Material science and engineering notes with questions

Classification of Materials
Unit-1
(A) Main Classes:

1. Metals
oGood electrical & thermal conductors
oStrong, ductile, malleable
oExamples: Steel, Aluminium, Copper
2. Ceramics
o Brittle, hard, high melting point
o Good insulators (electrical & thermal)
o Examples: Glass, Porcelain, Silicon carbide
3. Polymers
o Lightweight, flexible, corrosion resistant
o Poor conductors of heat & electricity
o Examples: PVC, Nylon, Rubber, Teflon
4. Composites
o Combination of 2 or more materials for better properties
o Examples: Reinforced Concrete, Fiberglass, Carbon fiber composites

(B) Engineering Requirements of Materials

 Physical properties → Density, Color, Melting point

 Mechanical properties → Strength, Hardness, Ductility, Toughness
 Thermal properties → Expansion, Conductivity, Resistance to heat
 Electrical properties → Conductivity, Resistivity, Dielectric strength
 Chemical properties → Corrosion resistance, Oxidation resistance
 Cost → Should be economical for the application

(C) Range of Applications

 Metals → Bridges, Vehicles, Machinery

 Ceramics → Cutting tools, Electrical insulators, Tiles
 Polymers → Packaging, Pipes, Electrical insulation
 Composites → Aerospace, Sports goods, Marine structures
(D) Material Designation & Standards

 Materials are specified by codes/standards

(E) Ashby Diagrams

 Graphical charts showing properties of materials (like strength vs density).

 Help in material selection for engineering design.

(F) Selection Criteria & Process

1. Define requirements → strength, weight, cost, corrosion resistance.

2. Compare materials using property charts (Ashby diagrams).
3. Choose the best economical & reliable material.

1.2 Nature of Bonding & Structure of Materials

(A) Types of Bonding

1. Metallic bond → Free electrons move → good conductors (Cu, Al).

2. Ionic bond → Transfer of electrons (NaCl). Hard, brittle, insulating.
3. Covalent bond → Sharing of electrons (Diamond, Si). Hard, insulating.
4. Mixed bond → Combination of above (Ceramics, Polymers).

(B) Crystallography Basics

 Unit cell → Smallest repeating unit of a crystal.

 Primitive cell → Simplest unit cell containing only one lattice point.
 Bravais lattices → 14 types in 3D.
 Crystal systems → 7 types: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic,
rhombohedral, hexagonal.
 Symmetry operations → Reflection, rotation, inversion.
(C) Structures of Materials

 Metals → Crystalline, mostly FCC (Al, Cu), BCC (Fe), HCP (Mg).
 Ceramics → Ionic/covalent bonding, crystalline or amorphous (glass).
 Polymers → Long chain molecules, partly crystalline, partly amorphous.
 Amorphous materials → No regular arrangement (Glass, plastics).

1.3 Defects in Crystalline Materials

(A) Point defects (0-D)

 Vacancies → Missing atoms.

 Interstitials → Extra atoms in empty space.
 Substitutional → Foreign atom replaces host atom.
 Frenkel defect → Atom leaves its site & moves to interstitial.
 Schottky defect → Equal number of cations & anions missing.

(B) Line defects (1-D)

 Dislocations → Misalignment of atoms.

o Edge dislocation
o Screw dislocation

(C) Surface/Planar defects (2-D)

 Grain boundaries → Boundary between crystals.

 Twins → Mirror image arrangement of atoms.
 Stacking faults → Disturbance in atomic plane stacking.
 Surfaces & interfaces → Free surfaces, phase boundaries.

(D) Effect of Defects

 Control mechanical properties: strength, hardness, ductility.

 Example: Dislocations allow plastic deformation in metals.
 Grain boundaries can strengthen material (Hall-Petch effect).
A. Multiple Choice Questions (10)

1) Which of the following is NOT a property of metals?

a) High electrical conductivity
b) Ductility
c) Brittle nature
d) Thermal conductivity

2) Example of a polymer is:

a) Copper
b) Nylon
c) Glass
d) Steel

3) Which bonding is responsible for good electrical conductivity in metals?

a) Ionic
b) Covalent
c) Metallic
d) Hydrogen

4) The smallest repeating unit of a crystal is called:

a) Grain
b) Unit cell
c) Primitive cell
d) Bravais lattice

5) A Schottky defect is common in:

a) Metals
b) Ionic crystals
c) Polymers
d) Amorphous solids

6) Grain boundaries are classified as:

a) 0-D defect
b) 1-D defect
c) 2-D defect
d) 3-D defect

7) Which crystal structure does aluminium have?

a) BCC
b) FCC
c) HCP
d) Tetragonal

8) A material made from two or more constituents for improved properties is:
a) Metal
b) Polymer
c) Composite
d) Ceramic

9) Which property decides whether a material can withstand high temperature?

a) Mechanical property
b) Thermal property
c) Electrical property
d) Chemical property

10) Ashby diagrams are used for:

a) Heat treatment
b) Material selection
c) Manufacturing process
d) Surface finishing

Fill in the Blanks (10)

1. Materials are classified into metals, __________, polymers and composites.
2. Metallic bonding is due to __________ of electrons.
3. The 14 possible 3D lattices are called __________ lattices.
4. The smallest repeating unit in a crystal is known as __________.
5. __________ defect occurs when equal number of cations and anions are missing.
6. Aluminium and Copper have __________ crystal structure.
7. A boundary between two grains is called __________.
8. __________ are long chain molecules, often partially crystalline.
9. Reinforced concrete is an example of __________ material.
10. The tendency of a material to resist corrosion is a __________ property.

C. True / False (10)

1. Polymers are generally good conductors of electricity. (False)
2. Ceramics are usually brittle and have high melting points. (True)
3. A unit cell is larger than a grain. (False)
 4. Dislocations are one-dimensional defects. (True)
5. Schottky defect is common in metallic solids. (False)
6. Composite materials can combine strength with light weight. (True)
7. Glass is a crystalline material. (False)
8. Symmetry operations include rotation and reflection. (True)
9. Stacking faults are three-dimensional defects. (False)
10. Ashby diagrams help in comparing properties of materials. (True)

D. Short Answer Type Questions (10)

1. Define composite materials with one example.
2. Write two important physical properties of materials.
3. State the difference between metallic and ionic bonding.
4. What is a unit cell?
5. Name the three crystal structures common in metals.
6. Define Frenkel defect.
7. What is a grain boundary?
8. List two applications of ceramics.
9. Mention two advantages of polymers.
10. Define dislocation in crystals.

E. Long Answer Type Questions (10)

1. Explain the classification of materials with examples.
2. Discuss the engineering requirements of materials for selection in design.
3. Explain metallic, ionic, and covalent bonding with suitable examples.
4. Describe unit cell, primitive cell, and Bravais lattices.
5. Explain the seven crystal systems with neat sketches.
6. Discuss the different types of point defects in crystalline materials.
7. Explain line and surface defects with neat diagrams.
8. Write short notes on Ashby diagrams and their importance.
9. Compare the structures of metals, ceramics, polymers, and amorphous solids.
10. Describe the selection criteria and process for engineering materials.
 Unit-2
(Ferrous Metals, Alloys & Phase Diagrams)
Ferrous Metals and Alloys
(A) Iron Ores

 Common iron ores:

o Hematite (Fe₂O₃)
o Magnetite (Fe₃O₄)
o Limonite (Fe₂O₃·H₂O)
o Siderite (FeCO₃)

(B) Pig Iron

 Definition: Crude form of iron obtained from blast furnace.

 Composition: 92–94% Fe, 3–4.5% C, Si, Mn, S, P.
 Classification:
o Grey pig iron
o White pig iron
o Mottled pig iron
 Effect of impurities:
o Carbon → increases hardness, brittleness.
o Silicon → increases softness, machinability.
o Manganese → removes oxygen, improves strength.
o Sulphur → makes iron brittle.
o Phosphorus → improves fluidity, but makes brittle.

(C) Cast Iron

 Definition: Alloy of iron with 2–4% carbon, along with Si, Mn, S, P.
 Classification:
1. Grey Cast Iron – graphite flakes, good machinability.
2. White Cast Iron – hard, brittle, no free graphite.
3. Mottled Cast Iron – mix of grey & white.
4. Malleable Cast Iron – obtained by heat treating white CI.
5. Ductile/Nodular Cast Iron – graphite in spheroidal form.
 Properties: Brittle, good wear resistance, high compressive strength.
  Uses: Pipes, machine beds, stoves, engine blocks.

(D) Wrought Iron

 Definition: Purest form of commercial iron, <0.1% C.

 Properties:
o Soft, ductile, malleable
o Resistant to corrosion
o Cannot be hardened
 Uses: Chains, nails, rods, decorative grills.

(E) Comparison of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steels

Property Cast Iron Wrought Iron Mild Steel High Carbon Steel
Carbon % 2–4% <0.1% 0.15–0.3% 0.6–1.5%
Strength High compressive Low Medium High
Ductility Very low High Good Low
Machinability Good (grey CI) Poor Good Moderate
Applications Pipes, machine beds Chains, rods Structures Cutting tools

2.2 Alloy Steels

(A) Purpose of Alloying

 Improve strength, hardness, toughness.

 Increase corrosion & wear resistance.
 Improve heat resistance.
 Provide special properties (magnetic, stainless).

(B) Effects of Alloying Elements

 Nickel (Ni) → toughness, corrosion resistance.

 Chromium (Cr) → hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance.
 Manganese (Mn) → strength, wear resistance.
 Vanadium (V) → hardness, strength at high temp.
 Tungsten (W) → hot hardness (HSS).
 Silicon (Si) → electrical steel, improves magnetic property.
  Molybdenum (Mo) → toughness, creep resistance.

(C) Important Alloy Steels

 Silicon Steel → used in transformers, motors (good magnetic property).

 High Speed Steel (HSS) → cutting tools, drills (retains hardness at high temp).
 Heat Resisting Steel → used in boilers, turbines.
 Spring Steel → high elasticity, used in springs.
 Stainless Steel (SS):
o Types: Ferritic, Austenitic, Martensitic.
o Properties: corrosion resistance, toughness.
o Applications: kitchenware, surgical tools, chemical equipment.
 Magnet Steel → High carbon with Co, Ni, Al; used for permanent magnets.

2.3 Standard Commercial Grades of Steel

 BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards): Example – IS 2062 (mild steel for structures).
 AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute): Example – AISI 304 (stainless steel), AISI
1020 (mild steel).

2.4 Phase Diagrams

(A) Gibbs Phase Rule

 Formula: F = C – P + 2
o F = Degrees of freedom
o C = Number of components
o P = Number of phases

(B) Degrees of Freedom

 Number of independent variables (like temperature, pressure, composition) that can be

changed without changing the phases.

(C) Unary Phase Diagram

  Single component (e.g., water phase diagram).

(D) Binary Phase Diagram

 Two components (e.g., Cu-Ni, Fe-C).

 Types:
o Isomorphous system → complete solubility.
o Eutectic system → liquid ↔ two solids (Sn-Pb solder).
o Eutectoid system → solid ↔ two solids (iron-carbon).

(E) Iron-Carbon Diagram

 Important transformations:
o Eutectic at 4.3% C, 1147°C (liquid → austenite + cementite).
o Eutectoid at 0.8% C, 727°C (austenite → pearlite).
 Phases: Ferrite (soft), Austenite (ductile), Cementite (hard), Pearlite (lamellar).

(F) Flow Sheet for Iron & Steel Production

1. Mining of ore
2. Blast furnace → Pig iron
3. Refining (Bessemer, open-hearth, basic oxygen) → Steel
4. Casting, rolling, shaping → Finished product

(G) Applications of Phase Diagram

 Helps in alloy design.

 Determines heat treatment temperatures.
 Predicts mechanical properties of alloys.
 Used in welding and casting industries.
A. Multiple Choice Questions (10)
1. Pig iron is obtained from:
a) Cupola furnace
b) Blast furnace
c) Open-hearth furnace
d) Bessemer converter
2. Which impurity makes iron brittle?
a) Silicon
b) Sulphur
c) Manganese
d) Nickel
3. Cast iron generally contains carbon in the range of:
a) 0.05–0.15%
b) 0.15–0.3%
c) 0.6–1.5%
d) 2–4%
4. Wrought iron has carbon content less than:
a) 0.1%
b) 0.5%
c) 1%
d) 2%
5. Which of the following is not a type of cast iron?
a) Grey CI
b) White CI
c) Malleable CI
d) Mild CI
6. High Speed Steel (HSS) retains hardness due to:
a) Chromium
b) Nickel
c) Tungsten
d) Silicon
7. Stainless steel mainly contains:
a) Fe + C + Mn
b) Fe + C + Ni + Cr
c) Fe + C + W + V
d) Fe + C + Co
8. The eutectoid point in Fe-C diagram occurs at:
a) 0.15% C, 1495°C
b) 0.8% C, 727°C
c) 2.11% C, 1147°C
d) 4.3% C, 1495°C
 9. Gibbs phase rule is expressed as:
a) F = C + P – 1
b) F = C – P + 2
c) F = C – P – 2
d) F = C + P + 2
10. BIS standard steel IS 2062 refers to:
a) Alloy steel
b) Structural mild steel
c) Tool steel
d) Stainless steel

B. Fill in the Blanks (10)

1. The main ore of iron is __________.
2. Pig iron contains about __________ % carbon.
3. The purest form of iron is __________.
4. Grey cast iron contains __________ in free form.
5. __________ cast iron is obtained by heat treating white cast iron.
6. Wrought iron is highly __________ to corrosion.
7. High Speed Steel is mainly alloyed with tungsten and __________.
8. Stainless steel contains chromium and __________.
9. At eutectoid point, austenite transforms into __________.
10. The formula of Gibbs phase rule is __________.

C. True / False (10)

1. Sulphur in iron increases ductility. (False)
2. Pig iron is refined to produce steel. (True)
3. Wrought iron cannot be hardened by heat treatment. (True)
4. Grey cast iron has poor machinability. (False)
5. Stainless steel resists corrosion due to presence of chromium. (True)
6. HSS is mainly used for cutting tools. (True)
7. Ferrite is a hard and brittle phase of iron. (False)
8. Cementite is Fe₃C compound, very hard and brittle. (True)
9. Phase diagrams help in deciding heat treatment process. (True)
10. BIS and AISI are standard codes for plastics. (False)

D. Short Answer Type Questions (10)

 1. Define pig iron and state its impurities.
2. Classify cast iron with one property each.
3. Write two uses of wrought iron.
4. Compare mild steel and high carbon steel.
5. What is the purpose of adding chromium to steel?
6. Name two applications of stainless steel.
7. State composition and one use of magnet steel.
8. Define Gibbs phase rule.
9. What is eutectoid reaction in Fe-C diagram?
10. Write two applications of HSS.

E. Very Long Answer Type Questions (10)

1. Explain pig iron: classification, composition and effects of impurities.
2. Discuss types of cast iron with properties and applications.
3. Explain properties and uses of wrought iron.
4. Compare cast iron, wrought iron, mild steel and high carbon steel in detail.
5. Explain purpose of alloying and effects of at least five alloying elements.
6. Describe important alloy steels: Silicon steel, HSS, spring steel, stainless steel.
7. Explain classification, types, properties and uses of stainless steel.
8. Explain Gibbs phase rule with examples.
9. Draw and explain iron-carbon equilibrium diagram with important transformations.
10. Write the flow sheet for production of iron and steel.
 Unit-3

Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

3.1 Non-Ferrous Metals

Definition: Metals that do not contain iron as the main component.
General properties: corrosion resistance, light weight (some), good conductivity, non-magnetic.

A. Aluminium

 Properties:
o Light weight, soft, ductile
o Good conductor of heat & electricity
o Excellent corrosion resistance (oxide film)
 Uses: Aircraft, utensils, electrical cables, packaging foils.

B. Copper

 Properties:
o High electrical & thermal conductivity
o Malleable, ductile, corrosion resistant
 Uses: Electrical wires, motors, roofing, utensils.

C. Tin

 Properties:
o Soft, ductile, corrosion resistant
o Low melting point
 Uses: Coating on steel (tinplate), alloys (bronze, solder).

D. Lead
  Properties:
o Heavy, soft, malleable
o High corrosion resistance
o Poor strength
 Uses: Storage batteries, cables, X-ray shields, paints.

E. Zinc

 Properties:
o Brittle at room temp, becomes ductile on heating
o Fair corrosion resistance
 Uses: Galvanizing iron/steel, die casting, alloys (brass).

F. Magnesium

 Properties:
o Lightest structural metal
o Poor corrosion resistance
o Burns easily in air
 Uses: Aircraft parts, fire works, flash powder, alloys.

G. Nickel

 Properties:
o Strong, tough, corrosion resistant
o Magnetic, good alloying ability
 Uses: Stainless steel, coins, electroplating, heat-resistant alloys.

3.2 Copper Alloys

(A) Brasses (Cu + Zn)

 Composition: 60–70% Cu, 30–40% Zn

 Properties: Good strength, corrosion resistant, easily machinable
 Uses: Car radiators, cartridge cases, screws, decorative items

(B) Bronzes (Cu + Sn / others)

  Composition: 80–90% Cu, 10–20% Sn (sometimes with Al, Si, Pb)
 Properties: Strong, corrosion resistant, wear resistant
 Uses: Bearings, gears, statues, coins

3.3 Aluminium Alloys

 Duralumin: Al (90–95%), Cu (4%), Mg, Mn
o Strong, lightweight, corrosion resistant
o Uses: Aircraft structures, automobile parts
 Hindalium: Al (96–98%), Mg, Mn
o Hard, corrosion resistant
o Uses: Utensils, kitchenware
 Magnalium: Al (90–95%), Mg (5–10%)
o Light, corrosion resistant, machinable
o Uses: Aircraft, automotive parts, fireworks

3.4 Nickel Alloys

 Inconel: Ni + Cr + Fe
o Heat & corrosion resistant
o Uses: Turbines, chemical plants
 Monel: Ni (≈ 67%) + Cu (≈ 30%) + Fe
o High strength, corrosion resistant (sea water)
o Uses: Marine parts, pumps, valves
 Nichrome: Ni + Cr (80:20 approx.)
o High electrical resistance, heat resistant
o Uses: Heating elements, furnaces

3.5 Anti-Friction / Bearing Alloys

 Purpose: Reduce wear & friction in moving parts.
 Types:
1. Bearing bronzes (Cu + Sn + Pb): wear resistant, self-lubricating.
2. Babbitt metal (Sn + Sb + Cu): soft, excellent antifriction property.
3. White metal: Tin-based alloys, used in bearings under light load.
 Standard Commercial Grades:
o As per BIS/ASME, compositions of bronzes and bearing alloys are specified for
industrial use. Example: Leaded tin bronze, Phosphor bronze.
A. Multiple Choice Questions (10)
1. The lightest structural metal is:
a) Aluminium
b) Magnesium
c) Zinc
d) Nickel
2. The best conductor of electricity among non-ferrous metals is:
a) Aluminium
b) Copper
c) Nickel
d) Tin
3. Duralumin mainly contains:
a) Al + Cu + Mg + Mn
b) Al + Zn + Cu
c) Al + Ni + Cr
d) Al + Fe + Si
4. Brass is an alloy of:
a) Copper and Tin
b) Copper and Zinc
c) Copper and Nickel
d) Copper and Aluminium
5. Bronze is mainly composed of:
a) Cu + Sn
b) Cu + Zn
c) Cu + Ni
d) Cu + Mg
6. Nichrome is mainly used for:
a) Aircraft parts
b) Bearings
c) Heating elements
d) Marine equipment
7. Hindalium is mostly used for:
a) Aircraft
b) Kitchen utensils
c) Marine valves
d) Electrical wires
8. Which non-ferrous metal is widely used for galvanizing steel?
a) Zinc
b) Nickel
c) Copper
d) Tin
9. Monel alloy contains about:
a) 67% Cu, 30% Ni
b) 67% Ni, 30% Cu
 c) 50% Cu, 50% Ni
d) 80% Ni, 20% Cr
10. Babbitt metal is mainly used for:
a) Electrical cables
b) Bearings
c) Marine parts
d) Coins

B. Fill in the Blanks (10)

1. Aluminium develops a thin __________ layer which protects it from corrosion.
2. Copper has excellent __________ and thermal conductivity.
3. Tin is commonly used for __________ steel plates.
4. The heaviest non-ferrous metal among the given list is __________.
5. Zinc is widely used for __________ of iron and steel.
6. The lightest structural metal is __________.
7. Duralumin contains aluminium, copper, magnesium and __________.
8. Hindalium is mainly used in making __________.
9. Monel alloy is resistant to __________ water corrosion.
10. Babbitt metal is an __________ alloy used in bearings.

C. True / False (10)

1. Aluminium is heavier than steel. (False)
2. Copper is highly ductile and corrosion resistant. (True)
3. Lead has high strength and is used for load-bearing structures. (False)
4. Zinc is used for galvanizing steel to prevent rusting. (True)
5. Magnalium is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium. (True)
6. Nichrome is used for making coins. (False)
7. Stainless steel is a nickel alloy. (False)
8. Bronzes are alloys of copper and tin. (True)
9. Bearing alloys reduce friction and wear in moving parts. (True)
10. Monel alloy is weak in marine applications. (False)

D. Short Answer Type Questions (10)

1. Write two important properties and uses of aluminium.
2. State two applications of copper.
3. Why is lead used in batteries?
 4. Write one property and one use of tin.
5. Define brass and mention one of its applications.
6. What is the composition of bronze?
7. Write one difference between duralumin and hindalium.
8. What is the use of nichrome?
9. Mention two applications of monel alloy.
10. What are bearing bronzes?

E. Very Long Answer Type Questions (10)

1. Explain the properties and uses of aluminium, copper and magnesium.
2. Discuss the properties and uses of tin, lead, zinc and nickel.
3. Describe the composition, properties and applications of brasses and bronzes.
4. Explain aluminium alloys – duralumin, hindalium and magnalium in detail.
5. Describe nickel alloys – inconel, monel and nichrome with properties and uses.
6. Write detailed notes on anti-friction/bearing alloys with examples.
7. Explain various types of bearing bronzes and their industrial applications.
8. Discuss the standard commercial grades of non-ferrous alloys as per BIS/ASME.
9. Compare copper alloys and aluminium alloys with respect to properties and uses.
10. Write short notes on non-ferrous metals in general and their importance in engineering.
 Unit-4
Failure Analysis & Testing of Materials
Failure Analysis
 Introduction
Failure analysis is the process of determining the cause of failure in materials,
components, or structures, to prevent its recurrence.
It helps in improving design, material selection, and manufacturing processes.

Types of Failure

1. Fracture
o Ductile Fracture:
• Occurs after significant plastic deformation.
• Characterized by cup-and-cone fracture surface.
• Absorbs high energy before breaking.
o Brittle Fracture:
• Occurs with little or no plastic deformation.
• Sudden and catastrophic failure.
• Cleavage is a common mode of brittle fracture.
o Notch Sensitivity:
• Some materials fail more easily when sharp notches or cracks are present.
• High-strength materials are more notch sensitive.
2. Fatigue
o Failure under repeated cyclic loading (even below yield strength).
o Endurance Limit: Maximum stress below which a material can withstand
infinite cycles without failure.
o Characteristics of Fatigue Fracture:
• Beach marks / striations on fracture surface.
• Initiates at stress concentration points.
o Variables Affecting Fatigue Life:
• Stress level, surface finish, size, temperature, corrosion, residual stresses.
3. Creep
o Time-dependent deformation under constant stress at elevated temperature.
o Creep Curve (3 Stages):
• Primary Creep – decreasing creep rate.
• Secondary Creep – constant creep rate (most important).
• Tertiary Creep – increasing creep rate leading to rupture.
o Creep Fracture: Failure due to excessive deformation or rupture in tertiary stage.
4.2 Destructive Testing
Tests in which specimen is destroyed during evaluation.

1. Tensile Test – Determines strength, ductility, modulus of elasticity.

2. Compression Test – Used for brittle materials like concrete, cast iron.
3. Hardness Testing:
o Brinell – Steel ball indentation, large loads.
o Rockwell – Depth of penetration, direct reading scale.
o Vickers (optional) – Diamond pyramid, micro-hardness test.
4. Bend Test – Evaluates ductility, soundness of welds.
5. Torsion Test – Determines shear modulus, strength in twisting.
6. Fatigue Test – Determines endurance limit.
7. Creep Test – Performed at high temperature under constant load.

4.3 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Tests without damaging the component.

1. Visual Inspection – First step, checks for cracks, surface defects.

2. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) – For ferromagnetic materials, surface & near-
surface cracks.
3. Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT) – For non-porous materials, detects surface cracks.
4. Ultrasonic Inspection (UT) – Uses high-frequency sound waves to detect internal
defects.
5. Radiography (X-ray/Gamma-ray) – Detects internal flaws, porosity, inclusions.

4.4 Corrosion of Metals and Alloys

 Mechanism of Corrosion
• Electrochemical reaction involving anodic dissolution and cathodic reduction.
 Types of Corrosion
1. Uniform corrosion (general thinning).
2. Galvanic corrosion (two dissimilar metals in contact).
3. Pitting corrosion (localized holes).
4. Crevice corrosion (in narrow gaps).
5. Intergranular corrosion.
6. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC).
 Corrosion Prevention Techniques
• Material selection (alloys, stainless steels).
• Surface coatings (paints, plating).
 • Cathodic protection (sacrificial anodes).
• Corrosion inhibitors (chemicals in environment).

4.5 Surface Engineering Processes

Methods to improve surface properties (hardness, corrosion resistance, wear resistance).

1. Coatings & Surface Treatments

o Hard facing, thermal spraying, nitriding, carburizing.
2. Cleaning & Mechanical Finishing
o Sand blasting, shot peening, polishing, buffing.
3. Organic Coatings
o Paints, varnishes, enamels (protective & decorative).
4. Electroplating
o Coating with metals like Ni, Cr, Zn using electrolysis.
5. Special Metallic Plating
o Anodizing (Al), galvanizing (Zn), tin plating, chrome plating.
A. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. Ductile fracture is usually characterized by:
a) Cup and cone fracture
b) Cleavage planes
c) Intergranular cracking
d) None of the above
Answer: a
2. Fatigue failure occurs due to:
a) Sudden overloading
b) Repeated cyclic loading
c) Creep at high temperature
d) Corrosion
Answer: b
3. The endurance limit is defined as:
a) Maximum static stress
b) Stress below which fatigue failure will not occur
c) Yield strength of material
d) Ultimate tensile strength
Answer: b
4. In creep curve, the secondary stage is known as:
a) Accelerating creep
b) Constant creep rate
c) Decelerating creep
d) Fracture stage
Answer: b
5. Brinell hardness test uses:
a) Diamond pyramid
b) Steel or tungsten carbide ball
c) Steel cone
d) Indenter of square base
Answer: b
6. Rockwell hardness number is based on:
a) Size of indentation
b) Depth of penetration
c) Tensile stress
d) Shear stress
Answer: b
7. Which NDT method is best for internal defect detection?
a) Magnetic particle test
b) Liquid penetrant test
c) Ultrasonic test
d) Visual inspection
Answer: c
8. Galvanic corrosion occurs when:
a) Two metals are heated
 b) Two dissimilar metals are in contact in electrolyte
c) Single metal is corroded in air
d) None of these
Answer: b
9. Electroplating is an example of:
a) Surface treatment
b) Mechanical finishing
c) Non-destructive testing
d) Corrosion mechanism
Answer: a
10. Shot peening improves:
a) Surface roughness
b) Fatigue resistance
c) Creep strength
d) Hardness only
Answer: b

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. Brittle fracture occurs with little or no __________ deformation.
Answer: plastic
2. In fatigue, fracture usually starts at __________.
Answer: stress concentration points (notches/cracks)
3. The secondary stage of creep has a __________ creep rate.
Answer: constant
4. Brinell hardness test uses a __________ ball indenter.
Answer: steel/tungsten carbide
5. The unit cell of metals is studied under __________.
Answer: crystallography
6. The endurance limit is also known as __________ limit.
Answer: fatigue
7. In magnetic particle test, defects are revealed by __________ of particles.
Answer: leakage field / accumulation
8. Uniform corrosion is also called __________ corrosion.
Answer: general
9. Anodizing is usually done on __________.
Answer: aluminum
10. The electrochemical theory of corrosion involves __________ and __________ reactions.
Answer: anodic, cathodic
C. True / False
1. Ductile materials show sudden failure without warning. → False
2. Fatigue failure can occur below the yield strength. → True
3. Creep occurs mostly at room temperature. → False
4. Rockwell hardness test gives direct hardness number. → True
5. Bend test is used to measure tensile strength. → False
6. Ultrasonic testing uses X-rays to detect defects. → False
7. Galvanizing is a zinc coating process. → True
8. Pitting corrosion is highly localized. → True
9. Visual inspection is the most reliable NDT method. → False
10. Shot peening induces compressive stresses on the surface. → True

D. Short Answer Type Questions

1. Differentiate between ductile and brittle fracture.
2. Define endurance limit.
3. Write any two variables affecting fatigue life.
4. What is creep? Name the three stages of creep.
5. What is the principle of Brinell hardness test?
6. Name two destructive and two non-destructive tests.
7. State the applications of ultrasonic testing.
8. What is galvanic corrosion?
9. Define electroplating with one example.
10. Mention two advantages of surface treatments.

E. Very Long Answer Type Questions

1. Explain ductile and brittle fracture with neat diagrams and their characteristics.
2. Describe fatigue failure, its mechanism, endurance limit, and factors affecting fatigue
life.
3. With a neat curve, explain the stages of creep and mechanism of creep fracture.
4. Discuss in detail the different types of hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers) with
applications.
5. Explain the principle, procedure, and applications of tensile test.
6. Compare destructive and non-destructive tests with suitable examples.
7. Describe in detail various non-destructive tests: visual, MPI, LPT, ultrasonic,
radiography.
8. Explain the electrochemical mechanism of corrosion and different types of corrosion.
9. Describe various corrosion prevention methods with examples.
 10. Discuss surface engineering processes: coatings, surface treatments, organic coatings,
electroplating, and special metallic plating.

Unit- 5

Advanced & Functional Materials

Polymers
 Definition: Polymers are long-chain organic macromolecules formed by repeating units
(monomers).

Classification

1. Based on Origin
o Natural: Rubber, cellulose, proteins.
o Synthetic: PVC, nylon, polyethylene.
2. Based on Thermal Behavior
o Thermoplastics: Soften on heating, harden on cooling (e.g., polyethylene,
polystyrene).
o Thermosetting: Harden irreversibly by heat/chemical reaction (e.g., bakelite,
epoxy).
3. Based on Polymerization
o Addition polymers: No by-product (e.g., polyethylene).
o Condensation polymers: By-product like H₂O, HCl (e.g., nylon, polyester).

Applications

 Electrical insulation, packaging, fibers, adhesives, coatings, pipes, biomedical devices.

Polymerization Techniques

1. Bulk polymerization – Pure monomer, simple, but heat removal is difficult.

2. Solution polymerization – Monomer dissolved in solvent, easy heat control.
3. Emulsion polymerization – Uses emulsifiers, for high molecular weight polymers.
4. Suspension polymerization – Monomer suspended in water as droplets.
5.2 Ceramics
 Definition: Non-metallic, inorganic solids made by heating raw materials to high
temperatures.

Types

1. Oxide ceramics – Alumina (Al₂O₃), zirconia (ZrO₂); high hardness, refractory.

2. Ceramic insulators – Electrical insulators (porcelain, steatite).
3. Bioceramics – Used in artificial bones, dental implants (hydroxyapatite, zirconia).
4. Glasses – Amorphous solids, silica-based; used in windows, optical fibers.

5.3 Composites
 Definition: Combination of two or more materials (matrix + reinforcement) to achieve
superior properties.

Types

1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) – Aluminum + SiC fibers.

2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) – Silicon carbide, alumina with fibers.
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) – Epoxy resin + glass/carbon fibers.

Applications: Aircraft, automobiles, sports equipment, construction.

5.4 Special Materials

1. Biomaterials – Compatible with human body (titanium alloys, bioceramics, polymers).
2. Optical materials – Glasses, optical fibers, laser crystals.
3. High-temperature materials – Nickel-based superalloys, refractory ceramics.
4. Energy materials – Solar cells, fuel cells, batteries, hydrogen storage.
5. Nanomaterials – <100 nm particles, high strength, catalytic and optical properties
(CNTs, graphene).

5.5 Conducting & Resisting Materials

 Conductors: Copper, aluminum (low resistivity, high conductivity).
 Resistors: Nichrome, manganin (high resistivity, stable with temperature).
  Applications: Power transmission, resistors, heaters.

5.6 Semiconducting Materials

 Properties: Resistivity between conductor and insulator; conductivity increases with
temperature.
 Examples: Silicon, germanium, GaAs.
 Applications: Diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs.

5.7 Magnetic Materials

 Soft Magnetic Materials
o Easily magnetized and demagnetized (silicon steel, soft iron).
o Used in transformers, motors.
 Hard Magnetic Materials
o Retain magnetism (Alnico, ferrites).
o Used in permanent magnets, speakers.

5.8 Superconductors & Dielectric Materials

 Superconductors
o Zero electrical resistance below a critical temperature.
o Examples: NbTi, YBCO.
o Applications: MRI machines, maglev trains.
 Dielectric Materials
o Insulators that store electrical energy.
o High dielectric constant.
o Applications: Capacitors, cable insulation.

5.9 Smart Materials

 Materials that respond to external stimuli (stress, temp., electric/magnetic field).

1. Piezoelectric materials
o Generate voltage under stress.
o Applications: Sensors, actuators, microphones.
 2. Magnetostrictive materials
o Change shape under magnetic field.
o Applications: Sonar devices, actuators.
3. Electrostrictive materials
o Deform under electric field.
o Applications: Precision actuators.

A. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

1. Thermoplastics can be:
a) Hardened permanently on heating
b) Softened and remolded on heating
c) Used only once
d) None of these
Answer: b
2. Bakelite is an example of:
a) Thermoplastic
b) Thermosetting plastic
c) Elastomer
d) Natural polymer
Answer: b
3. Which polymerization method uses emulsifiers?
a) Bulk
b) Solution
c) Emulsion
d) Suspension
Answer: c
4. Alumina (Al₂O₃) is an example of:
a) Polymer
b) Ceramic
c) Metal matrix composite
d) Semiconductor
Answer: b
5. Epoxy resin reinforced with glass fiber is:
a) MMC
b) PMC
c) CMC
 d) None of these
Answer: b
6. Which of the following is a high-temperature material?
a) Nickel-based superalloy
b) Polyethylene
c) PVC
d) Manganin
Answer: a
7. Copper is used mainly because of its:
a) High hardness
b) High conductivity
c) High resistivity
d) Magnetic properties
Answer: b
8. The most widely used semiconductor is:
a) Copper
b) Silicon
c) Aluminum
d) Magnesium
Answer: b
9. Soft magnetic materials are mainly used in:
a) Permanent magnets
b) Transformers and motors
c) Memory storage
d) Solar cells
Answer: b
10. Piezoelectric materials generate:
a) Stress under voltage
b) Voltage under stress
c) Magnetism under heat
d) Resistance under current
Answer: b

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. Polymers are formed by repeating units called __________.
Answer: monomers
2. PVC is an example of a __________ plastic.
Answer: thermoplastic
3. In __________ polymerization, no by-product is formed.
Answer: addition
4. Porcelain is commonly used as a __________ insulator.
Answer: ceramic
 5. Composites consist of a matrix and __________.
Answer: reinforcement
6. Optical fibers are made of __________.
Answer: glass/silica
7. Nichrome is used as a __________ material.
Answer: resistive/heating
8. Germanium is a __________ material.
Answer: semiconductor
9. Alnico is a __________ magnetic material.
Answer: hard
10. Superconductors show __________ resistance below a critical temperature.
Answer: zero

C. True / False
1. Thermosetting plastics can be remolded after heating. → False
2. Nylon is a condensation polymer. → True
3. Bioceramics are used in artificial joints and dental implants. → True
4. Polymer matrix composites are weaker than pure polymers. → False
5. Graphene and CNTs are nanomaterials. → True
6. Copper is used as a resistive material. → False
7. Semiconductors have conductivity between metals and insulators. → True
8. Hard magnetic materials are used in transformers. → False
9. Superconductors are used in MRI machines and maglev trains. → True
10. Piezoelectric materials deform under magnetic field. → False

D. Short Answer Type Questions

1. Differentiate between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
2. What is polymerization? Mention two types.
3. Give two applications of ceramics.
4. Define composites with one example.
5. Name two applications of biomaterials.
6. Mention two energy materials with applications.
7. What is the main property of nichrome?
8. Write two applications of semiconductors.
9. Differentiate between soft and hard magnetic materials.
10. What are piezoelectric materials? Give one use.
E. Very Long Answer Type Questions
1. Classify polymers and explain their properties and applications.
2. Explain polymerization techniques with neat sketches.
3. Discuss oxide ceramics, bioceramics, and glasses with examples and applications.
4. Explain types of composites (MMC, CMC, PMC) with applications.
5. Write short notes on biomaterials, optical materials, and high-temperature materials.
6. Describe conducting and resistive materials with examples, properties, and uses.
7. Explain semiconductors: properties, examples, and applications in electronics.
8. Differentiate between soft and hard magnetic materials and list their uses.
9. Describe superconductors and dielectric materials with properties and applications.
10. Explain smart materials (piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, electrostrictive) with
applications.