain the different types of intelligence tests with examples.
iii. Explain any four uses of intelligence tests.
iv. What is intelligence quotient?

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 UNIT THREE
3.0 EDUCATION MEASUREMENT, TESTING AND
ASSESSMENT
Exams and essays along with speeches and projects are forms of testing and assessment that are
usually given to learners in institution of learning. Assessment is a critical step in the learning
process. It determines whether or not the course's learning objectives have been met. A learning
objective is what students should know or be able to do by the time a lesson is completed.
Assessment affects many facets of education, including student grades, placement, and
advancement as well as curriculum, instructional needs, and school funding. Assessment is a
critical piece of the learning process. This UNIT therefore gives you an overview of assessment,
why it benefits both teachers and students, and the three most common forms of assessment.

3.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Express educational measurements
 Differentiate assessment for learning and assessment of learning
 Interpret types of tests, assessments and evaluation.
 Define the terms validity and reliability

3.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS

3.2.1 Concept of Educational Measurement

 The term ―Educational Measurement‖ refers to any device for the general study and
practice of testing, scaling, and appraising the outcomes of educational process. It
includes administration and scoring or tests, scale construction, validation and
standardization, and application of statistical techniques in the interpretation of obtained
measures or test results.

3.2.2 Definition of Educational Measurement.

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  Educational Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to individuals or their
characteristics according to specified rules. Measurement requires the use of numbers
but does not require the value judgments be made about the numbers obtained from the
process. We measure achievement with a test by counting the number of test items a
student answers correctly, and we use exactly the same rule to assign a number to the
achievement of each, student in the class. Measurements are useful for describing the
amount of certain abilities that individuals have.

3.2.3 Assessment vs. Grading (Evaluation).

Grading is a component of assessment; i.e., a formal, summative, final and product-
oriented judgment of the overall quality of a learner's performance or achievement in a
particular educational context, such as a course. Generally, grading employs a
comparative standard of measurement and sets up a competitive relationship among
those receiving grades. Most proponents of assessment, however, would argue that
grading and assessment are two different things. Assessment measures student growth
and progress on an individual basis, emphasizing informal, formative, process-oriented
reflective feedback and communication between learners and teachers. Grading
(evaluation) assesses student achievement on an individual basis, emphasizing
summative and formal judgments of learners by teachers.

3.3 WHY DO WE ASSESS?

We assess in order to diagnose feedback and maintain the standards.
(1) DIAGNOSIS
 Establish entry behavior.
 Diagnose the learning needs and difficulties.
(2) FEED BACK
We assess in order to have:
 Feedback to students on their progress.
 Diagnose strengths and areas for development.
 Reinforce learning.
 Feedback to teachers.
 Motivate the learners.
(3) STANDARD
 Maintain standards
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  Certificate achievement
 Predict future performance or selection
 Facilitate progression
 Provide date for quality assurance system
 Qualify as ‗safe -to- practice (e.g. driving, nursing).

3.4 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSESSMENT FOR

LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING.
i. Assessment Of Learning.
 It involves looking at assessment information at the end of the teaching and learning
process to rank students‘ achievement levels against a standard. It is summative in
nature and typically involves standardized tests.
 Assessment OF learning scores are often used to move students from one grade to a
higher one or from one learning level to another based on their results of specified
achievement tests – e.g., state tests.
 The effectiveness of assessment of learning for grading or ranking depends on the
validity and reliability of tests.
 Assessment of learning is also known as a summative assessment.

Summative Assessment
 Made at the end of a unit of study to determine the level of understanding the student
has achieved.
 Includes a mark or grade against an expected standard.
 Used to plan future learning goals and pathways for students
 Provides evidence of achievement to the wider community, including parents, educators,
the students themselves and outside groups.

Main Principles of Assessment Of Learning

 Accompanied by a number or letter grade.
 Compares one student‘s achievement with standards.
 Results can be communicated to the student and parents.
 Occurs at the end of the learning unit.

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 ii. Assessment For Learning
 Assessment FOR learning embeds assessment processes throughout the teaching and
learning process. It includes both quantitative and qualitative data.
 During assessment for learning teachers know where their students are in terms of their
learning and check their progress.
 Students are guided on what they are expected to learn and what quality work looks like.
As the unit progresses, the teacher and student work together to assess the student‘s
knowledge, what she or he needs to learn to improve and extend this knowledge, and
how the student can best get to that point (formative assessment). Assessment for
learning occurs at all stages of the learning process.
 The ultimate purpose of assessment for learning is to create self-regulated learners who
can leave school able and confident to continue learning throughout their lives.
 Assessment for learning is also known as formative assessment.

iii. Formative Assessment

 Made to determine students‘ knowledge and skills as they progress through a unit of
study.
 Used to guide learning.
 Occurs during the course of a unit of study.

Main Principles of Assessment for Learning

 Includes initial or diagnostic assessment and formative assessment.
 Based on a variety of information sources (e.g., portfolios, works in progress, teacher
observation, conversation).
 Provides descriptive verbal or written feedback that primarily emphasizes student
strengths, identifies challenges and points to the next steps to take.
 Keep students on track.
 No grades or scores are given – record-keeping is primarily descriptive.
 Occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course of study to the
time of summative assessment.
 Involves students in their own learning.
 Encourages self-assessment and peer assessment as part of the regular classroom
routines.

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  Reflects a view of learning that helps students learn better, rather than just achieve a
better mark.
 Involves formal and informal assessment activities as part of learning and informs the
planning of future learning.
 Represents a detailed analysis of a student‘s work.

Assessment For Learning Strategies

Research has identified a number of classroom strategies that are particularly effective in
promoting Assessment For Learning such as:
 The Strategic Use of Questioning: Questioning is used to find out what students know,
understand and are able to do.
 Effective Teacher Feedback: Effective teacher feedback tells the students what they
have achieved and where they need to improve. Importantly, the feedback provides
specific suggestions about how that improvement might be achieved.
 Peer Feedback: Peer feedback occurs when a student tells another student what they
have achieved and where improvement is necessary. Again, the feedback provides
specific suggestions to help achieve improvement.
 Student Self-Assessment: Student self-assessment encourages students to take
responsibility for their own learning. It incorporates self-monitoring, self-assessment
and self-evaluation.
 The Formative Use of Summative Assessment: Summative assessment is a necessary
aspect of education. Formative use can be made of summative assessment, both before
and after the assessment event.

Benefits of Assessment For Learning

For teachers
Assessment for learning helps teachers gather information to:
 Plan and modify teaching and learning programs for individual students, groups of
students, and the class as a whole.
 Pinpoint students‘ strengths so that both teachers and students can build on them.
 Identify students‘ learning needs in a clear and constructive way so they can be
addressed.
 Involve parents in their children‘s learning.

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 For students
 Assessment for learning provides students with information and guidance so they can
plan and manage the next steps in their learning.
 It uses the information to lead from what has been learned to what needs to be learned
next.
Assessment As Learning
It occurs when students are their own assessors, when they monitor their own learning, ask
questions and use a range of strategies to decide what they know and can do, and how to use
assessment for new learning.
Principles of Assessment As Learning
 Encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning.
 Requires students to ask questions about their learning.
 Involves teachers and students in creating learning goals to encourage growth and
development.
 Provides ways for students to use formal and informal feedback to help them understand
the next steps in learning.
 Encourages peer assessment, self-assessment and reflection.
 Begins as soon as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for
performance.
 Involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results.
 Occurs throughout the learning process.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF ASSESSMENT

Assessments can be classified in many different ways. The most important distinctions ones are:
 Formative, Summative and Diagnostic;
 Objective and Subjective;
 Referencing (Criterion-referenced, Norm-referenced); and
 Informal and formal.

1.6.1 Formative, Summative and Diagnostic Assessment.

 Summative assessment: is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In the
educational setting, it is typically used to assign students a course grade. It is also used

158 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 to evaluate a programme. In Early identification and Intervention it is used to evaluate
an intervention programme. Summative assessments are end product evaluative in
nature. Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature and intended to
measure learning outcomes and report those outcomes to students, parents, and
administrators as it generally occurs at the conclusion of a lesson, class, course,
semester, academic year or end of an intervention programme. This type of assessment
in Early Identification and Intervention is usually done at the end of an intervention
programme.
 Formative assessment: is generally carried out throughout a lesson, course, project or
Intervention programme. It is also referred to as Formative or educative assessment, as it
is used to aid learning or to enhance the learning process. In an educational setting,
formative assessment might involve a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing
feedback on a student's work, and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes.
Formative assessments are diagnostic in nature. Assessment for learning is generally
formative in nature and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next
steps for individual learners and the class as a whole.
 Diagnostic assessment: is one of the common forms of assessment conducted in special
needs education. Diagnostic assessment measures a student's current level of knowledge,
skills and level of performance for the purpose of identifying or designing a suitable
program of learning. Simple form of this type of assessment pretest or baseline test
while more complex type takes the form of comprehensive assessment that may involve
assessment involving several domains and aspects of the child.
3.1.1 Objective and Subjective Assessment.
 Objective assessment: is a form of assessment or questioning which has a specific or
single correct answer. Objective assessment items (question) types include, yes/no,
true/false answers, multiple choice, and multiple-response and matching questions.
Objective assessment is becoming more popular due to the increased use of online
assessment (e-assessment) since this form of questioning is well-suited to
computerization. This type of assessment has strong tendency to use standardized formal
assessment tools.
 Subjective assessment: is a form of assessment or questioning which may have more
than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer or
response). It is subjective as such it tends to be biasness. Subjective assessment items or

159 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 types questions include extended-response questions and essays. This type it has
tendency to use informal assessment tools that are not standardized.

1.6.2 Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Assessment.

Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Assessment are a form comparative based
assessment. The comparison is based either on set criteria or a set norm.
 Criterion-referenced assessment: typically tends to measure an individual‘s
performance against a defined criterion (objective or set standards). Criterion-referenced
assessment is often, but not always, used to identify and establish a person‘s
competences (strengths and weaknesses). The common example of criterion-referenced
assessment are class tests, end of term test and other performance achievement
assessment tools.
 Norm-referenced assessment: this is Assessment where the results are compared to the
others of the same norm group. An individual‘s performance is compared to that of a
normative group. It is effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best
known example of norm-referenced assessment.

1.6.3 Formal and Informal Assessment.

 Formal Assessment: Formal assessment techniques are usually structured with specific
guide lines for administration, scoring and interpretation. They usually involve the use
of standardized assessment tools, which also usually involve the use of paper and pencil
or task performance or a written document, such as a test or quiz.
 Informal Assessment: Informal assessment techniques are usually less structured and
less standardized. They tend to involve the use of observations, inventories, checklists,
document analysis, interviews, rating scales, rubrics, adaptive behavior scales,
performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self-evaluation, and
discussion.

1.7 TEST INSTRUMENTS.

A test is a measuring Instrument. It measures the achievement of the learners (students). A test
needs to be accurate within limits. A test consists of items like questions or tasks, the quality of
these is determined by their characteristics. Some of the desirable characteristics of the items,
questions, or tasks that affect their quality are:
 Power of discrimination
 Objectivity of scoring
160 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I
  Validity
 Reliability
 Power of Discrimination: A test that consists of easy item only cannot bring the
differences in achievement of the learners (students). All the students will score well
and so it will not be effective in discriminating between good and poor achievers. A
good test should have this power of discrimination. We should, however, bear two
points in the mind. These are:
i. It is not necessary on every occasion to discriminate between the students.
ii. How easy or difficult the question is depends upon the group of students.
iii. A question for example may be difficult for first year students but easy for final
year students.
 Objectivity Scoring: A test will be either objective or subjective. If different people
are asked to independently score an essay question, they will probably award different
marks. This is because they will place different emphases on various parts of the essay.
In other subjective Judgment or Personal preferences of the marker will influence the
score. Essay question therefore, cannot be scored with complete objectivity. In an
objective test the same scores will be awarded by different people. A test made up of
multiple-choice question is objective in is marking.

1.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A TEST.

Whenever individuals are measured on a test item, there are two main characteristics of the
measurement which must be taken into consideration: Validity and Reliability.
What is Validity of a test?
Validity is the most important characteristic to consider when constructing or selecting a test or
measurement technique. The validity of a test may be defined as ―the accuracy with which a test
measures what it attempts to measure.‖ It is also defined as ―The efficiency with which a test
measures what it attempts to measure‖. For example, the results from an arithmetic test may
have a high degree of validity for indicating skill in numerical calculation, a low degree of
validity for indicating general reasoning ability, a moderate degree of validity for predicting
success in future mathematics courses, and no validity at all for predicting success in art or
music.

Types of Validity of A Test.

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There are three important types of validity of a test: content validity, criterion-related validity,
and construct validity.
 Content validity: According to Anastasi (1968), ―content validity involves essentially
the systematic examination of the text content to determine whether it covers a
representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured‖. It refers to how well our
tool sample represents the universe of criterion behavior. The validation of content
through competent judgments is satisfactory when the sampling of items is wide and
judicious.
 Criterion-related validity: This type of validity refers to the capacity of the test scores
to predict future performance or to estimate current performance on some valued
measure other than the test itself. For example, ‗Reading Readiness‘ scores might be
used to predict a student‘s future reading achievement, or a test of dictionary skills
might be used to estimate a student‘s skill in the use of the dictionary (as determined by
observation).
 Construct validity: This type of validity is concerned with the extent to which test
performance can be interpreted in terms of certain psychological constructs. A construct
is a psychological quality which is assumed to exist in order to explain some aspect of
behaviour. For example, ―Reasoning Ability‖ is a construct. When test scores are
interpreted as measures of reasoning ability, the implication is that there is a quality
associated with individuals that can be properly called reasoning ability and that it can
account to some degree for performance on the test.

Factors Affecting Validity

The following points influence the validity of a test:
 Unclear Direction: If directions do not clearly indicate to the respondent how to respond
to tool items, the validity of a tool is reduced.
 Vocabulary: If the vocabulary of the respondent is poor, the he/she fails to respond to
the tool item, even if he/she knows the answer. It becomes a reading comprehension text
for him/her, and the validity decreases.
 Difficult Sentence Construction: If a sentence is so constructed as to be difficult to
understand, respondents would be confused, which will affect the validity of the tool.
 Poorly Constructed Test Items: These reduce the validity of a test.
 Use of Inappropriate Items: The use of inappropriate items lowers validity.

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  Difficulty Level of Items: In an achievement test, too easy or too difficult test items
would not discriminate among students. Thereby the validity of a test is lowered.
 Influence of extraneous factors: Extraneous factors like the style of expression,
legibility, mechanics of grammar, (Spelling, punctuation) handwriting, length of the tool,
influence the validity of a tool.
 Inappropriate time limit: In a speed test, if no time limit is given he result will be
invalidated. In a power test, an inappropriate time limit will lower its validity. Our tests
are both power and speed tests. Hence care should be taken in fixing the time limit.
 Inappropriate coverage: If the does not cover all aspects of the construct being
measured adequately, its content validity will be adversely affected due to inadequate
sampling of items.
 Inadequate weightage: Inadequate weightage to some dimensions, sub-topics or
objectives would call into question the validity of tool.
 Halo effect: If a respondent has formed a poor impression about one aspect of the
concept, item, person, issue being measured, he/she is likely to rate that concept, item,
and person, issue poor on all other aspects too. Similarly, good impression about one
aspect of the concept, item, person, issue being measured, he/she is likely to rate that
concept, item, and person, issue high on all other aspects too. This is known as the halo
effect which lowers the validity of the tool about one aspect of the concept, item, person,
issue being measured, he/she is likely to rate that concept, item, person, issue poor on all
other aspects too.

What is Reliability of a test?

 A test score is called reliable when we have reasons of believing the score to be stable
and trustworthy. If we measure a student s level of achievement, we hope that his score
would be similar under different administrators, using different scores, with similar but
not identical items, or during a different time of the day.
 The reliability of a test may be defined as-
―The degree of consistency with which the test measures what it does measure‖.
 Anastasi (1968) ―Reliability means consistency of scores obtained by same individual
when re-examined with the test on different sets of equivalent items or under other
variable examining conditions‖.

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 3.1.2 Factors Influencing Reliability:
 Interval: With any method involving two setting testing occasions, the longer the
interval of time between two test administrations, the lower the co-efficient will tend to
be.
 Test Length: Adding equivalent items makes a test more reliable, while deleting them
makes it less reliable. A longer test will provide a more adequate sample of the behavior
being measured and the scores are apt to be less influenced by chance factors.
Lengthening of a test by a number of practical considerations like time, fatigue, boredom,
limited stock of good items.
 Inappropriate time limit: A test is considered to be a pure speed test if everyone who
reaches an item gets it right, but no one has the time to finish all the items. A power test
is one in which everyone has time to try all the items but, because of the difficulty level,
no one obtains a perfect score.
 Group Homogeneity: Other things being equal, the more heterogeneous the group, the
higher the reliability. The test is more reliable when applied to a group of pupils with a
wide range of ability than one with a narrow range of ability.
 Difficulty of the items: Tests in which there is little variability among the scores give
lower reliability estimates that tests in which the variability is high. Too difficult or too
easy tests for a group will tend to be less reliable because the differences among the
pupils in such tests are narrow.
 Objectivity of scoring: The more subjectively a measure is scored, the lower its
reliability. Objective-type tests are more reliable than subjective/Essay type tests.
 Ambiguous wording of items: When the questions are interpreted in different ways at
different times by the same pupils, the test becomes less reliable.
 Inconsistency in test administration: Such as deviations in timing, procedure,
instructions, etc. fluctuations in interests and attention of the pupils, Shifts in emotional
attitude make a test less reliable.
 Optional Questions: If optional questions are given, the same pupils may not attempt
the same items on a second administration, thereby the reliability of the test is reduced.

1.9 UNIT SUMMARY:

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In this Unit you have learnt that a learning objective is what students should know or be able to
do by the time a lesson is completed. Assessment affects many facets of education, including
student grades, placement, and advancement as well as curriculum, instructional needs, and
school funding. Assessment is a critical piece of the learning process. You also learnt that
validity is the most important characteristic to consider when constructing or selecting a test or
measurement technique. The validity of a test was defined as ―the accuracy with which a test
measures what it attempts to measure.‖ While reliability means consistency of scores obtained
by same individual when re-examined with the test on different sets of equivalent items or
under other variable examining conditions‖.

1.10 ACTIVITY THREE.

1. Define the words:

(a) Assessment
(b) Testing
(c) Validity
(d) Reliability
2. State two reasons why the teacher should assess the pupils‘ work.
3. What are the differences between objective and subjective scoring?
4. Discuss the two types of assessments namely :-
(a) Formative assessment
(b) Summative Assessment
5. How does power of discrimination affect a test instrument?

165 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 UNIT FOUR

4.0 STATISTICAL EDUCATION MEASUREMENT

We welcome you to chapter one of our Educational Psychology and Sociology of Education
course. In this chapter we will introduce you to some basic terminology and lay the groundwork
for the course. We will explain in general terms what statistics, calculate central tendency,
variability, Standard deviation, and correlation.

4.1 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES (LEARNING

OBJECTIVES).

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Define the term educational statistical measures
 Discuss various data sources on education statistical measurements
 Discuss measurement of central tendency
 Discuss measurement of Variability
 Explain measurement of relationship

4.2 DEFINATION OF TERMS

4.2.1 Statistics
 Statistics in psychology is a branch of mathematics devoted to the collection,
compilation, display, and interpretation of numerical data. Psychologists rely heavily on
statistics to help assess the meaning of the measurements they make such as marks
obtained by pupils. Statistical methods for psychology include development and
application statistical theory and methods for modeling psychological data. Statistics
allow psychologists to present data in ways that are easier to comprehend, such as
graphs, pie charts, frequency distributions, and scatterplots.

4.2.2 Definition of Data.

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  The term ―data‖ refers to the kind of information a researcher obtains to achieve
objectives of his research. All research processes start with collection of data, which
plays a significant role in the statistical analysis. This term is used in different contexts.
In general, it indicates facts or figures from which conclusions can be drawn. Or it is a
raw material from which information is obtained. Data are the actual pieces of
information that you collect through your study. In other words data can be defined as
collection of facts and details like text, figures, observations, symbols, or simply
description of things, event or entity gathered with a view of drawing inferences. It is a
raw fact which should be processed to get information.

4.3 TYPES OF DATA

 In research, different methods are used to collect data, all of which fall into two
categories, i.e. primary data and secondary data. It is a common classification based
upon who collected the data.

4.3.1 Primary Data.

 As the name suggests, is one which is collected for the first time by the researcher
himself. Primary data is originated by the researcher for the first time for addressing his
research problem. It is also known as first hand raw data. The data can be collected
using various methods like survey, observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaire,
questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal interviews, telephonic interviews,
focus groups discussion, case studies, etc.

4.3.2 Secondary Data.

 Point towards the second hand information already collected and recorded by any other
person with a purpose not relating to current research problem. It is readily available
form of data and saves time and cast of the researcher. But as the data is gathered for the
purpose other than the problem under investigation, so the usefulness of the data may be
limited in a number of ways like relevance and accuracy. Also, the objectives and
methods adopted to collect data may not be suitable to the current situation. Therefore,
the researcher should be careful when using secondary data. Examples of secondary data
are censuses data, publications, internal records of the organizations, reports, books,
journal articles, websites etc.

167 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 4.4 MEASUREMENT OF CENTRAL TENDENCY.
 Measures of central tendency (also referred as measures of centre or central location)
allow us to summarize data with a single value. It is a typical score among a group of
scores (the midpoint). They give us an easy way to describe a set of data with a single
number. This single number represents a value or score that generally is in the middle of
the dataset.
The goal of the measure of central tendency is:
i. To condense data in a single value.
ii. To facilitate comparison between data.
 The three (3) most common measures of central tendency are the mean, mode and
median.
 Mean: the sum of all values divided by the total number of values.
 Median: the middle number in an ordered dataset.
 Mode: the most frequent value.

4.4.1 The Mean.

 Mean is the most commonly used measure in educational research. It is appropriate for
describing ratio or interval data. It can also be used for both continuous and discrete
numeric data. It is the arithmetic average of the score. It is determined by adding up all
the scores and then by the sum by the total number of scores.
 The formula for computing the mean is:
(Mean score) X = ƩX/n
Where Ʃ represents ―Sum of‖, X represents any raw score value, n represents total
number of scores.
 For example, suppose we have the following scores as obtained by students in
Educational Psychology, 40, 85, 94, 62, 76, 66, 90, 59, 68, and 84.
 In order to find the mean of these scores we simply add all the scores, which comes to
724. Then divide this sum 10 (total number of scores). In this case we will get 72.4,
which is the mean score.
X = ƩX
N
X = 40 + 85 + 94 + 62 + 76 + 66 + 90 + 59 + 68 + 84.
10

168 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 X = 724
10
X = 72.4
 We can also define mean as mean is the amount each individual would get if the total
(ƩX) were divided equally among all the individual members (n) in the distribution. In
some other words we can say that the mean is the balance point for the distribution.
 To interpret the as the ―balance point or the center value‖, we can use the analogy of a
seesaw. Its mean lies right at the center where the fulcrum keeps the board perfectly
balanced. As the mean is based on every score or value of the dataset so it is influenced
by outliers and skewed distribution. Also it cannot be calculated for categorical data as
the values cannot be summed.

Merits of the Mean

 It is rigidly defined.
 It is easy to understand and calculate.
 It is used for further analysis and treatment.
 It is based upon all the values of the given data.
 It is capable of further mathematical treatment.
 It is not much affected by sampling fluctuations.
Demerits of Mean
 It cannot be calculated if any observation is missing.
 It cannot be calculated for data with open ended distribution.
 It may not lie in the middle of series, if series is skewed.
 It is affected by extreme values.
 It cannot be located graphically.
 It may be number which is not present in the data.
 It can be calculated for the data representing qualitative values.

4.4.2 The Median

 Median is the middle value of rank order data. It divides the distribution in two halves
(i.e. 50% of scores or observations on either side of median value). It means that this
value separates higher half of the data set from the lower half. The goal of the median is
to determine the precise midpoint of the distribution. Median is appropriate for
describing ordinal data Mean (Arithmetic).

169 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

Procedure for Determining Median
 When the number of scores is odd, simply arrange the scores in order (from lower to
higher or from higher to lower). The median will be the middle score in the list.
Consider the set of scores 2, 5, 7, 10, 12. The score ―7‖ lies in the middle of the scores,
so it is median.
 When there is an even number of scores in the distribution, arrange the scores in order
(from lower to higher or from higher to lower). The median will be the average of the
middle two score in the list. Consider the set of scores 4, 6, 9, 14 16, 20. The average of
the middle two scores 11.5 (i.e. 9+14/2 = 23/2 = 11.5) is the median of the distribution.
 Median is less affected by outliers and skewed data and is usually preferred measure of
central tendency when the distribution is not symmetrical. The median cannot be
determined for categorical or nominal data.
Merits of Median
 It is rigidly defined.
 It is easy to understand and calculate.
 It is not affected by extreme values.
 Even if the extreme values are not known median can be calculated.
 It can be located just by inspection in many cases.
 It can be located graphically.
 It is not much affected by sampling fluctuations.
 It can be calculated by data based on ordinal scale.
 It is suitable for skewed distribution.
 It is easily located in individual and discrete classes.

Demerits of Median
 It is not based on all values of the given data.
 For larger data size the arrangements of the data in the increasing order is somewhat
difficult process.
 It is not capable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is not sensitive to some change in the data value.
 It cannot be used for further mathematical processing.

4.4.3 The Mode.

170 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  The mode is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution. Consider following
data set. Let us take the following scores: 25, 43, 39, 25, 82, 77, 25 and 47.
 From the score 25 comes more frequently, so it is the mode.
 Sometimes there may be no single mode if no one value appears more than any other.
For example in the scores; 4, 5, 8, 9, 2 and 7. There is no mode in this case.
 There may be one mode (uni-modal), two modes (bi-model), three modes (tri-model), or
more than three modes (multi-model). For example in the scores; 2, 4, 2, 3, 6, 4 and 9. In
this case the mode is 2 and 4.
 Mode is useful when scores reflect a nominal scale of measurement. But along with
mean and median it can also be used for ordinal, interval or ratio data. It can be located
graphically by drawing histogram.
Merits of Mode
 It is easy to understand and easy to calculate.
 It is not affected by extreme values.
 Even if the extreme values are not known mode can be calculated.
 It can be located just by inspection in many cases.
 It can be located graphically.
 It is always present in the data.
 It is applicable for both quantitative and qualitative data.
 It is useful for methodological forecasts.
Demerits of Mode
 It is not rigidly defined.
 It is not based upon all values of the given data.
 It is not capable of further mathematical calculation.
 There will be no mode if there is no common value in the data.
 It cannot be used for further methodological processing.

4.4.4 Skewness and Central Tendency.

Skewness is a statistical measure that describes the asymmetry of the distribution of values in a
dataset. It indicates whether the data points are skewed to the left (negative skew) or the right
(positive skew) relative to the mean. Skewness helps understand the underlying distribution of
data, which is crucial for decision-making, risk assessment, and predicting future trends.
The preferred measure of central tendency often depends on the shape of the distribution. Of the
three measures of tendency, the mean is most heavily influenced by any outliers or skewness.

171 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

For distributions that have outliers or are skewed, the median is often the preferred measure of
central tendency because the median is more resistant to outliers than the mean. Below you will
see how the direction of skewness impacts the order of the mean, median, and mode. Note that
the mean is pulled in the direction of the skewness (i.e., the direction of the tail).

1. Negative Skewness (Left Skew)

In a negatively skewed distribution, the tail on the left side (the smaller values) is longer than
the tail on the right side (the larger values). This implies that most of the data points are
concentrated on the right side of the distribution, with a few extreme values on the left side. In
the case of a negatively skewed dataset, the mean is less than the median is also less than the
mode.
2. Zero Skewness (Symmetrical Distribution)
Zero skewness indicates a perfectly symmetrical distribution, where the mean, median, and
mode are equal. In a symmetrical distribution, the data points are evenly distributed around the
central point. It is a perfectly balanced dataset with equal frequencies of all values.
3. Positive Skewness (Right Skew)
In a positively skewed distribution, the tail on the right side (the larger values) is longer than the
tail on the left side (the smaller values). This means that the majority of data points are
concentrated on the left side of the distribution, and there are some extreme values on the right
side. In the case of a positively skewed dataset, the mean is greater than the median also is
greater than the mode.

4.5 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABILITY

172 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  The terms variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and refer to how spread out
a distribution is. Just as in the section on central tendency where we discussed measures
of the center of a distribution of scores, in this section we will discuss measures of the
variability of a distribution. There are four frequently used measures of variability: the
range, interquartile range, variance, and standard deviation. Below we will look at each
of these four measures of variability in more detail.

 While mean and median tell you about the center of your observations, it says nothing
about the 'spread' of the numbers.

Example: Suppose two grades have ages which are on average 10 years. A sample of 11
children is selected from each grade.

 Grade 1A: 6, 8, 8, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 12, 12, 14

 Grade 1B: 6, 6, 6, 8, 8, 10, 12, 12, 14, 14, 14

To verify, let's compute the mean:

 mean for Grade 1A: 110 / 11 = 10

 mean for Grade 1B: 110 / 11 = 10

In both cases, the mean is 10, indeed. However, the first machine seems to be the better one,
since most nails are close to 10 inches. Therefore:

We must find additional numbers indicating the 'spread' of the data.

4.5.1 The Range

The easiest measure of the data spread is the range. It is simply the highest data value minus the
lowest data value (we have seen the range before). In the above example, the range is the same
for both data, namely 14 - 6 = 8. The range is, while useful, too crude a measure of variability.

4.5.2 The Variance

We want to find out how much the data points are spread around the mean. To do that, we could
find the difference between each data point and the mean, and average these differences.
However, we want to measure the differences to the mean regardless of the sign (positive or

173 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

negative difference). Therefore, we could find the absolute value of the difference between each
data point and average that. But for theoretical reasons an absolute value function is not easy to
deal with, so that one chooses a square function instead (which also neutralizes signs). Finally,
for yet other theoretical reasons we shall use not the sample size n to compute an average, but
instead n - 1.

Hence, we will use this formula to compute the data spread, or variance:

Variance = add up the squares of (Data points - mean), then divide that sum by (n - 1)

There are two symbols for the variance, just as for the mean:

 is the variance for a population

 is the variance for a sample

In other words, the variance is computed according to the formulas:

(for the sample variance)

How to find the variance:

1. Make a table of all x values

2. Find the mean of the data
3. Include a column with the difference to the mean
4. Include a column with the square of difference to the mean
5. Add the last column and divide the sum by (n - 1).

Here is the table that this procedure produces for the above sample of years from Grade 1A and
1B:

Remember the mean for grade 1A is 10.

 Grade 1A: 6, 8, 8, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 12, 12, 14

To verify, let's compute the mean:

174 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

  mean for Grade 1A: 110 / 11 = 10

Grade 1A:

X
6 4 16
8 2 4
8 2 4
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0 0
12 -2 4
12 -2 4
14 4 16

Therefore, the variance for Grade 1A is: (16 + 4 + 4 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 4 + 16) / 10 = 48 /

10 = 4.8

Grade 1B:

X
6 4 16
6 4 16
6 4 16
8 2 4
8 2 4
10 0 0
12 -2 4
12 -2 4

175 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

 14 -4 16
14 -4 16
14 -4 16

Therefore, the variance for Grade 1B is: (16 + 16 + 16 + 4 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 4 + 16 + 16 + 16) / 10

= 112 / 10 = 11.2

In other words, the variance - or spread around the mean, for Grade 1A is 4.8 while Grade 1B
has a variance (spread) of 11.2.

Note: The unit of the variance is the square of the original unit; hence, it is not the best number
(considering units). Therefore, one introduces an additional number, called the standard
deviation:

4.5.3 The Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

As with the mean, there are two letters for variance and standard deviation:

o is the variance for a population and is the population standard deviation

o is the variance for a sample and is the sample standard deviation

Example: Consider the sample data 6, 7, 5, 3, 4. Compute the standard deviation for that data.

To compute the standard deviation, we must first compute the mean, then the variance, and
finally we can take the square root to obtain the standard deviation. In this case we do not need
to create a table since there are so few numbers:

 Computing the mean:

 Computing the variance:

 Standard deviation:

Short-Cut for Variance

176 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

There is a nice short-cut to compute the variance that can be proved as an exercise:

At first the second formula looks much more complicated, but it is actually easier since it does
not involve computing the mean first. In other words, using the second formula we can compute
the variance (and therefore the standard deviation) without first having to compute the mean.

In our above example of Grade 1B we would compute the variance using this shortcut as
follows:

X x2
6 36
6 36
6 36
8 64
8 64
10 100
12 144
12 144
14 196
14 196
14 196
Sum(x) = 110 Sum(x2) = 1212

Therefore the variance is:

1/ (11 - 1) * (1212 - 1102/11) = 0.1 * (1212 - 1100) = 11.2

4.6 UNIT SUMMARY:

177 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

This unit we have learnt the three main measures of central tendency – the mean, median and
the mode. The main purpose of measures of central tendency is to identify the location of the
center of various distributions. This helps us to get a better idea as to where the center of a
distribution is located. Merits and demerits of mean, median and mode were also discussed in
the unit. The terms variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and refer to how spread out
a distribution is. Just as in the section on central tendency where we discussed measures of the
center of a distribution of scores, in this chapter we will discuss measures of the variability of a
distribution. There are four frequently used measures of variability: the range, interquartile
range, variance, and standard deviation.

4.7 ACTIVITY 4.

1. What are the goals of measure of central tendency?

2. What are the characteristics of good measure of central tendency?
3. Define mean.
4. Calculate mean of a given set of data.55, 45, 53, 62, 36.
5. Write down merits and demerits of mean.
6. Define median.
7. Explain procedure for determining median if:
i. The number of scores is even.
ii. The number of scores is odd.
8. Write down merits and demerits of median.
9. Calculate median of the given data.
i. 42, 40, 51, 65, 82, 68, 77, 69, 80
ii. 38, 40, 61, 56, 90, 74, 72, 90, 49, 64.
10. Define mode.
11. Write down merits and demerits of mode.
12. Calculate the mode of the given data.
i. 65, 39, 66, 54, 33, 39. 55, 64, 38, 91, 72.
ii. 38, 40, 61, 56, 90, 74, 72, 90, 49, 64.

178 |EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR I

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