Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 13 Concept Questions p.472, 1-3 1. Hormones are a chemical substance secreted by the endocrine gland. The endocrine system transports hormones by using the circulatory system (blood/bodily fluids). 2. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the internal environment of the body. Exocrine glands secrete substances into ducts which lead to the bodys surface. Hence the terms endo- (inside) and exo(outside). 3. Steroids and nonsteroids are the two chemical classifications of hormones. p.476, 1-3 1. A steroid hormone acts on its target cells by combining with specific protein receptors within the target cells. This (the hormone-receptor complex) binds with DNA to activate/inhibit a gene. 2. A nonsteroid hormone acts on its target cells by combining with a specific receptor molecule located on the target cells membrane. The activity site interacts with the membrane protein, activating the primary and secondary messengers. 3. A secondary messenger are the biochemical located within a cell which induce the changes that are recognized as hormone responses. p. 477, 1-3 1. Prostaglandins are paracrine substances which act locally. They are very potent and only present in small quantities. They are not stored in cells but rather synthesized, just prior to being released. 2. One possible function of prostaglandins is regulation of cellular hormone response. For example, certain prostaglandins activate or inactivate adenylate cyclase in cell membranes, controlling production of cAMP and altering the cells response to a hormone. 3. Prostaglandins produce a wide variety of effects. Certain prostaglandins can relax smooth muscle tissue in the airways of the lungs and in blood vessels, thus dilating the passageways to allow better air flow. Others can in contrast contract smooth muscle tissue in the uterus, causing menstrual cramps (during periods) and labor contractions in women in labor.

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1. The nervous system helps regulate hormonal secretions by directly stimulating certain glands. For example, the adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to preganglionic sympathetic nerve impulses. The secretory cells replace the postganglionic sympathetic neurons which would normally secrete norepinephrine alone as a neurotransmitter. 2. A negative feedback system controls hormonal secretion. In a negative feedback system, an endocrine gland or the system controlling it is sensitive to the concentration of the hormone the gland secretes, a process the hormone controls, or an action the hormone has on the internal environment. p.479, 1-3 1. The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (infundibulum) and lying in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. 2. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland does not synthesize any hormones but secretes antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin via special neurons called neurosecretory cells. 3. The hypothalamus controls the actions of the pituitary gland by sending nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary and by releasing hormones to control the secretions of the anterior lobe. The releasing hormones are carried in the blood via a capillary bed which is associated with the hypothalamus. These vessels merge to form the hypophyseal portal veins which pass downward along the pituitary stalk and give rise to a capillary bed in the anterior lobe. p.483, 1-6 1. Growth hormone affects the cellular metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins by enhancing the movement of amino acids through the cell membranes and increasing the rate at which protein is synthesized. Growth hormone also decreases the rate at which cells utilize carbohydrates and increases the rate at which they use fats. 2. In females, prolactin functions to promote breast milk production. In males, prolactin functions to decrease secretion of luteinizing hormone. 3. TSH secretion is partially regulated by the hypothalamus production of thyrotropin-releasing hormone. It is also regulated by the circulation of thyroid hormones which inhibits the release of TRH and TSH. 4. ACTH functions to control the manufacture and secretion of certain hormones from the adrenal cortex. 5. In males, FSH stimulates sperm production and promotes the secretion of sex hormones. In females, FSH is responsible for growth and development of follicles that house egg cells in the ovaries and also

promotes the secretion of sex hormones. 6. Gonadotropins are hormones that exert actions on the gonads or reproductive organs. p.485, 1-3 1. ADH functions to decrease urine formation and regulate the concentration of bodily fluids. It is produced by a specialized neuron in the hypothalamus. 2. The secretion of ADH is controlled by blood volume. With increase blood volume, ADH secretion increases, and vice versa. 3. Oxytocin produces uterine contractions in females in labor. It also stimulates the release of milk in breasts. p.488, 1-4 1. The thyroid gland is located just below the larynx on either side and anterior to the trachea. 2. The two thyroid hormones that affect carbohydrate metabolism, the mobilization of lipids, and protein synthesis, are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyrine (T3). 3. Iodine salts (iodides) are essential in the production of thyroxine and triiodothyrine. 4. Calcitonin lowers the concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions by decreasing the rate at which they leave the bones and enter the extracellular fluids, thereby inhibiting osteoclasts from breaking down bone. Calcitonin increases the rate at which calcium and phosphate are deposited by stimulating the activity of osteoblasts. Calcitonin secretion is stimulated by high blood calcium ion concentration as well as certain homrones released by digestion, helping to prevent prolonged elevation of blood calcium ion concentration after eating. p.490, 1-3 1.The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. There are four parathyroid glands, one superior and another interior associated with each of the thyroids lateral lobes. 2. The parathyroid hormone helps regulate the concentrations of blood calcium and phosphate ions by increasing the blood calcium ion concentration and decreasing blood phosphate ion concentration through actions in the bones, kidneys, and intestines. 3. The negative feedback system of the parathyroid glands regulates the blood calcium level by secreting the parathyroid hormone, which regulates the blood calcium amount. When calcium decreases, the parathyroid glands sense the decrease and secrete more parathyroid hormone. The parathyroid

hormone stimulates calcium release from the bones and increases the calcium uptake into the bloodstream from the collecting tubules in the kidneys. When blood calcium increases, the parathyroid glands reduce parathyroid hormone production. Both responses are examples of negative feedback because in both cases the effects are negative to the stimulus. In the negative feedback system of the thyroid gland, neurons in the hypothalamus secrete thyroid releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates cells in the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Then, TSH binds to receptors on epithelial cells in the thyroid gland, stimulating synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones, which affect probably all cells in the body. However, when blood concentrations of thyroid hormones increase above a certain threshold, TRH-secreting neurons in the hypothalamus are inhibited and stop secreting TRH. These negative feedback systems differ in the sense that the parathyroid system only switches on when the body has either too much or too little calcium levels, while the system in the thyroid always secrets TRH, but only regulates it if the body feels that the hormone has passed a certain threshold. p.492, 1-4 1. The adrenal glands are located atop the kidneys like caps, and are embedded in the adipose tissue which encloses the kidneys. They are shaped like pyramids. Each is vascular and consists of a central part (the adrenal medulla) and an outer part (adrenal cortex). The regions are not sharply divided but are distinct glands that secrete different hormones. 2. The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. 3. Epinephrine activates the fight or flight response, and is also called adrenalin. It induces increased heart rate, vasodilation of vessels in skeletal muscle, decreased resistance to blood flow, increase of systemic blood pressure, dilated airways, activation of the reticular formation of the brain, increased breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increased blood sugar level, and increased metabolic rate. Norepinephrine increases heart rate, increases the blood flow to skeletal muscles, greatly increases systemic blood pressure, somewhat dilates airways, and increases metabolic rate. 4. The release of hormones from the adrenal medulla is usually stimulated by the arrival of impulses on sympathetic nerve fibers at the same time as sympathetic impulses stimulate other effectors. These impulses originate in the hypothalamus in response to stress. p.495, 1-2 1. The important hormones of the adrenal cortex include aldosterone, cortisol, and certain sex hormones. 2. Aldosterone functions to regulate the concentration of sodium (Na) and potassium (K). Aldosterone also causes the kidneys to conserve sodium and secrete potassium ions.

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1. Cortisol inhibits protein synthesis in various tissues, increasing the blood concentration of amino acids and promoting the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. This increases the usage of fatty acids as an energy source by the body, thus decreasing the use of glucose as an energy source. It also stimulates liver cells to synthesize glucose from noncarbohydrates, increasing blood glucose concentration. 2. Blood concentrations of aldosterone and cortisol are both regulated by complex systems. Specialized cells respond to changes in blood pressure and the plasma sodium ion concentration. If these levels decrease past a certain point, the cells release renin, which decomposes the blood protein angiotensiogen. This releases the peptide angiotensin I. An enzyme in the lungs then converts this into angiotensin II which is then released into the bloodstream, stimulating the release of aldosterone. Cortisol is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. The hypothalamus secretes CRH to the anterior pituitary gland, which then secretes ACTH, thus stimulating the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol. p.498, 1-5 1. The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of cells grouped around blood vessels. These groups are called pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans. They include three distinct types of hormonesecreting cells: alpha cells, beta cell, and delta cells. 2. Glucagon functions to stimulate the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and to convert noncarbohydrates into glucose. Glucagon also stimulates breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol. 3. Insulins main effect is exactly the opposite that of glucagon. Insulin stimulates the liver to form glycogen from glucose and inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose. 4. The secretions of glucagon and insulin are controlled by a negative feedback system which responds to the level of the concentration of blood glucose. 5. Nerve cells are particularly sensitive to changes in blood glucose concentration because as insulin concentration falls, less glucose enters the adipose and muscle cells, and the glucose which remains in the bloodstream is available for cells that lack insulin receptors to use (i.e. nerve cells). p. 500, 1-3 1. The pineal gland is located deep within the cerebral hemisphere. It is a tiny oval shaped structure attached to the upper portion of the thalamus, near the roof of the third ventricle. 2. The pineal gland functions to secrete the hormone melatonin, which is synthesized from serotonin. Varying patterns of light and dark from the exterior of the body control the glands activities with environmental information, arriving by means of the nerve impulses. 3. The thymus gland is located in the mediastinum, posterior to the sternum and between the lungs.

p. 502, 1-5 1. Stress is the condition produced by a stressor. Stressors are factors which are capable of stimulating a response, and may range from physical to psychological to both. 2. Physical stress is stress which threatens tissues, including extreme temperatures, decreased oxygen concentration, infections, injuries, prolonged heavy exercise, and loud sounds. Psychological stress, in contrast, results from thoughts of real/imagined dangers, personal losses, unpleasant social interactions, and any factors which threaten a person. 3. General stress syndrome is the bodys response to stress. General stress syndrome occurs when CRH and ACTH are secreted, triggering release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex and thus stimulating of sodium retention by the kidneys by aldosterone.