Mammalian Systems – Introduction

Mammals have different body systems made up of organs and tissues that work together to keep
them alive and healthy. All mammals share a common body structure, called the vertebrate body
plan. This includes:

 Bilateral symmetry (both sides of the body look the same)

 A backbone (spinal column) made of segments
 A spinal cord running through the backbone
 Special organs that do specific jobs

The main systems in the mammal body include:

 Musculoskeletal system: supports the body and helps movement (bones and muscles)
 Digestive system: breaks down food for energy
 Excretory system: removes waste from the body
 Nervous system: controls the body using the brain and nerves
 Reproductive system: helps in producing offspring
 Endocrine and exocrine systems: produce hormones and other secretions to control body
activities
 Cardiovascular system: moves blood around the body

Mammals also have:

 An immune system that protects them from diseases

 Thermoregulation – the ability to keep a stable body temperature even when the environment
changes

Over time, mammalian systems have adapted to different environments, which helps mammals live in
many parts of the world — from deserts to oceans.

External Features of Mammals and Their Functions

Mammals have several external features (body parts on the outside) that help them survive and do
important activities. These include fur/hair, mammary glands, limbs and appendages, and teeth
and jaws. Each of these has a special job.

1. Fur/Hair

 Main Job: Keeps the body warm and provides protection.

 Fur traps warm air close to the skin, helping mammals maintain body heat (important for cold
places).
 It protects the body from weather like rain, snow, or sun.
 In some animals, fur helps them hide from predators or sneak up on prey (camouflage).
 Fur colour or thickness can also show gender or status. For example, a lion’s mane makes it
look stronger and more dominant.

2. Mammary Glands (Nipples)

 Main Job: Feed baby mammals with milk.

 Only female mammals have working mammary glands.
 They produce milk, which is rich in nutrients for newborns.
 This allows mothers to nourish and protect their babies, helping the babies survive and grow.
3. Limbs and Appendages

 Main Job: Help with movement and other tasks.

 Limbs (arms, legs, wings, flippers) are shaped differently in mammals depending on how they
live:
o Land mammals (like dogs or lions) have legs for walking or running.
o Aquatic mammals (like dolphins) have flippers for swimming.
o Some mammals use limbs for climbing, flying, gliding, or even fighting and catching
food.
 So, the shape and use of limbs depend on where and how the animal lives.

4. Teeth and Jaws

Main Job: Eating and processing food.

 Mammals have teeth and jaws specially shaped to match the kind of food they eat.
 The jaws help in biting, chewing, and grinding food into smaller pieces, making it easier to
swallow and digest.
 Teeth come in different types, and each type has its own function:
o Incisors – sharp and flat for cutting food (like biting into an apple).
o Canines – pointed and strong for tearing food, especially in meat-eating animals.
o Premolars and molars – broad and flat for grinding and crushing food, especially in
plant-eating animals.

Adaptation Examples:

 Carnivores (meat-eaters like lions) have sharp canines for catching and killing prey.
 Herbivores (plant-eaters like cows) have strong molars for grinding plants.
 Omnivores (like humans) have a mix of tooth types for both plants and meat.

So, teeth and jaws in mammals are well-designed to match their diet and way of life, helping them
feed efficiently and survive.
Labels & Their External Organs + Functions
Label Feature Function
Detects sounds and helps the rabbit know where danger or food
Ear (Pinna) Outer ear flaps
is coming from. Also helps in hearing predators.
Vision; seeing movement, shapes, and light helps in avoiding
Eye Eyelids and eyeball
predators and finding food.
Smell and breathing. Rabbits have a strong sense of smell which
Nose / Snout Nose, nostrils
they use to detect food or danger.
Long sensory hairs
Whiskers Helps sense nearby objects, especially useful in the dark or tight
around the nose and
(Vibrissae) spaces.
face
For eating: biting, chewing, grooming. Rabbits’ teeth are
Mouth / Jaw Lips, teeth
adapted for gnawing and grinding plant material.
Movement — running, hopping. Hindlimbs are especially strong
Forelimbs / Front legs, back
and used for jumping and escaping predators. Forelimbs help
Hindlimbs legs, paws
with maneuvering and holding food.
Paws / Feet Toes with claws Provide grip, help in digging, balance, grooming.
Helps with balance, communication (rabbit may flick or wag
Tail Short tail
tail), and can signal alarm.
The outer covering Insulation (keeping warm), protection from weather,
Fur / Coat
of hair camouflage, signalling (colour or patterns).

Some Internal Organs/Features of Mammals to their Functions

Some internal organs in mammals and their functions include the following:
 Four-Chambered Heart

 The heart is an important internal organ found in all mammals.

 It is made up of four chambers:
o Two atria (top chambers)
o Two ventricles (bottom chambers)
What it does:

 The heart pumps blood around the body.

 In mammals, it keeps two types of blood separate:
o Oxygen-rich blood (from the lungs)
o Oxygen-poor blood (returning from the body)

Why it’s important:

 By keeping these two types of blood separate, the heart makes sure the body gets enough
oxygen quickly and efficiently.
 This is very important because mammals have a high energy need — they move a lot, stay
warm, and have active brains.
 So, the four-chambered heart helps mammals stay alive, active, and warm by delivering
oxygen to all parts of the body without mixing it with "used" blood.
Diaphragm

 The diaphragm is a muscle that helps with breathing.

 It moves up and down to expand and contract the lungs, allowing air in and out.

Complex Digestive System

 Mammals have a specialised digestive system with parts like the stomach, small, and large
intestine.
 These help to break down food and absorb nutrients efficiently.

Reproductive System

 Mammals reproduce through internal fertilisation and give birth to live young.
 Males have organs like the testes and penis, while females have the uterus, vagina, and
fallopian tubes.
 This system helps in producing and caring for offspring.
Well-Developed Brain – Summary in Simple Words

 Mammals have big and complex brains compared to most other animals.
 This brain helps them to:
o Think clearly
o Learn from experience
o Solve problems
o Remember things
o Make decisions
 It also helps them show social behaviours, like:
o Taking care of their young
o Living in groups
o Communicating with others
o Playing or showing emotions

Because of their smart brains, mammals can adapt to different environments and interact with their
surroundings in more advanced ways than many other animals.

Kidneys

 The kidneys clean the blood by removing waste and extra water.
 They help the body get rid of urine (liquid waste).
 Kidneys also help keep the right balance of water and salts in the body.
 This keeps the body’s internal environment stable and healthy (called homeostasis).

DISSECTION EXPLORATION OF MAMMALS

 👁️👂👃👅🖐️Sensory Organs in Mammals

Mammals have well-developed sense organs that help them understand and react to their
surroundings.

Organ Function
Eyes For seeing (vision)
Ears For hearing and balance
Nose For smelling scents
Tongue For tasting food
Skin For feeling touch, temperature, and pain

These senses help mammals stay safe, find food, and interact with others.

Digestive systems and associated organs of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores:

1. Herbivores (Plant-eaters)
🔹 Diet:

 Eat only plants, which are high in fibre (especially cellulose).

🔹 Digestive System Features:

 Longer digestive tract: Gives more time to break down tough plant material.
 May have a specialized stomach (e.g. cows have a four-chambered stomach: rumen,
reticulum, omasum, abomasum).
 Some have a large cecum (like in horses and rabbits) to ferment plant material.

🔹 Key Associated Organs:

  Teeth: Flat molars for grinding leaves and grass.
 Stomach: May be multi-chambered (in ruminants).
 Intestines: Long, for slow digestion and absorption.

2. Carnivores (Meat-eaters)
🔹 Diet:

 Eat mainly meat, which is easy to digest but rich in protein and fat.

🔹 Digestive System Features:

 Shorter digestive tract: Meat is digested faster.

 Simple stomach: Usually one chamber.
 Strong stomach acid: Helps break down proteins and kill bacteria from raw meat.

🔹 Key Associated Organs:

 Teeth: Sharp canines for tearing flesh, pointed molars for cutting.
 Stomach: Simple, muscular, and acidic.
 Intestines: Short, because meat doesn't need long digestion.

3. Omnivores (Plant + Meat-eaters)

🔹 Diet:

 Eat both plants and animals, so they need to digest many types of food.

🔹 Digestive System Features:

 Medium-length digestive tract: Balanced for digesting both plant and meat.
 Versatile stomach: Usually single-chambered.
 Can digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

🔹 Key Associated Organs:

 Teeth: Mix of flat molars (for grinding) and canines/incisors (for cutting).
 Stomach: Simple, but able to digest varied food.
 Intestines: Moderate length.

Summary Table

Feature Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores

Diet Plants only Meat only Both plants and meat
Teeth Flat molars Sharp canines & molars Mix of sharp and flat
 Feature Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores
Stomach Multi-chambered (some) Simple Simple
Intestine Length Long Short Medium
Special Features Fermentation (cecum/rumen) Strong acid in stomach Balanced digestion tools

Comparison of Digestive Tract Length

Type of Digestive Tract

Reason
Animal Length
Plants are hard to digest (especially cellulose), so food needs
Herbivores Very long
more time to break down.
Carnivores Short Meat is easy to digest and doesn’t stay long in the body.
Eat both plants and meat, so need a balance between fast and
Omnivores Medium length
slow digestion.

Summary

 Herbivores have the longest digestive systems to slowly break down tough plant material.
 Carnivores have the shortest because they digest meat quickly.
 Omnivores have a middle-length system, suited for a mixed diet.

Impact of Climate Change on Different Types of Animals

Animal
Main Impact Explanation
Type
Droughts, heat, and changing seasons reduce the growth of grasses
Herbivores Food shortage
and plants, leading to less food.
As herbivores decline, carnivores struggle to find food. Habitat loss
Carnivores Fewer prey
also reduces hunting areas.
Unstable food Changes in weather affect both plants and animals, making food less
Omnivores
sources predictable and forcing diet changes.

Summary in Simple Words:

 Herbivores suffer most when plants die off due to drought or temperature changes.
 Carnivores are affected when their prey animals disappear or move away.
 Omnivores are more flexible, but they still face challenges with changing food availability
and habitat loss.

Climate change also causes:

 More wildfires
 Rising sea levels
 More heatwaves
 Migration of animals to new areas

These changes disturb the balance of ecosystems, affecting how all animals live and survive.