Topic 1 :

ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 2

1.1 Introduction :
 Circular Motion :
 The point or line that is the center of the circle is the axis of rotation.
 If the axis of rotation is inside the object, the object is rotating.
 If the axis of rotation is outside the object is revolving
 Motion of an object along the circumference of a circle is called circular motion.

1.2 Characteristics of Circular Motion :

 The direction of velocity changes at every instant, it is an accelerated motion.
 The motion of the particle repeats its path along the same trajectory. Thus, the
motion is periodic.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 3

1.2.1 Kinematics of Circular Motion :
Linear motion Circular / Rotational motion
Quantity Symbol/ Quantity Symbol/ Inter
expression expression relation
1 Linear s Angular ՜ Ԧ 𝜃Ԧ x 𝑟Ԧ
𝑠=
θ
displacement displacement s = r𝜃

2 Linear velocity 𝑑𝑠 Angular 𝑑θ 𝑣Ԧ = ω x 𝑟Ԧ

𝑣Ԧ = ω=
𝑑𝑡 velocity 𝑑𝑡 (v = rω)
3 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎Ԧ =
𝑑𝑣 Angular 𝑑ω a = α x 𝑟Ԧ
𝑑𝑡
𝑎=
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 acceleration 𝑑𝑡 (a = r α)

 Direction of angular velocity.

 Uniform circular motion :
• An object moving with constant speed along a circular path is said to be called
uniform circular motion.
• Its velocity is always tangential to circular path.
• The acceleration responsible for the centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 = - 𝜔2 𝑟ҧ

𝑣2
 For magnitude a = 𝜔 = = v 𝜔
2r
𝑟
 It is always directed towards the centre of the circular
motion, hence called centripetal.
 Direction of linear velocity and acceleration

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 5

 UCM Non-UCM

 The angular and tangential  The angular and tangential

acceleration are zero. acceleration are non zero.
 The acceleration is radially inwards.  The acceleration is
a = 𝑎2𝑇 + 𝑎𝑟2
𝑣2 𝑑𝑣
ar = aT =
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

 The value of centripetal acceleration  The value of centripetal force and

and force are constant acceleration are not constant.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 6

1.2.2 Dynamics of Circular Motion :
Centripetal force Centrifugal force
 The force is along the radius and  The force is along the radius and
towards centre away from centre is called
centrifugal force.

 The force is a real force The force is non-real force

 This force observed in inertial and This force observed in non-inertial

non-inertial frame of reference frame of reference.

 𝐹Ԧ = - m𝑟Ԧ 𝜔2  𝐹Ԧ = + m𝑟Ԧ 𝜔2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 7

1.3 Applications of Uniform Circular Motion :
1.3.1 Vehicle along a Horizontal Circular Track :

A car moving on a horizontal circular track of radius r.

 m = mass of the car.

 mg = weight of the car.
 N = Normal reaction vertically upwards.
 Fs = µsN = Force of static friction fs between road and the tyres.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 8
 Normal reaction balances the weight of the car.

N = mg

𝑚𝑣 2
and fs = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑟

𝑓𝑠 𝑣2 𝑟𝜔2
∴ = = --- (1)
𝑁 𝑟𝑔 𝑔

As speed v increases, the force of static friction fs also increases. But fs has upper
limit 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 N, where 𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction between road and
tyres of the vehicle.
Therefore, at the maximum possible speed 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 we can write,
𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
N 𝑟𝑔

∴ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑟𝑔
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 9
1.3.2 Well (or Wall) of Death :
 A vertical cylindrical wall of radius
r inside which a vehicle is driven
in horizontal circles.
 The forces acting on the person are
1) Weight mg downward.
2) Normal reaction N acting horizontally and towards the
centre.
3) Frictional force fs, parallel to the wall upward.

 Normal reaction N is equal to the resultant centripetal force.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 10

 𝑚𝑣 2
N = mr 𝜔 = 2 -------------- (1)
𝑟

fs = mg -------------- (2)

Force of static friction 𝑓𝑠 is always less than or equal to 𝜇𝑠 𝑁.

∴ 𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑁


mg ≤ μ s N -------------- (3)

𝑚𝑣 2
∴ 𝑚𝑔 ≤ 𝜇𝑠
𝑟

𝑣2
∴ 𝑔≤ 𝜇𝑠
𝑟

𝑟𝑔
∴ 𝑣2 ≥
𝜇𝑠

𝑟𝑔
∴ 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜇𝑠

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 11

 Comparing (1) and (2) we get

2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
μs= 𝑟𝑔

Vmax = 𝜇𝑠 𝑟𝑔

The minimum value of the angular velocity

is given by

𝑔
𝜔min =
𝜇𝑠 𝑟

1.3.3 Vehicle on a Banked Road :

 While taking a turn on a horizontal road, The force of static friction between the
tyres of the vehicle and the road provides the necessary centripetal force.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 12

 The frictional force having an upper limit. Its value is not constant as the
road surface is not uniform. The force of friction is not reliable.
 The surface of curved roads are tilted with the horizontal with same angle q.
This is called banking of a road.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 13

 A car moving on the banked curve road.

m = mass of the car.

V = velocity of the car.

r = radius of the car

N = Normal reaction act on a car.

θ = angle of banking.

mg = weight of the car.

The Normal reaction resolved in two parts-

1) Its vertical component N cos θ balances weight mg.

2) Horizontal component N sin θ balances the centripetal force.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 14

N cos θ = mg and

N sin θ = mv2/r

𝑉2
∴ tan θ = 𝑟𝑔

𝑉2
∴ θ= tan -1
𝑟𝑔

The most safe speed of a car is

V= 𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 15

 Lower speed limit on banked road :

Speed Vs = 𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃

Two forces acting on Vehicle

1) mg – act vertically downward

2) N – act lee to the surface of road.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 16

 For speeds V1 < 𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃

𝑚𝑉12
< N sin 𝜃
𝑟

Horizontal component (fs cos 𝜃 ) is parallel to N sin 𝜃 & opposite

𝑚𝑉12
∴ = N sin 𝜃 – fs cos 𝜃 ---------- (1)
𝑟

& mg = N cos 𝜃 + fs sin 𝜃 ---------- (2)

𝑚𝑉12 /𝑟 𝑁 sin 𝜃− 𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃

Divide (1) by (2) =
𝑟𝑔 𝑁 sin 𝜃+ 𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃

𝑉12 tan 𝜃−𝜇𝑠

=
𝑟𝑔 1+ 𝜇𝑠 tan 𝜃

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽− 𝝁𝒔
(V1)min = 𝒓𝒈
𝟏+ 𝝁𝒔 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽

For 𝜇s ≥ tan 𝜃, Vmin = 0

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 17
 Upper speed limit on banked road :

Speed Vs = 𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃

For speed V2 > 𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃

𝑚𝑉22
> N sin 𝜃
𝑟

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 18

Horizontal component fs cos 𝜃 is parallel to N sin 𝜃. These two
balances centrifugal

𝑚𝑉22
= N sin 𝜃 + fs cos 𝜃 ------------ (1)
𝑟

& N cos 𝜃 = fs sin 𝜃 + mg

mg = N cos 𝜃 – fs sin 𝜃 ------------ (2)

Divide (1) by (2)

𝑉22 𝑁 sin 𝜃+𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃

=
𝑟𝑔 𝑁 sin 𝜃−𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃
𝑉22 tan 𝜃+ 𝜇𝑠
=
𝑟𝑔 1− 𝜇𝑠 tan 𝜃

tan 𝜃+ 𝜇𝑠
V2(max) = 𝑟𝑔
1− 𝜇𝑠 tan 𝜃

For 𝜇s = cot 𝜃, Vmax = ∞

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 19
 1.3.4 Conical Pendulum :

A point object (called a bob) connected to a long,

flexible, massless, inextensible string, and suspended
to a rigid support is called a pendulum.
If the string moves along the surface of a right circular
cone of vertical axis and the point object performs a
uniform horizontal circular motion, the system is
called a Conical pendulum.

Consider a conical pendulum having bob (point mass) of

mass m and string of length L.

In a given position B, the forces acting on the bob are

(i) its weight mg directed vertically downwards and

(ii) the force 𝑇𝑜 due to the tension in the string, directed along
the string, towards the support A.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 20
 As the motion of the bob is a horizontal circular motion, the resultant force must be
horizontal and directed towards the centre C of the circular motion.
If θ is the angle made by the string with the vertical, at any position (semi-
vertical angle of the cone),
 the vertical component 𝑇𝑜 cosθ balances the weight mg
i.e. 𝑇𝑜 cosθ = mg ---------- (1)
 The horizontal component 𝑇𝑜 sinθ becomes the resultant force which is
centripetal
i.e. 𝑇𝑜 sinθ = mr𝜔2 ---------- (2)
Dividing (1) by (2),
𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜔2 =
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Radius r of the circular motion is r = Lsinθ.

If T is the period of revolution of the bob,
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 21
 2𝜋 𝑔
𝜔= =
𝑇 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ Period T = 2𝜋 --------------------- (3)
𝑔

Frequency of revolution,

1 1 𝑔
𝑛= = -------------------- (4)
𝑇 2𝜋 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

In the frame of reference attached to the bob, the centrifugal force should
balance the resultant of all the real forces (which we call CPF) for the bob
to be at rest.

∴ 𝑇𝑜 sinθ = mr𝜔2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 22

1.4 Vertical Circular Motion :
1.4.1 Point Mass Undergoing Vertical Circular Motion Under Gravity :

Case I : Mass tied to a string :

At any position, two forces acts on body.

a) Mg act vertically downwards.
b) Force due to tension (T) directed
along string towards the centre.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 23

 Minimum speeds at different locations along vertical circular motion :

1) Uppermost position (A) :

Both weight (mg) & force due to tension are downward

∴ Resultant used as centripetal force.

𝑚𝑉𝐴2
∴ mg + TA = ∵ VA - speed at uppermost point
𝑟

For minimum possible speed at point A, TA = 0

∴ (VA)min = 𝒓𝒈

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 24

2) Lowermost position (B) :

TB is vertically upwards i.e. towards centre & opposite to mg

∴ their resultant is centripetal force.

𝑚𝑉𝐵2
∴ TB – mg = ∵ VB – speed at lowermost point.
𝑟

∵ Vertical displacement = 2r

Decrease in P.E. convert into K.E.

1 1
∴ mg (2r) = mVB2 – mVA2
2 2

∴ VB2 – VA2 = 4rg

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 25

 ∴ VB2 = 4rg + rg ∵ VA2 = rg

VB = 𝟓𝒓𝒈

3) Positions when string is horizontal (C & D) :

At midway position ‘C’ – Vertical displacement = r

Decrease in P.E. convert into K.E.

mgr = ½ mVB2 – ½ mVC2

VB2 – VC2 = 2gr

5gr – 2gr = VC2

VC = 𝟑𝒓𝒈

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 26

 𝑚𝑉𝐶2
At point C = TC ------------ (1)
𝑟

𝑚𝑉𝐴2
& mg + TA = ----- at A -------------------- (2)
𝑟

𝑚𝑉𝐶2 𝑚𝑉𝐴2
TC – mg – TA = -
𝑟 𝑟

as VC2 = 3rg, VA2 = rg

3𝑚𝑔𝑟 𝑚𝑔𝑟
TC – TA = - + mg
𝑟 𝑟

TC – TA = 3 mg

Similarly, TD – TA = 3 mg

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 27

4) Difference between extreme positions :
𝑚𝑉𝐴2
At point A, mg + TA = -------------------- (1)
𝑟
𝑚𝑉𝐵2
At point B, TB – mg = -------------------- (2)
𝑟
𝑚
TB – TA – 2mg = (VB2 – VA2) ….. by subtracting (2) - (1)
𝑟
∵ VB2 – VA2 = 4rg
TB – TA = 6 mg
Difference in tension at extreme positions depends only on weight.

5) Arbitrary positions :

Force due to the tension and weight are neither along the same
line, nor perpendicular. Tangential component of weight is used to
change the speed. It decreases the speed while going up and
increases it while coming down.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 28
Case I : Mass tied to a rod :

 The basic difference between the rod and the string is that the string
needs some tension at all the points, including the uppermost point.
 But as the rod is rigid practically zero speed is possible at the
uppermost point.

 (V𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝟒𝒓𝒈 = 2 𝒓𝒈

 At the horizontal position = 𝟐𝒓𝒈

 T𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 - T𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 6mg

1.4.2 Sphere of Death :

This is a popular show in a circus. During this, two-wheeler rider (or riders)
undergo rounds inside a hollow sphere. Starting with small horizontal circles,
they eventually perform revolutions along vertical circles.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 29
  The dynamics of this vertical circular motion is the same as that of the point
mass tied to the string, except that the force due to tension T is replaced by
the normal reaction force N.
 The linear speed is more for larger circles but angular speed
(frequency) is more for smaller circles (while starting or stopping).
This is as per the theory of conical pendulum.

1.4.3 Vehicle at the Top of a Convex Over-Bridge :

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 30

 Forces acting on the vehicle are (a) Weight mg and (b) Normal reaction
force N, both along the vertical line (topmost position).
 The resultant of these two must provide the necessary centripetal force
(vertically downwards) if the vehicle is at the uppermost position.

Thus, if v is the speed at the uppermost point,

𝑚𝑣 2
mg – N =
𝑟

As the speed is increased, N goes on decreasing. Normal reaction

is an indication of contact. Thus, for just maintaining contact, N = 0.
This imposes an upper limit on the speed as
V𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝒓𝒈

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 31

1.5 Moment of inertia as an Analogous Quantity for mass :
 Kinetic energy of rotating body :

K.E. of first particle

1
E1 = m1 v12
2

1
E1 = m1 r12 ω2
2

(∵ v = rw ; v1 = r1 w )

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 32

 K.E. of remaining particles are

1 1 1
m2 r22 ω2, m3 r32 ω2 ……… mn rn2 ω2
2 2 2

Total rotational K.E. given by

1
E = σ Ei = (m1 r12 + m2r22 + ……. + mn rn2) ω2
2

1
E= I ω2
2

 Moment of inertia (M.I.)

M.I. of a rigid body about an axis of rotation is the sum of products

of mass of each particle and square of distance from the axis of rotation.

I = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + …… + mn rn2

I = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 OR ‫ ׬‬r2 dm
I = Mr2 Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 33
1.9 Expression for Torque in terms of moment of inertia :
Linear acceleration for first particle
∴ 𝑎1 = r1α
Force acting on first particle
f1 = m1a1
= m1r1α
Torque acting on the first particle
τ1 = f1 r1
τ 1 = m1 r1 x r1α
τ 1 = m1 r12 α
Similarly torque acting on remaining
particle,
m2 r22 α , m3 r32 α ….. mn rn2 α

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 34

 Total torque acting on the rotating body

τ = m1 r12 α + m2 r22 α + ….. + mn rn2 α

τ = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + …. + mn rn2 ) α

τ=Iα

1.8 Angular momentum or Moment of Linear Momentum :

1.8.1 Expression for Angular momentum in term of M.I. :
Linear momentum for first particle,
P 1 = m1 v 1
P1 = m1 r1 ω ∵ v=rω
∴ moment of Linear momentum for first particle
= p1 r1
= m1 r1 ω x r1
= m1 r12 ω
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 35
 Similarly moment of Linear momentum for remaining particle,
m2 r22 ω, m3 r32 ω, …….. mn rn2 ω
∴ Total moment of linear momentum of rotating body will be sum of all these
moments
L = m1r22 ω + m2r22 ω + ……… + mn rn2 ω
L = (m1r12 + m2r22 + ……… + mn rn2) ω
L=Iω
1.10 Principle of conservation of angular momentum :
Statement : If no external torque acting on the body, the angular momentum is
constant.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 36

Linear momentum is given by
𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ x 𝑝Ԧ
Differentiating,
𝑑 𝑝Ԧ
𝐹Ԧ =
𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
= ( 𝑟Ԧ x 𝑝Ԧ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝑉=
𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝑝Ԧ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝑑𝑡
=rx + xp
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑝Ԧ = m𝑉
𝑑𝐿
= r x 𝑓Ԧ + 𝑣Ԧ x(m𝑣)
Ԧ 𝑉×𝑉 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿 Self cross products is zero

=𝑟× 𝐹+𝑚𝑥0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿
=τ
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿
∴ If resulting torque is zero, =0
𝑑𝑡

𝐿 = constant
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 37
Examples of conservation of angular momentum :
 Ballet dancers:
During ice ballet, the dancers have to undertake rounds of smaller and larger
radii. The dancers come together while taking the rounds of smaller radius. In
this case, the moment of inertia of their system becomes minimum and the
frequency increases, to make it thrilling. While outer rounds, the dancers
outstretch their legs and arms. This increases their moment of inertia that
reduces the angular speed and hence the linear speed.

 Diving in a swimming pool :

While on the diving board, the divers stretch their body so as to
increase the moment of inertia. Immediately after leaving the board,
they fold their body. This reduces the moment inertia considerably.
As a result, the frequency increases and they can complete more
rounds in air to make the show attractive. Again, while entering into
water they stretch their body into a streamline shape. This allows
them a smooth entry into the water.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 38

 1.6 Radius of Gyration (K)
I = Mr2,

I = MK2 K = radius of gyration

1.11 Rolling motion :

 K.E. of a rolling body :

When body perform rolling motion

K.E. roll = Translational K.E. + Rotational K.E.

1 1 I = Mk2
= Mv2 + Iω2
2 2
v = Rω
1 1
= MR2ω2 + Mk2ω2
2 2
𝑉
ω=
1 𝑅
= Mω2 (R2 + k2)
2

1 𝑉2
= M (R2 + K2)
2 𝑅2 Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 39
 1 𝑅2 +𝐾2
= MV2
2 𝑅2

1 𝐾2
E= MV2 1+
2 𝑅2

1.11.1 Linear Acceleration and Speed while pure Rolling down an

inclined plane :
Consider a rigid body rolling down inclined plane of
inclination ‘θ’ from height ‘h’.

The Linear speed acquired by the body, when it reaches

the bottom,
2𝑔ℎ
∴ V = 𝐾2
1+ 2
𝑅

The Linear acceleration of the body, while rolling

down the plane,
𝑔 sin 𝜃
∴ a= 𝐾2
1+ 2
𝑅 40
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
Remark :
Body M.I. K Translational Rotational Rolling Linear Linear

1. Ring OR MR2 R 1
MV2
1
MV2 MV2 𝑔ℎ 1
9 sin q
2 2 2
cylinder

2. Disc OR 1 1 3 2
𝑀𝑅2 𝑅
2
MV2
4
MV2
4
MV2
3
9 sin q
solid cylinder 2 2 2
𝑔ℎ
3

3. Solid 2
MR2
1
MV2
1
MV2
7
MV2
5
9 sin q
5 2 2 5 10
R 7
sphere 5 10
𝑔ℎ
7

1.5.1 M.I. of a Uniform Ring :

I = MR2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 41

 1.5.2 Moment of inertia of a Uniform disc :

Consider a thin uniform disc of mass M and

Radius ‘R’ and σ is mass per unit area
𝑀
∴ σ=
𝜋𝑅 2

Assume that disc is made from large number of identical

concentric rings each having mass ‘dm’.

Consider one such ring of radius ‘r’ and width ‘dr’,

Then,

Area of ring A = 2πrdr

∴ dm = Aσ = 2 πrσdr

M.I. of ring Ir = dm r2 Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 42

M.I. of the disc can be obtained by integrating above equation.
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
I = ‫׬‬0 𝐼𝑟 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑚 𝑟 2 = ‫׬‬0 2𝜋 𝑟σ𝑑𝑟 x r2
𝑅
= 2𝜋σ ‫׬‬0 𝑟 3 dr
𝑅2
= 2 𝜋σ
4

𝑀 𝑅2
= 2𝜋 ×
𝜋𝑅 2 4

𝑀𝑅 2
∴ I=
2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 43

1.7.1 Theorem (Principle) of parallel axes :
Statement :

The moment of inertia (I0) of an object about

any axis is the sum of its moment of inertia (IC) about
an axis parallel to the given axis and passing through
the centre of mass and the product of the mass of the
object and square of the distance between the two
axes (Mh2).

i.e. I0 = IC + Mh2

Proof :

∴ M.I. ………….., I0 = ‫ ׬‬OP2 dm

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 44

Similarly,
M.I. of object about an axis…… IC = ‫ ׬‬CD2 dm

From fig. in ∆ ODN,

OD2 = ON2 + ND2

න OD2 dm = න (ON2 + ND2) dm

i.e. I0 = ‫ [ ׬‬ON2 + ND2 ] dm

But, ON = OC + CN

∴ I0 = ‫[ [ ׬‬OC + CN]2 + ND2 ] dm

i.e. I0 = ‫ [ ׬‬OC2+2OC.CN + CN2 + ND2 ] dm

But, CN2 + ND2 = CD2

I0 = ‫ [ ׬‬OC2+2OC.CN + CD2] dm

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 45

 I0 = OC2 ‫ ׬‬dm + 2OC ‫ ׬‬CNdm + ‫ ׬‬CD2 dm

But, OC = h and ‫ ׬‬CNdm = 0

∴ I0 = h2M + 2h x 0 + Ic

∴ I0 = Ic + Mh2

This is the proof of theorem of parallel axis.

1.7.2 Theorem of Perpendicular axes :

Statement :
“The moment of inertia(Iz) of a laminar object
about an axis (z) perpendicular to its plane is the
sum of its moment of inertias about two mutually
perpendicular axes (x and y) in its plane, all the three
axes being concurrent”.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 46
Proof :
M.I. of plane laminar object about X-axis, Ix = ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑚

∴ M.I. of plane laminar object about Y-axis, Iy = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑚

Also, M.I. of plane laminar object about Z-axis, Iz = ‫𝑃𝑂 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑚

But from figure, in ∆OPN,
𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑂𝑁 2 +𝑁𝑃2
∴ 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑦 2 +𝑥 2
Taking integration on both sides,
‫𝑃𝑂 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑚 = ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑚 + ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑚
∴ Iz = Ix + Iy
This is the proof of theorem of perpendicular axis.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 47

Numericals :
12. Some how, an ant is stuck to the rim of a bicycle wheel of diameter 1m. While
the bicycle is on a central stand, the wheel is set into rotation and it attains the
frequency of 2 rev/s in 10 seconds, with uniform angular acceleration. Calculate :

i) Number of revolutions completed by the ant in these 10 seconds.

ii) Time taken by it for first complete revolution and the last complete revolution.

Ans : i) Number of revolutions completed by the ant in these 10 seconds.

1 ω−ω0 4𝜋−0 4𝜋
θ = ωot + α t2 α= = =
2 𝑡 10 10

1 4𝜋
θ=0+ x x 10 x 10
2 10

θ = 20π

For one revolution, θ = 360 or 2 π

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 48
 ii) Time for first revolution :

For 1st revolution, θ=2π

1
θ = ω0 t + α t2
2

1 4𝜋
2π=0+ x x t2
2 10

t = 10 s or t = 3.16 s
iii) Time for last revolution :
tlast = t(10) – t(9) ∵ t(10) = 10 & t(9) = 90
tlast = 10 – 9.48
tlast = 0.52 s

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 49

13. Coefficient of static friction between a coin and a gramophone disc is
0.5. Radius of the disc is 8 cm. Initially the centre of the coin is π cm away
from the centre of the disc. At what minimum frequency will it start
slipping from there? By what factor will the answer change if the coin is
almost at the rim?
Ans : Centripetal force, Fs = mrω2
But Fs = μsN
μsN = mrω2
μsmg = mrω2
μsg = rω2

Minimum frequency = ? n1 = ? r = 2cm

μsg = r (2πn1)2

𝜇𝑠𝑔 0.5 × 𝜋2
n1 = =
4𝜋2 ×𝑟 4𝜋2 ×2 × 10−2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 50

n1 = 2.5 rev/s

When coin is at the rim, n2 = ?

μsg = rω2

μsg = r x 4π2n22

𝜇𝑠 𝑔 0.5 × 𝜋2
n2 = =
4𝜋2 ×𝑟 4𝜋2 ×8 ×10−2

n2 = 1.25 rev/s

𝟏
n2 = n1
𝟐

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 51

14. Part of a racing track is to be designed for a curvature of 72 m. We
are not recommending the vehicles to drive faster than 216 kmph. With what
angle should the road be tilted? By what height will its outer edge be, with
respect to the inner edge if the track is 10 m wide?
𝑣2
Ans : I) Angle (θ) : θ= tan-1 ( )
𝑟𝑔

602
θ= tan-1 (72𝑥10)

θ = tan-1 (5)

θ = 78.70

II) Height of elevation, h = ?

ℎ
h = l sin θ ( ∵ = sin θ )
𝑙

h = 10 sin (78.69) = 9.8 m

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 52
15. The road in the question 14 above is constructed as per the requirements.
The coefficient of static friction between the tyres of a vehicle on this road is 0.8,
will there be any lower speed limit? By how much can the upper speed limit
exceed in this case?
Ans :
For lowest speed limits,

tan 𝜃− 𝜇𝑠
Vmin = 𝑟𝑔 1+𝜇𝑠 tan 𝜃

5−0.8
= 72 × 10 1+0.8 ×5

3600
Vmin = 24.6 m/s = 24.6 x km/h
1000

Also, Vmin = 88 kmph

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 53

16. During a stunt, a cyclist (considered to be a particle) is undertaking

horizontal circles inside a cylindrical well of radius 6.05 m. If the necessary

friction coefficient is 0.5, how much minimum speed should the stunt artist
maintain? Mass of the artist is 50 kg. If she/he increases the speed by 20%, how
much will the force of friction be?
𝑟𝑔
Ans : Minimum speed : Vmin = 𝜇𝑠

6.05 ×10
= = 121
0.5

Vmin = 11 m/s

Frictional force does not depends upon speed.

Frictional force balances weight,

fs = mg = 50 x 10 = 500 N
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 54
17. A pendulum consisting of a massless string of length 20 cm and a tiny bob of mass
100 g is set up as a conical pendulum. Its bob now performs 75 rpm. Calculate kinetic
energy and increase in the gravitational potential energy of the bob. (Use 𝑣 2 = 10 )
Ans : 1 𝑔
n= 2𝜋 𝑙 cos 𝜃

5 1 10
= x
4 2 ×10 20 × 10−2 cos 𝜃

cos θ = 0.8

P.E. = mgl (1 – cos θ)

1
K.E. = mv2
2

K.E. = P.E

1
mv2 = mgl (1 – cos q)
2

V= 2𝑔𝑙 (1 − cos 𝜃)
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 55
= 2 × 9.8 × 0.2 (1 − 0.8) ∴ V = 0.784

V = 0.8854 m/s

1
K.E. = mv2
2

1
= 2
x 0.1 x (0.8854)2

= 0.0392 J

P.E. = mgl (1 – cos q)

= 0.1 x 9.8 x 0.2 (1.08)

P.E. = 0.0394 J

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 56

18. A motorcyclist (as a Particle) is undergoing vertical circles inside a sphere of
death. The speed of the motorcycle varies between 6 m/s and 10 m/s. Calculate
diameter of the sphere of death. How much minimum values are possible for
these two speeds?
Ans :
Law of conservation of energy

Energy at P = Energy at L

1 1
Vmin = V = 𝑔𝑟
mv2 + mgh = mu2 + mg (0)
2 2
= 10 𝑥
𝑢2 − 𝑉 2
h= 2𝑔 Vmax = 5 𝑔𝑟

(10)2 − (6)2 = 5 × 𝑔𝑟
h= = 3.2 m
2+10

Diameter = 3.2 m

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 57

19. A metallic ring of mass 1 kg has moment of inertia 1 kg 𝑚2 when rotating about
one of its diameters. It is molten and remoulded into a thin uniform disc of the
same radius. How much will its moment of inertia be, when rotated about its
own axis.
Ans :
M.I. of ring about diameter, Id = 1 kgm2

Radius of ring = Radius of disc

i.e. Rr = Rd

M.I. of disc about an axis passing through C.M. = ?

Using theorem of perpendicular axis,

𝑀𝑅𝑟2
M.I. of ring =
2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 58

 1 × 𝑅𝑟2
1 = 2

Rr = 𝟐 m

But, Mass of ring = Mass of disc = 1 kg

𝑀𝑅𝑎2
M.I. of disc about its own axis = 2

1 ×( 2)2
= ( ∵ Rd = Rr )
2

M.I. of disc = 1 kgm2

19. A big dumb-bell is prepared by using a uniform rod of mass 60 g and length 20 cm. Two
identical solid spheres of mass 50 g and radius 10 cm each are at the two ends of the rod.
Calculate moment of inertia of the dumb-bell when rotated about an axis passing through
its centre and perpendicular to the length.
Ans :

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 59

 M.I. of dumb–bell

1
M.I. of rod, h=R+ L
2

1
IR = mL2 h = 20 cm
12

2
M.I. of sphere, IC = MR2
5
Using theorem of parallel axis, M.I. of sphere about given axis of rotation,

I0 = Ic + Mh2

M.I. of dumb-bell, I = IR + 2 x I0

𝑀𝐿2
= 12
+ 2 x (IC + Mh2)

60 ×(20)2 2
= + 2 x [ MR2 ]
12 5

2
= 2000 + 2 x [5 x 50 x (10)2 + 50 x (20)2 ]
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 60
 = 2000 + 2 x [ 2000 + 20000 ]

= 2000 + 2 x 22000

= 46000 g-cm2

21. A flywheel used to prepare earthenware pots is set into rotation at 100 rpm. It is in the
form of a disc of mass 10 kg and radius 0.4 m. A lump of clay (to be taken equivalent to a
particle) of mass 1.6 kg falls on it and adheres to it at a certain distance x from the centre.
Calculate x if the wheel now rotates at 80 rpm.
Ans :
𝑀𝑅2
M.I. of flywheel disc : I = 2

I = 10 x (0.4)2/2

I = 0.8 kg-m2

Now, M.I. of lump of clay at distance x from axis of rotation,

i = mx2
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 61
 i = 1.6 x2 kgm2

Initial M.I. I1 = 1 = 0.8 kgm2

Final M.I. I2 = (I + i) = 0.8 + 1.6 x2 kgm2

According to law of conservation,

I1ω1 = I2 ω2

i.e. I1n1 = I2n2

0.8 x 100 = (0.8 + 1.6 x2) x 80

16
x2 = 1.28

𝟏
x= m = 0.35 m
𝟖

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 62

22. Starting from rest, an object rolls down along an incline that rises by 3 in every 5
(along it). The object gains a speed of 10 m/s as it travels a distance of 5/3 m
along the incline. What can be the possible shape/s of the object?
Ans :

Incline surface rises by 3 in every 5. (along it)

It means, height changes by 3 m in every 5 m walk on
inclined surfaces
3
sine = 5

Given : speed gained,

V= 10 m/s

Distance travelled, s = 5/3 m

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 63

𝐾2
= ? i.e. shapes of the object.
𝑅2

From fig., sinθ = h/s

h = s x sin θ

5 3
h= x =1m
3 5

2𝑔ℎ
Speed gained , V = (1+ 𝐾2 /𝑅2 )

2 ×10 ×1
10 = 1+ 𝐾2 /𝑅2

2 ×10 ×1
10 = 1+ 𝐾2 /𝑅2

𝐾2 𝑲𝟐
1+ 𝑅2
=2 i.e. 𝑹𝟐
=1

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 64

THEORY QUESTIONS :

For 1 Marks :

1) State an expression for 1) most safe speed, 2) banking angle for vehicle.
2) What will happen to the string if tension at the uppermost point during vertical
circular motion becomes zero ?
3) What is expected to happen if one travels fast over a speed breaker ? Why ?

For 2 Marks :

1) Derive an expression for lower speed limit for a vehicle moving on a banked road.
2) Derive an expression for upper speed limit for a vehicle moving on a banked road.
3) Prove that difference between the extreme tensions depends only upon the weight of the
object.
4) Using energy conservation, derive the expression for minimum speed at uppermost
position along vertical circular motion.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 65

For 3 Marks :

1) Using energy conservation, derive the expressions for minimum speed at different
locations along vertical circular motion controlled by gravity ?

Previously Questions asked in Board Examinations :

1) State and prove theorem of parallel axes.

2) State and prove theorem of perpendicular axes.

3) State principle of parallel axes and perpendicular Axes.

4) What is the theorem of parallel axis, prove it ?

5) What is the formula of perpendicular axis theorem ?

6) What is the formula of parallel axes theorem ?

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 66

 7) Define moment of inertia. State its SI unit and dimension.
8) Define radius of gyration. Explain its physical significance.
9) State SI unit of angular momentum. Obtain its dimension.

10) Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a body rotating with angular speed.
11) State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum.
12) Obtain an expression for torque acting on the rotating body with angular acceleration.
13) Obtain an expression for total kinetic energy of a rolling body in the form of
½ Mv2 [ 1 + x2/R2].

14) Derive an expression for kinetic energy, when a rigid body is rolling on a horizontal

surface without slipping. Hence find kinetic energy for a solid sphere.

15) Derive expression for velocity of a ring, solid cylinder and solid sphere having same radii

rolling down the smooth inclined plane without slipping.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 67

 Portion deleted due to Covid-19 for the year
2020-2021

Sr.No Page number Article No. and Name

01 11 1.4.2 Sphere of Death
02 11 1.4.3 Vehicle at the Top of a Convex
Over bridge
03 19-20 1.11 Rolling Motion

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 68

 Topic: Rotational Dynamics
PPT Presentation By-

V. B. Kadam M. A. Kurane
Vivekanand college , Vivekanand college ,
Kolhapur. Kolhapur.

A. V. Patil S. M. Patil
Vivekanand college , Vivekanand college ,
Kolhapur Kolhapur

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 69

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 70
Chapter: 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Radiation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Behavior of Gas
3.3 Ideal &Real Gas
3.4 Mean Free Path
3.5 Pressure of Ideal Gas
3.6 Root Mean Square (rms) Speed
3.7 Interpretation of Temperature in Kinetic Theory
3.8 Law of Equipartition of Energy
3.9 Specific Heat Capacity
3.10 Absorption, Reflection and Transmission of Heat Radiation
3.11 Perfect Blackbody
3.12 Emission of Heat Radiation
3.13 Kirchhoff’s Law of Heat Radiation and its Theoretical Proof
3.14 Spectral Distribution of Blackbody Radiation
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 2
3.15 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation
 3.1 Introduction
Three States of Matter

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 3

 Gas Laws
There are three gas laws viz. Boyle’s law, Charle’s law and Gay-Lussac’s law.
Boyle’s Law: “Boyles law states that, at constant temperature, the volume of a
given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.”
1
Vα ……………… at constant temp.
p
PV= constant ………(1)
Where P- Pressure of gas
V-Volume of gas
T-Temperature of gas
Charles’ Law: “Charles law states that, at constant Pressure, volume of a given
mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.”
V α T ………………at constant pressure
V
= Constant ………..(2)
T Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 4
 Gas Laws (Cont….)
Gay-Lussac’s Law: “Gay Lussac’s law states that, at constant volume, pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.”
PαT………..at constant volume
P/T= constant …………(3)
From Equation (1) (2) & (3), We can write
PV P1 V1 P2 V2
PVαT or PV = constant x T or = constant or = = Constant
T T1 T2
Expressing the fixed mass of gas in the above three laws in terms of number of moles n
of gas
PVαT or PV = nRT
mass of the gas (M) N
n= =N
molar mass (M0 ) A

here, N - no. of molecules

NA - Avogadro
Shri Swami Vivekanand
no. = 6.02×10²³ atoms per gram mole
Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 5
R - Universal gas constant = 8.314 J mol K -1 -1
 Gas Laws (Cont….)
If the P,V & T are same then N is also same for all gases

Alternatively ,

P V=N 𝑘𝐵 T

Where 𝑘𝐵 - is the Boltzmann constant-1.38×10ˉ²³ J K¯¹

R = NA 𝑘𝐵

The laws of Boyles, Charles’ and Gay Lussac are strictly valid for real gases, only if
the pressure of the gas is not too high & the temperature of the gas is not close to
the liquefaction temperature of the gas

PV=nRT
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 6
 3.2 Behavior of gas
 The behavior of gas molecules is dependent on the properties and laws obeyed by
the molecules of the gas.
 Any gas consists of large number of extremely small particles known as
molecules.
 These molecules always in random motion.
 A gas enclosed in a container is characterized by its pressure, volume &
temperature which are the macroscopic parameters.
 These parameters are not considered for individual particles.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 7

 3.3 Difference between Ideal & Real Gas
SR.
Ideal Gas Real Gas
No.
1 Ideal gas at all pressure & temperature Real gas at low Pressure & high temperature
obeys equation PV= nRT. obeys equation PV=nRT.
2 At absolute zero temperature (0 K), volume At absolute zero temperature (0 K), the
of the molecule of an ideal gas is zero. volume of molecule of a real gas is non zero.
3 There is no intermolecular force between There is intermolecular force between the
the molecule. molecule present.
4 It has only kinetic energy. It has both Kinetic Energy & Potential
Energy.
5 There is no potential energy because Potential energy not equal to zero.
intermolecular force is zero.
6 At absolute zero temperature the volume, All real gases liquefied before reaching
pressure & internal energy become zero due absolute zero temperature. but internal
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 8
to absence of collision. energy of the liquefied gas is not zero.
 Assumption of kinetic theory of gases
1) A gas consists of a large number of tiny particles called molecules.
2) The molecules are perfectly elastic sphere of very small diameter.
3) All the molecules of same gas are identical in shape, size and mass.
4) The molecules are always in state of random motion.
5) Due to there elastic collision, they collide with each other & also wall of container
with no loss of K.E. during collision.
6) Actual volume occupied by a gas molecule is very small compared to total volume
occupied by the gas.
7) Between two successive collision, molecule travel in straight line with constant
velocity called free path.
8) The time taken for collision is very small as compare to the time required to cover
free path between two successive collision.
9) Average K.E. of gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 9
of the gas.
3.4 Mean free path
• Free path- “The distance travelled in straight
line by the molecule between two successive
collisions is called free path.”

• Mean free path- “The average distance

covered by the molecule between two
successive collisions is called mean free path.”
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
mean free path = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
λ = S/N
1
λ=
𝑁
2𝜋𝑑²( )
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 𝑉 10
 Root mean square Velocity
ത – “The average value of the velocities of all the molecules of a gas is
Mean velocity(𝑉)
𝑉1 +𝑉2 +𝑉3 +⋯+𝑉𝑁
called mean velocity.” 𝑉ഥ = 𝑁

Mean square velocity(𝑉²) – “The average value of the square of velocities of all the
molecules of a gas is called mean square velocity.”
2 𝑉12 +𝑉22 +𝑉32 +⋯+𝑉𝑁2
𝑉 = 𝑁

Root mean square velocity( 𝑉²) – “The square root of the mean square velocity of the
gas molecules of the gas is called root mean square velocity.”

𝑉12 +𝑉22 +𝑉32 +⋯+𝑉𝑁2

Vrms =
𝑁 Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 11
 3.5 Pressure of a gas
Consider an ideal gas,
M - total mass of gas = Nm
L - length of each side
N - be the total no. of molecules of the gas
m - is the mass of each molecule
V = L³ volume of the container then,
M Nm
ρ= = density of gas
V L³
A - area of each face of cubical vessel
A = L²
Consider a fixed mass of a perfect gas enclosed in a cubical vessel .the gas molecule are
constantly moving in all direction with all possible velocities.
Let Vx, Vy, Vz be the components of the velocity V along positive X, Y & Z axis respectively.
Consider molecule move with velocity Vx₁ along X-axis as shown in above figure. 12
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
 3.5 Pressure of a gas (Cont…)
Initial momentum of the molecule = mVx
The molecule collide with surface with the wall & will move in opposite direction with
velocity -Vx₁
momentum after collision = - mVx
change in momentum ∆Px = final momentum - intial momentum
= - mVx - mVx = - 2mVx
according to law of conservation of momentum,
∆Px = 2mVx………………..(1)
After colliding with the shaded wall, the molecule travel to the opposite wall & is reflected
back this means that the molecule travel distance of 2L in between two collision .hence we
get the average force ,we have to divided by the time between two successive collision.
As L is the length of the cubical box, the time for the molecule to travel back and forth to the
2L
shaded wall is ∆t = V ……………….(2)
x Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 13
 3.5 Pressure of a gas (Cont…)
average force exerted on the shaded wall by molecule one is given by
Average force = average rate of change of momentum
2mVx1 mV²x1
= = …………………….(3)
2L/Vx1 L
Where Vx₁ = is the x component of the velocity of molecule 1
Considering other molecules 2,3,4..............with the respective x component of
velocities Vx2 , Vx3, Vx4 …
m 2
The total average force on the wall from eq(3) is = (V x1 +V2x2 +V2x3 + ⋯)
L
Average force
The average Pressure(P) =
area of shaded wall
m V2X1 +V2X2 +V2X3 +⋯
= L.L2
The average of the square of the X component of the velocities is given by
V2 +V2 +V2 +⋯+V2
x1 Vivekanand
x2 x3Shikshan Sanstha,
xN
Vx2 =
Shri Swami Kolhapur 14
N
3.5 Pressure of a gas (Cont…)
m NV2x
P= ……..(4)
V
V²x is the average over all possible value of Vx
V 2 = Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2
1
By Symmetry,Vx2 = Vy2 = Vz2 = 3 V 2
1N
Average pressure(P) = 3 V mv 2 ..................(5) or
1M
= 3 V V2
This is required equation for pressure exerted by the gas molecules
on the surface of the container
It can be shown to be valid for containers of any shape.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 15

 3.6 Root mean Square (rms) Speed
The pressure equation is
1N
P= 3 V mv 2
3PV
V2 = Nm
Using ideal gas equation PV = nRT
3nRT 3NRT 3RT
V2 = N m = N N m = N m
A A

3RT
V 2 = Vrms = M0

Where, M0 = NA m is the molar mass of the gas

We have studied passage of sound waves through air medium.
γRT
Speed of sound in a gas; V = M0
C 5
Where, γ = CP is called the adiabatic
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 16
ratio. It is maximum value is 3 for monoatomic gases.
V
 3.7 Interpretation of Temperature of Kinetic theory
1
We have pressure equation, PV = 3 NmV 2
2 1
= N. mV 2
3 2
1 2
mV - is the average translational kinetic energy of a molecule
2
1
The average total energy E is E = N.2 mV 2
2
PV = E
3
2
Using ideal gas equation PV = Nk B T = 3 E
3
E= Nk B T or
2
E 3
= k T
N 2 B
This means the average energy per molecule is proportional to absolute temperature of the gas.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 17
 3.8 Law of Equipartition of Energy
Statement:- “For a gas in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, the average
energy for molecule associated with each quadratic term is ½ kBT.”

Individual atom may travel in any direction, Consider vx, vy and vz be

component of velocity ‘v’ in x, y and z direction. Then total energy will be

For gas at temperature T average kinetic energy per molecule (proved in 3.7) is

There is no any specific direction of motion (x or y or z) of a gas molecule. But

considering all gas molecules, on an average gas molecules move equally in all
direction hence all the terms can be equal. Hence

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 18

 3.8.1 Degrees of Freedom:
Definition: “Degrees of freedom of a system are defined as the total number of
coordinates or independent quantities required to describe the position and
configuration of the system completely.”

Degree of
Example with Possible movement
freedom
Molecule with single atom can travel in any direction x or y or z or combination
dof = 3
of x, y and z. Its motion can be described using three coordinates.
If motion is restricted to move in vertical direction then atom can move in the
two dimensional plane. E. g. Water flowing on floor can move in any of dof = 2
direction of xy plane but not in z direction (height)
If molecules move in straight line. Its motion is allowed in 1 direction only.
E. g. Water molecule in capillary tube or narrow pipe can move in one direction dof = 1
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 19
(forward or backward). Also sewing machine needle moves up and down only.
 3.8.2 Diatomic Molecules:
Consider diatomic molecules like O2, N2 or CO lying on x-axis as in fig.3.3
Total Energy of the single diatomic non rigid molecule is
E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational) -----(1)
1. Translational Motion: Any molecule can move in any of
the direction x or y or z. Hence degree of the freedom is 3.
E (Translational) = ½ mvx2 + ½ mvy2 + ½ mvz2 = 3 × 1Τ2 kBT

2. Rotational Motion: Degree of freedom of each molecule is 2,

as rotational motion along axis passing through both atom
For non rigid molecule:
will not produce any change position of atoms in system. Total Energy of the single diatomic
E (Rotational) = ½ Iy ωy2 + ½ Iz ωz2 = 2 × 1Τ2 kBT molecule is E = 7 x ½ kBT

3. Vibrational Motion: Diatomic molecule has covalent For rigid molecule , No

bonding which can vibrate like one dimensional harmonic vibration is possible
oscillator with K.E. ½(mu2) andShri P. ½ (kr2).
E.Vivekanand
Swami Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur Total Energy of the single20diatomic
E (Vibrational) = ½ mu + ½ kr = 2 × Τ2 kBT
2 2 1 molecule is E= 5 x ½ kBT
 3.9 Specific Heat Capacity
Small rise in temperature of gas → considerable change in pressure & volume.
But some times, pressure or volume may be constant even if temperature changes.
Hence two specific heats for gas are defined.

CP - Specific heat at constant pressure:- Amount of heat required to a 1 kg of a gas to

increase its temperature by 1°C at constant pressure. and
CV - Specific heat at constant volume:- Amount of heat required to a 1 kg of a gas to increase
its temperature by 1°C at constant volume.

Mayer’s relation → relation between CP and CV .

Cp – Cv = R ---- When heat energy and Mechanical work is in same unit.
Cp – Cv = R/J ---- When unit of heat energy is Calories & unit of Mechanical work is Joule

Where, R – UniversalShrigas constant = 8.3145 J.mol-1.K-1

Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 21
J – Mechanical equivalent of heat ( J/ cal.)
 3.9.1 Mayer’s Relation:
Consider, 1 mole of ideal gas is enclosed in cylinder whose one end is
fixed with piston (Frictionless, massless, airtight).
Consider P, V, T be the pressure, Volume and temperature of gas.
At Constant Volume: (Piston is not moving) see fig.1
Supplied heat dQ1 is used only to change internal energy dE only.
No work is done by piston, dW=0 (as piston is not moving).
dQ1 = Cv dT = dE ------(1)

At Constant Pressure: (Piston is moving to keep constant P) see fig.2

Supplied heat dQ2 is used to change internal energy dE and
work done to move piston dW = PdV.
dQ2 = Cp dT = dE + dW ------(2)
Now put value of dE from equation (1) in to equation (2), we get,
Cp dT = Cv dT + dW Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 22
cont…….
 3.9.1 Mayer’s Relation: (Cont….)
Cp dT = Cv dT + dW Mayer’s Relation in terms of
molar mass M0 and principal
Cp dT – Cv dT = dW but dW = PdV. specific heat Sp & Sv
(Cp – Cv ) dT = PdV ------(3) Cp =M0 Sp and Cv =M0 Sv
Now at constant pressure, dT results in dV. Ideal gas Cp – Cv = R/J becomes
equation (PV = nRT) for 1 mole of gas (n = 1) will be
M0 Sp – M0 Sv = R/J
PdV = RdT ------(4)
M0 (Sp – Sv) = R/J
Putting value of PdV from equation (4) in to (3)
R
(Cp – Cv ) dT = R dT Sp – Sv = M J
0

Cp – Cv = R ---- When heat energy and Mechanical work is in same unit.

Cp – Cv = R/J ---- When unit of Vivekanand
Shri Swami heat energy
Shikshan is Calories
Sanstha, Kolhapur & Mechanical work is Joule
23
 Use of Equipartition of energy to calculate specific heat for
(a) Monoatomic Gases:
Total Energy of the single monoatomic molecule is E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational)
Translational Motion: Degree of freedom (dof) of each molecule is 3.
E (Translational) = ½ mvx2 + ½ mvy2 + ½ mvz2 = 3 × 1Τ2 kBT = 3Τ2 kBT
Rotational Motion: dof of each molecule is 0, as single atom rotating along itself will not
produce any change in system. E (Rotational) = 0
Vibrational Motion: Vibration is not possible in single atom. E (Vibrational) = 0
E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational) = 3Τ2 kBT + 0 + 0 = 3Τ2 kBT
Total Energy of the NA number of monoatomic rigid / non rigid molecule is E = 3Τ2 NA kB T
But we know that, dQ1 = Cv dT = dE, We get
Molar Specific heat at Constant Volume = Cv = dE / dT = 3Τ2 NA kB = 3Τ2 R ------ (1)
Using Mayer’s relation Cp – Cv = R, We get
Molar Specific heat at Constant Pressure = Cp = R + Cv = R + 3Τ2 R = 5Τ2 R ------ (2)
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 24
Molar heat constant = γ = 𝐶𝑝Τ𝐶𝑣 = 5Τ2 R ÷ 3Τ2 R = 5Τ3 ------ (3)
 Use of Equipartition of energy to calculate specific heat for
(b) Diatomic rigid Gases:
Total Energy of the single diatomic rigid molecule is E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational)
Translational Motion: Degree of freedom (dof) of each molecule is 3.
E (Translational) = ½ mvx2 + ½ mvy2 + ½ mvz2 = 3 × 1Τ2 kBT = 3Τ2 kBT
Rotational Motion: dof of each molecule is 2, as rotational motion along axis passing through
both atom will not produce any change in system.
E (Rotational) = ½ Iy ωy2 + ½ Iz ωz2 = 2 × 1Τ2 kBT
Vibrational Motion: Vibration is not possible in rigid system. E (Vibrational) = 0
E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational) = 3Τ2 kBT + 2Τ2 kBT + 0 = 5Τ2 kBT
Total Energy of the NA number of diatomic rigid molecule is E = 5Τ2 NA kB T

But we know that, dQ1 = Cv dT = dE and Cp – Cv = R, We get

Molar Specific heat at Constant Volume = Cv = dE / dT = 5Τ2 NA kB = 5Τ2 R ------ (1)
Molar Specific heat at Constant Pressure = Cp = R + Cv = R + 5Τ2 R = 7Τ2 R ------ (2)
Molar heat constant = γ = 𝐶𝑝Τ𝐶𝑣 = 7Τ2 R ÷ 5Τ2 R = 7Τ5
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 25
------ (3)
 Use of Equipartition of energy to calculate specific heat for
(b) Diatomic non rigid Gases:
Total Energy of the single diatomic non rigid molecule is E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational)
Translational Motion: Degree of freedom (dof) of each molecule is 3.
E (Translational) = ½ mvx2 + ½ mvy2 + ½ mvz2 = 3 × 1Τ2 kBT = 3Τ2 kBT
Rotational Motion: Degree of freedom (dof) of each molecule is 2, as rotational motion along
axis passing through both atom will not produce any change in system.
E (Rotational) = ½ Iy ωy2 + ½ Iz ωz2 = 2 × 1Τ2 kBT
Vibrational Motion: Non Rigid Diatomic molecule has covalent bonding which can vibrate
like one dimensional harmonic oscillator with K.E. ½(mu2) and P. E. ½ (kr2).
E (Vibrational) = ½ mu2 + ½ kr2 = 2 × 1Τ2 kBT
E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational) = 3Τ2 kBT + 2Τ2 kBT + 2Τ2 kBT = 7Τ2 kBT
Total Energy of the NA number of diatomic non rigid molecule is E = 7Τ2 NA kB T
But we know that, dQ1 = Cv dT = dE and Mayer’s relation Cp – Cv = R, We get
Molar Specific heat at Constant Volume = Cv = dE / dT = 7Τ2 NA kB = 7Τ2 R ------ (1)
Molar Specific heat at Constant Pressure = Cp = R + Cv = R + 7Τ2 R = 9Τ2 R ------ (2)
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 26
Molar heat constant = γ = 𝐶𝑝Τ𝐶𝑣 = 9Τ2 R ÷ 7Τ2 R = 9Τ7 ------ (3)
 Use of Equipartition of energy to calculate specific heat for
(c) Polyatomic non rigid Gases:
Total Energy of the single polyatomic non rigid molecule is E = E (Translational) + E (Rotational) + E (Vibrational)
Translational Motion: Degree of freedom (dof) of each molecule is 3.
E (Translational) = ½ mvx2 + ½ mvy2 + ½ mvz2 = 3 × 1Τ2 kBT = 3Τ2 kBT
Rotational Motion: dof of each molecule is 3, as rotational motion along any axis produces
change in system. E (Rotational) = ½ Ix ωx2 + ½ Iy ωy2 + ½ Iz ωz2 = 3 × 1Τ2 kBT
Vibrational Motion: Consider dof = f, dof varies with number of atoms in molecule.
E (Vibrational) = f × 1Τ2 kBT
E=E(Translational)+ E(Rotational)+ E(Vibrational) = 3Τ2 kBT + 3Τ2 kBT + 𝑓ൗ2 kBT = (6Τ2 + f) kBT

Total Energy of the NA number of diatomic non rigid molecule is E =(3 + f) NA kB T

But we know that, dQ1 = Cv dT = dE and Mayer’s Relation Cp – Cv = R, We get

Molar Specific heat at Constant Volume = Cv = dE / dT = (3 + f) NA kB = (3 + f) R --- (1)
Molar Specific heat at Constant Pressure = Cp = R + Cv = R + (3 + f) R = (4 + f) R --- (2)
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 27
Molar heat constant = γ = 𝐶𝑝Τ𝐶𝑣 = (4 + f) R ÷ (3 + f) R = (4+𝑓)ൗ(3+𝑓) --- (3)
Summary of Use of Equipartition of energy to calculate specific heat

Molar Specific Molar Specific Molar heat

Energy of the
heat at heat at constant = γ =
Molecule NA number of
Constant Constant 𝐶𝑝Τ
Molecule
Volume = Cv Pressure = Cp 𝐶𝑣
3Τ 3Τ R 5Τ R 5
Monoatomic 2 NA kB T 2 2
7
Diatomic - 5Τ 5Τ R 7Τ R 7
2 NA kB T 2 2
rigid 5
Diatomic - non 7Τ 7Τ R 9Τ R 9
2 NA kB T 2 2
rigid 7
Polyatomic – 4+𝑓
(3 + f) NA kShri
BT (3 + f) R (4 + f) R 3+𝑓
non rigid Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
28
 3.10 Absorption, Reflection and
Transmission of Heat Radiation
Mode of Transfer of Heat Heat Radiation
•It is one of the mode of heat transfer.
Conduction Convection Radiation •Does not required medium. Physical
Requires Medium. Requires Medium Does not require medium contact not required.
No Actual movement Actual Movement Heat transfer in the form •Pass through Vacuum and transparent
of atom from hot to of Electromagnetic
of atom radiation medium.
cold end
•Electromagnetic wave.
•Faster mode of heat transfer.
•Radiation incident on matter will get
reflected, absorbed or transmitted.
•Every hot body emits heat
radiations.
•e.g. Transfer heat energy from 29sun to
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
earth.
 3.10.1 Interaction of Thermal Radiation and Matter
Incident Heat = Absorbed Heat + Reflected Heat + Transmitted Heat Case 2: tr ≠ 0.
Q = Qa + Qr + Qt Object is called diathermanous
Dividing both side by Q, We get substance E.g. Dry air, Glass,
Qa Qr Qt NaCl, H2, quartz, O2 etc.
1= + +
Q Q Q
Case 3: tr = 0 gives a + r = 1.
Qa Qr Qt Object is opaque to heat. Do
But a = ,r= , tr =
Q Q Q not transfer any heat known as
1 = a + r + tr athermanous substance. Eg.
Water, wood, metals, moist air.
a + r + tr = 1 ----(1)
Case 4: a = 0, r = 1, tr = 0.
Where, Object is perfect reflector
a – coefficient of absorption Also a, r, tr ≤ 1
r – coefficient of reflection Case 5: a = 1, r = 0, tr = 0.
Case 1: a = 0, r = 0, tr = 1. Object is perfect absorber
tr – coefficient of transmission Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 30
Object is perfect transmitter
 Coefficient of Absorption, Reflection and
Transmission of Heat Radiation
𝑄𝑎
Coefficient of absorption or absorptive power or absorptivity (a): ( hint 𝑎 = )
𝑄
“The ratio of amount of heat absorbed to total quantity of heat incident is called the
coefficient of absorption.”

𝑄𝑟
Coefficient of reflection or reflectance (r): ( hint r = )
𝑄
“The ratio of amount of radiant energy reflected to the total energy incident is called the
coefficient of reflection.”

𝑄𝑡
Coefficient of transmission or transmittance (tr): ( hint tr = )
𝑄
“The ratio of amount of radiant energy transmitted to total energy incident is called the
coefficient of transmission.”

Since a, r and tr are ratios of thermal energies,

Shri Swami Vivekanand they
Shikshan areKolhapur
Sanstha, dimensionless quantities. 31
 3.11 Perfect Blackbody
Definition: “A body, which absorbs the entire radiant energy incident on it,
is called an ideal or perfect blackbody.”
 For a perfect blackbody, a = 1 .
 Any surface that absorbs all the energy incident on it, and does not reflect any energy, therefore,
appears black.
 At very high temperature perfect black body becomes self-luminous. E.g. Sun has high
temperature about 6000 K and emit light radiations.
 If Rate of emission = Rate of absorption then internal energy & temperature will be constant.
 If Rate of emission < Rate of absorption then internal energy & temperature goes on increasing.
 Getting perfectly black body with a = 1 and r = 0 is an ideal condition only.
 Best Real life example of blackbody is Lamp black or platinum black that absorb nearly 97% of
incident radiant heat.
 If Body reflect more heat, it can absorb less heat hence emit less heat. Hence walls of thermos are
always silverised.
 The body which absorb more heat can emit more heat.
 Over head tank with white colour or well polished surface absorb negligible sun light. 32
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
 Over head tank with Black colour or rough surface absorb maximum sun light.
 3.11.1 Ferry’s Blackbody
 outer surface of the sphere is silvered.
 Inner surface of sphere is coated with lamp- black.
 There is a conical projection on the inner surface of
sphere opposite the aperture to avoid back reflection.
 Radiation entering through small hole has negligible
chance of escaping back through the small hole.
 A heat ray entering the sphere through the aperture
suffers multiple reflections and is almost completely
absorbed inside.
Fig. 3.4 Ferry’s Blackbody  Thus, the aperture behaves like a perfect blackbody.
Ferry’s Blackbody consists of  Ferry’s Blackbody – Hallow sphere with small
 a double walled hollow sphere hole for entry of radiation
 having tiny hole or aperture, through  Wien’s Blackbody – Cylindrical cavity with
which radiant heat can enter. small slit for entry of radiation
 The space between the walls is Shri Swami Vivekanand
 NatureShikshanof light
Sanstha, emitted depends on temperature
Kolhapur 33
evacuated as shown in Fig. 3.4. of walls but not on size and shape of cavity.
 3.12 Emission of heat Radiation
 Radiation is the Process of transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 No medium is necessary for the transfer of heat radiation.
 According to prevost theory, All bodies at all temperature above 0 K (absolute zero
temperature) radiate thermal energy and the same time they absorb radiation received
from the surrounding.
 If surrounding temperature = body temperature
Rate of absorption = Rate of emission
Means body temp remains const and body is in thermal equilibrium with the
surrounding.
 If surrounding temperature > body temperature
Rate of absorption > Rate of emission
body temperature increases.
 If surrounding temperature < body temperature
Rate of absorption < Rate of emission
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
body temperature decreases.
 Emissive power or radiant power (R):
Amount of heat radiated by a body depends on:
1) The absolute temp of body(T)
2) Nature of the body-material is polished/Not polished
3) Surface area of body(A)
4) Time duration of for which body emits radiation (t)
The Amount of heat Q ∝ Surface area (A)
The Amount of heat Q ∝ Time duration (t)
Q ∝At
Q= RAt here R is taken as proportionality constant
Q
𝑅= At

Where R is proportionality constant and it is called emissive power or radiant power

 Radiant power :- “It is defined as Quantity of heat radiated per unit Area per unit35time”
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
Dimensions of R = [L0 M1 T-3] And SI unit is J m-2s-1 or W/m2.
 3.12.1 Coefficient of Emission or Emissivity(e)
 The coefficient of Emission or Emissivity of a given surface is ‘e’ and it is the ratio of
emissive power R of the surface to the emissive power RB of a perfectly black surface, at
the same temperature.
R
e=
RB
 For a perfectly black body e = 1
 Where as for a perfect reflector e = 0.
 For an ordinary body 0 < e < 1.
 Emissivity is larger for rough surface and smaller for smooth and polished surfaces.
 Emissivity is also varies with temperature and wavelength of radiation to some extent.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 36

 3.13 Kirchhoff’s law of heat Radiation and it’s
Theoretical proof
 Statement :
“At a given temperature, the ratio of emissive power to coefficient of absorption of a
body is equal to the emissive power of perfect black body at the same temperature for all
wavelengths”
OR
“For a body emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermal equilibrium the
Emissivity is equal to its absorptivity”
 Symbolically a = e , or more specifically a(λ) = e(λ)
 Thus if a body has high emissive power, it also has high absorptive power and if a
body has low emissive power, it also has low absorptive power.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 37

 Theoretical proof of Kirchhoff’s law

• A – Ordinary body
• B – perfectly black body
• R – emissive power of black body A
• RB – emissive power of black body B
• Q – Quantity of radiant heat incident on each body
• Qa – Quantity of radiant heat absorbed by body A
• a – coefficient of absorption of body A
• Then, Qa = a Q

Emissive Power is the quantity of heat radiated from unit area in unit time,
we can write-
Quantity of radiant heat Quantity of heat
=
absorbed by the body A Vivekanand
Shri Swami emitted by the
Shikshan Sanstha, body A
Kolhapur 38
Theoretical proof of Kirchhoff’s law (Cont…)
Quantity of radiant heat Quantity of heat
=
absorbed by the body A emitted by the body A
a Q = R ...................... (1)
For perfect black body B,
Q = RB .................... (2)
Dividing eq (1) by (2) we get
R R
a= or RB =
RB a
R
But e= RB
Hence, we can write 𝑎=𝑒 .....................(3)

Hence Kirchhoff’s law is theoretically proved.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 39
 3.14 Spectral distribution of black body
 The Radiant energy emitted per unit area per unit time by a black body depends on its
temperature.
 Hot objects radiate large range of frequencies, hence rate of emission per unit area is the
wavelength of emitted radiation.
 At low temperature power radiation is small and wavelength lies in long region.
 At high temperature radiation energy increases and shorter wavelength also increases.
 At each temperature radiant energy contains a mixture of different wavelength.
 Lummer and Pringsheim kept the Source Of radiation (such as cavity radiator) at
different temperature and measure the Radiant power corresponding to different
wavelength and measurements were represented graphically in the form of curves. From
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 40
experimental curves it is observed that
3.14 Spectral distribution of black body (Cont…)

Fig. 3.5: Radiant power of a blackbody per unit range

of wavelengthShri
asSwami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
a function of wavelength. 41
 3.14 Spectral distribution of black body (Cont…)
 At given temperature, energy is not uniformly distributed
in spectrum of black body.
 At a given temperature, radiant power increases with
increasing in wavelength and reaches its maximum and
then it decreases. λmax is the bunch of wavelength at
which radiant power (intensity of radiation) is high.
 As temperature increases, the value of λmax is Decreases. Fig. 3.5: Radiant power of a blackbody per
unit range of wavelength as a function of
 As temperature increases, the λmax displaces towards wavelength.
shorter.
As temperature increases, radiations corresponding to all wavelengths also increases.
 Area under graph gives total intensity at that temperature and area of graph is directly
proportional to T4.
The room temperature (300K) the most intense wavelength of wave is 5 x10-6 m.
Experimental observation of thisShrigraph is spectral
Swami Vivekanand Shikshandistribution
Sanstha, Kolhapur is depends only upon absolute
42

temperature T of back body and was independent of the material.

 3.14.1 Wien‘s displacement law
 Statement:
“The wavelength, for which emissive power of a black body is maximum,
is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of black body.”
 This is Wien’s displacement law,
1
From Wien’s displacement law, λmax ∝ T

b
λmax = here b is proportionality constant
T

λmax T = b

Where, b is called as Wein’s constant and it’s value is 2.897 x10-3mK

 This is useful to determine temperature of distance stars, sun, moon etc.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 43
 3.15 Stefan – Boltzman Law of Radiation
 Statement:
“The rate of emission of radiant energy per unit area or the power radiated per unit
area of a perfect black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.”
from Stefan – Boltzman Law of Radiation, R ∝ T4
R = σ T4
Where σ is proportionality constant called Stefan’s constant.
σ = 5.67 x 10-8Jm-2s-1k-4 or Wm-2 k-4
Dimension - L0 M1 T 3 K −4

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 44

3.15 Stefan – Boltzman Law of Radiation (Cont…)
 Power radiated by perfect blackbody depends only on its temperature
and not on any other characteristics such as colour, material, Nature of surface.
Q – Amount of heat
A – Area of surface
t – time duration
T – Absolute temperature

Q
Then , = σT 4
At

 for a body , which is not a black body,

R = e σ T4
Where e – Emissivity of the surface
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 45
3.15 Stefan – Boltzman Law of Radiation (Cont…)
 T – Absolute temperature of perfectly black body and T0 – Surrounding temperature
Q
 Energy absorbed from surrounding per unit area per unit time = A t = σT 4
Q
 Energy absorbed from surrounding per unit area per unit time = A t = σT0 4
 If (T0< T), Net loss of energy by perfect blackbody per unit area per unit time = σT4- σT04
= σ(T4-T04 )
 If (T< T0), Net absorb of energy by perfect blackbody per unit area per unit time= σ(T04 -T4)
For ordinary body,
 if body temperature less than surrounding temperature, means T< T0
 Then net gain in thermal energy of body per unit area per unit time = e σ(T04 -T4)
 If Absolute temperature of body double d the power radiated will increase by a factor of 24
= 16
 Or if a body radiate with rate at room temperature (300K) the rate will double even if we
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 46
increase the temperature of body by 570 C
 Question No. 11 Calculate the ratio of mean square speeds of molecules of a gas at
Exercises
30 K and 120 K.

Answer: Given:- dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get

T1 = 30 K 2
𝑉ത1 n R T1 /𝑀
T2 = 120 K 2 =
𝑉ത2 n R T2 /𝑀
ഥ 12
V
To Find:- ഥ 2 =? Cancelling common terms, we get
V2 2
𝑉ത1 T1
Formula:- 2 =T
ത
𝑉2 2
nRT
ഥ2 =
V 2
M 𝑉ത1 30
Here, n, R and M are constant. 2 =
𝑉ത2 120
ഥ1 2 =
At T1= 30 K, V
n R T1
----- (1)
M ഥ1 2
𝑉 1 2 2
ഥ2 2
= 4 or 𝑉ത1 : 𝑉ത2 = 1 : 4
𝑉
ഥ2 2 =
At T1= 30 K, V
n R T2
----- (2) Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
Shri Swami 2 2 47
M Hence, the ratio 𝑉ത1 : 𝑉ത2 is 1 : 4
 Question No. 12 Two vessels A and B are filled with same gas where volume,
Exercises
temperature and pressure in vessel A is twice the volume, temperature and pressure in
vessel B. Calculate the ratio of number of molecules of gas in vessel A to that in vessel B.

Answer: Given:- dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get

VA = 2 VB PA VA NA k B TA
TA = 2 TB =
PA = 2 PB PB VB NB k B TB
N
To Find:- NA = ? 2PB 2VB NA k B 2TB
B =
Formula:- By ideal gas equation PB VB NB k B TB
P V=N kB T,
Cancelling common terms, we get
Here, kB – Boltzmann constant
2 NA
N – Number of atoms =
For Vessel A: 1 NB
PA VA =NA kB TA ----- (1) NA 2
= or NA : NB = 2 : 1
For Vessel B: N B 1
PB VB =NB kB TB Shri
----- (2)
Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
Hence, the ratio NA : NB is 2 : 1 48
 Question No. 13 A gas in a cylinder is at pressure P. If the masses of all the
Exercises
molecules are made one third of their original value and their speeds are doubled, then find
the resultant pressure.
Answer: Given:-
1 Cancelling common terms, we get
m1 = m
3
v1 = 2 v P1 m1 vത1 2
N1 = N2 =
P m vത 2
To Find:- P1 = ?
1 2
Formula:- The pressure exerted by a gas is P1 3 m (2തv)
1 Nmഥv2 =
P = 3 V
----- (1) P m vത 2
After reduction of mass the pressure will be P1 4
v1 2
1 N m1 ഥ =
P1 = ----- (2) P 3
3 V
dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get 4
P1 = 3 P
P1 1ൗ3 N m1 vത1 /V
2
= Hence, pressure will change to
P 1 2
ൗ3 N m vത /V
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 49
4/3 times of original pressure.
 ExercisesQuestion No. 14 Show that rms velocity of an oxygen molecule is 2 times that of
a sulfur dioxide molecule at S.T.P.
dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get
Answer: Given:-
MO2 = 32 CO2 3RT MSO2
= ×
CSO2 MO2 3RT
MSO2 = 64
At S.T.P. TO2 = TSO2 = 273 K Cancelling common terms, we get
To show:- Vrms of oxygen=CO2 = 2 CSO2 CO2 MSO2
Formula:- The RMS velocity of a gas is =
CSO2 MO2

3RT CO2 64
C= =
CSO2 32
M CO2
= 2
For Oxygen Molecule: CSO2
3RT
CO2 = ----- (1) CO2 = 2 CSO2
MO2
For sulfur dioxide molecule: RMS velocity of an oxygen molecule is
3RT 2 times that of a sulfur dioxide
CSO2 = Shri-----
Swami (2)
Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 50
MSO2
molecule at S.T.P.
 Question No. 15 At what temperature will oxygen molecules have same rms speed
Exercises
as helium molecules at S.T.P.? (Molecular masses of oxygen and helium are 32 and 4
respectively)

Answer: Given:- MO2 = 32 Now, VO2 = VHe we get

MHe = 4 3 R TO2 3 R THe
VO2 = VHe =
MO2 MHe
THe = 273 K (at S.T.P.) Squaring both the side & canceling 3 R
To Find:- TO2 = ? T T
We get, MO2 = MHe
Formula:- We have O2 He

3RT T
V= TO2 = MHe × MO2
M0 He

For Oxygen: 273

3 R TO2
TO2 = × 32
4
VO2 = ----- (1)
MO2
TO2 = 273×8 =2184 K
For Helium:
3 R THe Hence, Oxygen molecule at 2184 K has same
VHe = ----- (2)
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
rms speed as helium at S.T.P.
51
MHe
 Question No. 16 Compare the rms speed of hydrogen molecules at 127 ºC with
Exercises
rms speed of oxygen molecules at 27 ºC given that molecular masses of hydrogen and
oxygen are 2 and 32 respectively.
Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any)
VH2 3 R TH2 MO2
TH2 = 127 ° C = (127 + 273) K = 400 K Now, = ×
VO2 MH2 3 R TO2
TO2 = 27 ° C = (27 + 273) K = 300 K
VH2 TH2 MO2
MH2 = 2 = ×
VO2 MH2 TO2
MO2 = 32
V VH2 400 32
To Find:- VH2 = ? = ×
O2 VO2 2 300
3RT
Formula:- We have, V = VH2 64 8
M0
= =
VO2 3 3
3 R TH2
For Hydrogen: VH2 = ----- (1)
MH2 VH2 : VO2 = 8 : 3
3 R TO2Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 52
For Oxygen: VO2 = MO2
----- (2) Hence, the ratio VH2 : VO2 is 8 : 3.
 Question No. 17 Find kinetic energy of 5 litre of a gas at S.T.P. given standard
Exercises
pressure is 1.013 × 105 N/m2.

Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any) 3

K. E. = PV
V = 5 lit = 5 × 10−3 m3 2
T = 273 K (at S.T.P.) 3 × 1.013 × 105 × 5 × 10−3
K. E. =
P = 1.013 × 105 N/m2 2
To Find:- K. E. = ?
Formula:- Kinetic Energy of a gas is K. E. = 759.7 J

3
K. E. = P V
2 Hence, Kinetic energy of gas is 759.7 J

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 53

 Question No. 18 Calculate the average molecular kinetic energy (i) per kmol (ii)
Exercises
per kg (iii) per molecule of oxygen at 127 ºC, given that molecular weight of oxygen is 32,
R is 8.31 J mol-1 K-1 and Avogadro’s number NA is 6.02 x 1023 molecules mol-1.
Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any)
MO2 = 32 K.E.Τ 3 3
(i) k mol = 2 R T = 2 × 8310 × 400
T = 127°C = (127 + 273) K = 400 K
K. E.ൗ = 4.986 × 106
J/kmol
R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1 =8310 J kmol-1 K-1 k mol
NA = 6.02 × 1023 molecules mol-1
NA = 6.02 × 1026 molecules kmol-1
3 RT 3 8310 ×400
To Find:- (i) K.E.Τk mol = ? (ii) K.E.
ൗkg = 2 =2
M 32
K.E.
(ii) ൗkg = ?
ൗkg = 1.558 × 105 J/kg
K.E.
(iii) K.E.Τmolecule = ?
K.E.Τ 3
Formula:- (i) k mol = RT 3 RT 3 8310 ×400
2 (iii) K.E.Τmolecule = 2 N = 2 6.02×1026
3 𝑅𝑇 A
K.E. =
(ii) ൗkg 2 𝑀 K.E.Τ −21 J
molecule = 8.28 × 10
K.E.Τ 3 𝑅Swami
Shri 𝑇 Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 54
(iii) molecule = 2 𝑁
𝐴
 Question No. 19 Calculate the energy radiated in one minute by a blackbody of
Exercises
surface area 100 cm2 when it is maintained at 227 ºC.

Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any)

Formula:- We have,
t = 1 min = 60 sec
dQ
A = 100 cm2 = 100 × (10-2m)2 = e A σ T4
dt
= 102×10-4 m2 = 10-2 m2 dQ = e A σ T 4 dt
T = 227°C = (227 + 273) K = 500 K = 1 × 10-2 ×5.67 ×10-8 ×5004 ×60
e = 1 (known value for black body)
dQ = 2126.25 J
σ = 5.67 × 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4 --Known
constant Energy radiated by black body is 2126.25 J
To Find:- dQ = ? Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 55
 Question No. 20 Energy is emitted from a hole in an electric furnace at the rate of
Exercises
20 W, when the temperature of the furnace is 727 ºC. What is the area of the hole? (Take
Stefan’s constant σ to be 5.7 × 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4)

Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any) dQൗ

A= dt
T = 727°C = (727 + 273) K = 1000 K e σ T4
dQൗ Here, Assume e = 1 for black body
dt = 20 W
20
σ = 5.7 × 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4 A=
1 × 5.7 × 10−8 × 10004
To Find:- A = ?
Formula:- We have, A = 3.5 × 10−4 m2
dQ
= e A σ T4 Area of hole in electric furness wll be
dt = 3.5 × 10−4 m2
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 56
 Question No. 21 The emissive power of a sphere of area 0.02 m2 is 0.5 kcal s-1 m-2.
Exercises
What is the amount of heat radiated by the spherical surface in 20 second?

Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any) dQ

E = A dt
A = 0.02 m2
E = 0.5 kcal s-1 m-2 dQ = E A dt

dt = 20 sec dQ = 0.5 × 0.02 × 20

To Find:- dQ = ?
Formula:- We have, dQ = 0.2 kcal
dQ
𝐸=
𝐴 dt Amount of heat radiated is 0.2 kcal
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 57
 Question No. 22 Compare the rates of emission of heat by a blackbody maintained
Exercises
at 727 ºC and at 227 ºC, if the blackbodies are surrounded by an enclosure (black) at 27 ºC.
What would be the ratio of their rates of loss of heat ?
Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any) dQ
Heat emitted at T1 is dt 1
= e A σ (T14- T04)
T1 = 727°C = (727+273) K = 1000 K dQ
Heat emitted at T2 is = e A σ (T24- T04)
T2 = 227°C = (227+273) K = 500 K dt 2
Dividing above two equations, we get
e, A and σ will be same for a body dQൗ
dt 1 e A σ (T14− T04)
e = 1 for black body =
dQൗ
dt
e A σ (T24− T04)
2
T0 = 27°C = (27 + 273) K = 300 K dQൗ
dt 1 T14− T04 10004 −3004 104 −34
dQൗ = = =
To Find:-
dt 1
=?
dQ
ൗdt T24− T04 5004 −3004 54 −34
dQൗ 2
dt 2
dQ
ൗdt
Formula:- Rate of heat emission with 1
= 18.23
dQ
surrounding at temperature T0 is ൗdt
2
dQ RatioSanstha,
of Rate of heat emission by a black58 body
= e A σ (T 4 - T04Shri
) Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Kolhapur
dt at 727 ºC to that of at 227 ºC is 18.23 : 1.
 ExercisesQuestion No. 23 Earth’s mean temperature can be assumed to be 280 K. How will
the curve of blackbody radiation look like for this temperature? Find out λmax. In which part
of the electromagnetic spectrum, does this value lie?

Answer: Given:- λmax = 1.035 × 10-5 m

T = 280 K
λmax = 10.35 × 10-6 m
b = 2.897 × 10-3 m K2
To Find:- λmax = ? But 10-6 m = 1 μm

Formula:- λmax × T = b
b
λmax = 10.35 μm
λmax =
T

2.897 × 10−3 Range of the microwave is

λmax = 280
1 μm to 25μm
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 59
 Question No. 24 A small-blackened solid copper sphere of radius 2.5 cm is
Exercises
placed in an evacuated chamber. The temperature of the chamber is maintained at 100 ºC.
At what rate energy must be supplied to the copper sphere to maintain its temperature at
110 ºC? (Take Stefan’s constant σ to be 5.76 × 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4 and treat the sphere as
blackbody.)
Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any)
A = 4π r 2 = 4π (2.5 × 10-2)2 = 7.855× 10-3 m2
r = 2.5 cm = 2.5 × 10-2 m
Rate of heat supply = Rate of heat loss
T0 = 100°C = (100+273) K = 373 K
T = 110°C = (110+273) K = 383 K dQ
= e A σ (T4 – T04)
dt
σ = 5.76 × 10-8 J s-1 m-2 K-4
dQ
e = 1 for black body = 1× 7.855× 10-3 ×5.76 ×10-8 ×(3834- 3734)
dt
𝑑𝑄
To Find:- Rate of heat supply = 𝑑𝑡 = ?
𝑑𝑄
Formula:- Area of sphere = A = 4π r2 and Rate of heat supply = = 0.9624 W
𝑑𝑡

If temperature of body remains constant, then Rate of heat supply to maintain body at
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 60
Rate of heat supply = Rate of heat loss 110°C is 0.9624W
 Question No. 25 Calculate Find the temperature of a blackbody if its spectrum has
Exercises
a peak at (a) λmax = 700 nm (visible), (b) λmax = 3 cm (microwave) and (c) λmax = 3 m (FM
radio wave) ( Take Wien’s constant b = 2.897 × 10-3 m K).
Answer: Given:- (with unit conversion if any)
b
(λmax)1 = 700 nm (visible) = 700 × 10−9 m (ii) T2 =
λmax 2
(λmax)2 = 3 cm (microwave) = 3 × 10 m −2
2.897 × 10−3
(λmax)3 = 3 m (FM radio wave) T2 =
3 × 10−2
b = 2.897 × 10-3 m K
T2 = 0.9656 × 10−1 K
To Find:- T1 = ?, T2 = ?, T3 = ?
b
b (iii) T3 =
Formula:- λmax T = b → T = λ λmax 3
max
b 2.897 × 10−3
(i) T1 = T3 =
λmax 1 3
2.897 × 10−3 T3 = 0.9656 × 10−3 K
T1 = 700 × 10−9 = 0.4138 × 104 K
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 61
T1 = 4138 K
 Previous Year Board Questions on Chapter 3
Q 1)State any four assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases.
Q 2) Draw a neat labelled diagram of Ferry’s perfectly black body.
Q 3) Explain the black body Radiation spectrum in terms of wavelength.
Q 4) Show the graphical representation of the energy distribution spectrum of a
perfectly black body.
Q 5) State Wien’s displacement law.
Q 6) Proves Kirchhoff’s law of Radiation theoretically
Q 7) State dimensions of emissive power of a perfect black body
Q 8) State i) Stefan – Boltzmann law and ii) Wein’s displacement law
Q 9) Define coefficient of absorption, reflection and transmission. Derive the
relation between them.
Q10) Define emissive power coefficient of emission and absorptive power.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 62
Deleted portion due to COVID-19 for Feb/Mar 2021 HSC Exam.
from Chapter 3

3.2 Behaviour of gas

3.3 Ideal gas and real gas
3.4 Mean free path
3.8 Law of Equipartition of Energy

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 63

Name List of Teachers for e-content development of
12th Physics Chapter No. 3

1. Patil Sanjay Bapurao

2. Shelar Ujwala Madhukar
3. Dusane Savita Yashpal
4. Yadav Mahendra Prabhakar

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 64

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 65
5. Oscillations
Periodic motion

▸ Motion of an object that regularly repeats

▹ The object returns to a given position after a fixed time interval
▸ A special kind of periodic motion occurs in mechanical systems when the force
acting on the object is proportional to the position of the object relative to some
equilibrium position

3
Linear Simple Harmonic Motion(S.H.M)

▸ The linear periodic motion of a body,

in which force is always directed
towards the mean positon and its
magnitude is proportional to the
displacement from the mean position.
Fs α x
▸ The force is directly proportional to
the displacement but its direction is
opposite to that displacement.
▸ That is, Fs = −kx

4
 More About Restoring Force

▸ The block is displaced ▸ The block is at the ▸ The block is displaced

to the right of x = 0 equilibrium position to the left of x=0
▹ The position is ▹ x=0 ▸ Position is negative
positive ▸ The spring is neither ▸ The restoring force is
▸ The restoring force is stretched nor directed towards right
directed to the left compressed
▸ The force is 0

5
Differential Equation of S.H.M
▸ 1. By definition of linear S.H.M, the force acting on a particle is given by
F = -kx …..................(1)
▸ The acceleration of particle is given by,
▸ According to Newton’s second law of motion

▸ From equation (1) and (2),

6
Acceleration(a) of S.H.M.
▸ Acceleration is velocity per unit time. We can calculate the acceleration of a particle performing
S.H.M.
▸ The differential equation of S.H.M.

▸ The (-ve) sign shows that acceleration and displacement have opposite direction

7
Velocity(V) of S.H.M.
▸ Velocity is distance per unit time. Velocity of particle is
▸ We can obtain the expression for velocity using the expression for acceleration

▸ As defined acceleration in previous side a = ……(1)

▸ Hence equation(1) is
▸ Integrating both sides

8
Displacement of S.H.M
▸ Since
▸ We can write equation (2) as

▸ Displacement as a function of time is

9
Displacement of S.H.M
▸ Case I: Particle starts from ▸ Case II: Particle starts from
mean position ϰ = 0 and t = 0 extreme position ϰ = ±A and t = 0
▸ ϰ = Asin((ω)t+ᴓ) ▸ ϰ = Asin(t(ω)+ᴓ) ………(1)
▸ 0 = Asin((ω)*0+ᴓ) ▸ ±A = Asin((ω)*0+ᴓ)
▸ Asinᴓ = 0 ▸ Asinᴓ = 1 and ᴓ = π/2 or 3 π/2
▸ ϰ = ±Asin(ω t) ▸ Equation (1) becomes
▸ ϰ = Asin((ω)t+ π/2) or ϰ = Asin((ω)t+
3π/2)
▸ ϰ = ±Acost(ω)t

10
 Extreme Values of Displacement, Velocity and
Acceleration
 Displacement  Velocity  Acceleration
ϰ = Asin((ω)t+ᴓ) …..(A) v = ± ω √(A2 – x2 ) a = -ω2 x
 At mean position  At Mean Position At mean position
((ω)t+ᴓ) = 0 or π ϰ = 0 Vmax = ± Aω x =0
ϰ min = 0  At Extreme position a min = 0
 At extreme position x = ±A At Extreme position
((ω)t+ᴓ) = π/2 or 3 π/2 Vmin = 0 ϰ=±A
ϰ = ± Asin π/2 a = ± ω2 A
ϰ max = ±A

11
Period of S.H.M.(T)

12
S.H.M. as projection of a U.C.M.
▸ Let r =OP be the position vector of this particle. At t =0, let particle be

At Po with reference angle ᴓ. During time t, it has angular displacement t(ω).

The reference angle at time t is 0 = ((ω)t + ᴓ)
Projection of Displacement:
At time t, OM = OPsin0 = y = rsin((ω)t + ᴓ)
This is the equation of linear S.H.M. of amplitude r and (ω)is angular frqeuency.

13
Projection of Velocity

▸ Instantaneous velocity of the particle P in the circular motion is the tangential velocity of
magnitude r(ω) as shown in fig.
Its projection on reference diameters is
Vy = r(ω)cosө = r(ω) (cos(ω)t + ᴓ) …… Velocity Expression
▸ Projection of Acceleration:
Acceleration of particle P in circular motion is the centripetal acceleration of magnitude r ω ^2 as
shown in fig,
Ay = r(ω)^2sinө = -r(ω)^2sin((ω)t + ᴓ) = -(ω)^2y ----------Acceleration Expression

14
Phase in S.H.M.

▸ The quantity which describes the state of oscillation of particle performing S.H.M is called
phase of S.H.M.
 Phase ө = 0 indicates that particle is at mean position, moving towards positive, during the
beginning of the first oscillation.
Phase angle ө = 360 or 2π is the beginning of second oscillation
 Phase ө = 180 or π, During its first oscillation, the particle is at mean position and moving to
negative.
 Phase ө = 90 or π/2, then particle is at positive extream position during first oscillation for
second oscillation it will be (360+90)
 Phase ө = 270 indicates that particle is negative extreme postion during first oscillation. For
second oscillation it will be ө = (360+270)

15
Graphical Representation of S.H.M
1. Particle Starts its Motion from mean position towards
Positive
▸ Particle starts from mean position then displacement is given by
x = Asin(ωt) Velocity (V)= A(ω)cos(ωt)
Acceleration (a) = -A(ω)^2sin((ω)t)

(t) 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4

(Ѳ) 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2

(x) 0 A 0 -A o A

(v) Aω 0 -Aω 0 Aω 0

(a) 0 -Aω2 0 Aω2 0 Aω2

16
Conclusions from the graphs

▸ Displacement, velocity and acceleration of SHM. are periodic functions of time.

▸ Displacement time curve and acceleration time curves are sine curves and velocity
- time curve is a cosine curve.
▸ There is phase difference of π/2 radian between displacement and velocity.
▸ There îs phase difference of π/2 radian between velocity and acceleration.
▸ There is phase difference of π radian between displacement and acceleration.
▸ shapes of all curves get repeated after 2π radian or after a time T.

17
 2. Particle Starts its Motion from Positive
Extreme Position

▸ Particle starts its motion from positive extreme position

then displacement x = Acos(ωt)
Velocity (V)= -Aωsin(ωt)
Acceleration (a) = -Aω^2cos(ωt)

(t) 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4

(Ѳ) Π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3Π
(x) A 0 -A 0 A 0
(v) 0 -Aω 0 Aω 0 -Aω
(a) -Aω2 0 Aω2 0 -Aω2 0

18
Conclusions from graph

▸ Displacement, velocity and acceleration of S.H.M. are periodic functions of time.

▸ Displacement time curve and acceleration time curves are cosine curves and
velocity time curve sine curve
▸ There is phase difference of π/2 radian between displacement and velocity.
▸ There is phase difference of π /2 radian between velocity and acceleration .
▸ There is phase a difference of π radian between displacement and acceleration.
▸ All curves repeat some path after phare of 2π radian

19
Composition Of Two S.H.M.S. Having Same Period
And Along The Same Path
▸ The equations of displacement of two S.H.M.S. along x-axis are,
X1 = A1 sin (ωt + φ1 ) and
X2 = A2 sin (ωt + φ2 )
The resultant displacement is,
X = X1 + X2
X = A1 sin (ωt+ φ1 ) + A2 sin (ωt + φ2 )
X = A1 sin ωt cos φ1 + A1 cos ωt. sin φ1 + A2 sin ωt cos φ2 + A2 cos ωt. sin φ2
X = (A1 cos φ1 + A2 cos φ2) Sin ωt + (A1 sin φ1 + A2sin φ2) cos ωt
Let R cos δ = A1 cos φ1 + A 2 cos φ2 ----------------- (1)
R sin δ = A1 sin φ1 + A2 sin φ2 ------------------(2)
X = R cos δ. Sin ωt + R sin δ. cos ωt

20
 X = R Sin (ωt + δ) ------------------(3)
Resultant amplitude (R)
Squaring and adding eqhs (1) & (2)
R2 cos 2 δ + R2 Sin 2 δ = (A1 cos φ1 + A2 cos φ2) 2 + (A1 sin φ1 + A2sin φ2) 2
R2 (cos 2 δ + Sin 2 δ) = A12 cos 2 φ1 + A22 cos 2 φ2 + 2A1A2cosφ1.cos φ 2
A12 sin 2 φ1 + A22 sin 2 φ2 + 2A1A2sinφ1.sin φ 2
R2 = A12 (cos 2 φ1 + sin 2 φ1) + A22 (cos 2 φ2 + sin 2 φ2 ) + 2A1A2(cosφ1.cos φ 2 + sinφ1.sin φ 2 )

R2 = A12 + A22 + 2A1A2 cos (φ1 - φ2 )

R = √(A12 + A22 + 2A1A2 cos (φ1 - φ2 ) )------------------(4)
Initial phase - (δ)
Dividing eqn (2) by (1)
R sin δ A1 sin φ1 + A2sin φ2
R cos δ A1 cos φ1 + A2 cos φ2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

21
 A1 sin φ1 + A2sin φ2
tan δ
A1 cos φ1 + A2 cos φ2

A1 sin φ1 + A2sin φ2
δ = tan-1
A1 cos φ1 + A2 cos φ2

Case – (I) If φ1 - φ2 = 0o cos ( φ1 - φ 2) = cos0o = 1

eqn (4) becomes

If A1 = A2 = A then R = 2A

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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Case (II) If φ1- φ2 = 90o => cos ( φ1-φ 2) = cos90o = 0

Case (III) if φ1 - φ2 = 180o => cos( φ1 - φ2) = cos 180o = -1

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

23
ENERGY OF A PARTICLE PERFORMING S.H.M…….

The velocity of a particle in S.H.M at Pt. P. is ,

Thus, the K.E. is,

At time t, the K.E. is

24
 The restoring force acting on the particle at point P is ,
F = - kx
The work done in displacing the particle through dx against the restoring force is,
dw = f(-dx)
= -kx(-dx)
= kx.dx
The total work done to displace the particle from O to P is,

At Shri
time Swami
t, it is , Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
25
The Total energy is,

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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Case (III) If K.E. = P.E.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
28
Simple Pendulum
An ideal simple pendulum is a heavy particle suspended by a massless, inextensible, flexible string from a rigid support.
A practical simple pendulum is a small heavy (dense) sphere (called bob) suspended by a light and inextensible string from a rigid
support.
The distance between the point of suspension and center of gravity of the bob is called the length of the pendulum.
At extreme position the forced acting on the bob are.
• Tension TI towards the support.
• Weight mg in vertically downward direction.
Weight mg can be resolved into two components –

29
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
30
 Assumptions –
1) amplitude of oscillation should be very small
2) the length of the string should be large
3) the bob moves along a single vertical plane.
Frequency of oscillations (n) is,

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

31
• T does not depends on m
• For small amplitudes T does not depends on amplitude.
Second’s pendulum
A simple pendulum whose period is two seconds is called second’s pendulum.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

32
Angular S.H.M And Its Differential Equation

For angular S.H.M. the restoring torque for angular displacement θ is

Where C – restoring torque per unit angular displacement.

If I is the M.I. and α be the angular acceleration then

From eqns and (II)

Is the differential eqn of angular S.H.M.

33
 Since C and I are constants α is directly proportional to Ө and its direction is opposite to angular
displacement.

“Angular S.H.M. is defined as the oscillatory motion of a body in which torque or angular acceleration
is directly proportional to the angular displacement and its direction is opposite to that of angular
displacement.”
The time period T for angular S.H.M. is

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

34
MAGNET VIBRATING IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

Let, μ – Uniform magnetic field.

Β – Uniform magnetic field.

As π, B and I are constants.

Period of vibrations of magnet is,

35
Damped Oscillations
▸ Periodic oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude are called damped harmonic oscillations
and the oscillator is called damped harmonic oscillator.
▸ The damping force (Fd) is directly proportional to the speed (v) of the vane. and the block

Where, b – damping constant.

The force on the block from the spring is,

The total force is

36
 The angular frequency is,

Period of oscillation is,

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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Free Oscillations, Forced Oscillations And Resonance

▸ Free oscillations – Body oscillates with its natural frequency.

▸ Forced vibrations – Body oscillates with a frequency equal to frequency of driving force.
▸ Resonance – If the driving frequency becomes exactly equal to fundamental frequency of body, it
vibrates with maximum amplitude.

38
1) At what distance from the mean position is the speed of a particle performing
S.H.M. half its maximum speed. Given path length of S.H.M=10 cm

Given : A=5cm

Solutions : At a distance x from mean position its speed be half to Vmax

Vmax=Aω.

Aω/2=ω √[A^2-x^2]

5/2= √(25-x^2)

25/4=25-x^2

X=4.33cm

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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2). In SI units, the differential equation of an S.H.M. is d^2x/dx^2 =-36x. Find its frequency
and period.
Given:
ω = 6 rad/s
Solution:
T=2π/ω
=2x3.142/6
T=1.0473 sec
n=ω/2π
=6/(2×3.14)
n=0.955 Hz.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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3). A needle of a sewing machine moves along a path of amplitude 4 cm with frequency
5 Hz. Find its acceleration (1/30)s after it has crossed the mean position

Given: a = 4cm Now,

n=5 Hz acceleration=ω^2x
t = 1/30 sec =(2πn)^2*3.464
Solution: x = a sin ω t = (2x3.14*5)^2* 3.464
= 4 sin 2πnt acceleration= 34.2 m/s^2
= 4sin (2 π 5x1/30)
= 4 * 0.8660
x=3.464 cm

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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4 ). Potential energy of a particle performing linear S.H.M is 0.1* π ^2*x^2 joule. If mass of
the particle is 20 g. find the frequency of S.H.M.
Data : (2 πn)^2=2*0.1* π^2 /m
P.E= 0.1 x^2 π^2 J n^2=2x0.1x π^2/(m*4*
m = 20 g = 20x10^(-3) kg To find : n = ? =2x0.1/20x10^-3x4
Formula : n^2= 2.5
P.E=1/2m*x^2*ω^2 n = 1.581 Hz
Solution:
0.1 x^2 π^2=1/2m*x^2*ω^2
ω^2=0.1*2 *π^2/m

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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5) The total energy of a body of mass 2 kg performing S.H.M. is 40 J. Find its speed while
crossing the centre of the path.
Given : m = 2 kg
E = 40 J

To find : Vmax = ? (At the means position)

Formula: E=1/2 *m(Vmax)^2

Vmax = √ ( 2E/m)

=√ (2x40/2)
Vmax =6.324m/s

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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6) A simple pendulum performs S.H.M of period 4 seconds. How much time after
crossing the mean position, will the displacement of the bob be one third of its amplitude.

Data: T= 4 s t=19.4/ ω * π/180

X=A/3 =19.4X π XT/(2 π x180)
To find : t=? =19.4x4/2x180
Formula: t= 0.2166 sec.
x=A sinωt
A/3=A sinωt
ωt = sin−1(1/3)
ωt = 19.4°

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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7) A simple pendulum of length 100 cm performs S.H.M. Find the restoring force
acting on its bob of mass 50 g when the displacement from the mean position is 3cm.
Data : L= 100 cm = 1m

m=50 g = 50x10^-3 kg

x=3 cm=3x10^-2 m

find : Restoring force = F=?

formula : F= mgx/L

=50 x10^-3 x9.8x3x10^-2

= 1470*10^-5

F=1.47x10-²N

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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8) . Find the change in length of a second's pendulum, if the acceleration due to gravity
at the place changes from 9.75 m/s^2 to 9.8 m/s^2

Data: g1=9.75 m/s^2

g2=9.8 m/s^2
To find :
change in length = L2-L1=?
formula :
L= g/ π^2
L2-L1=g2/ π^2 –g1/ π^2
=9.8-9.75/ π^2
=0.05/ π^2
L2-L1 =0.0051 m

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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9) . At what distance from the mean position is the kinetic energy of a particle
performing S.H.M. of amplitude 8 cm, three times its potential energy?

Data: A ²-x²= 3x²

A= 8 cm = 8x10^-2 m 4X² = A²
To find : x² = A² /4
X= ? when, K.E.=3P.E. X=A/2
formula : =8/2
K.E.=3 P.E. x = 4 cm
1/2 mω^2(A^2-x^2) = 3 x 1/2 mω²x^2

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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10) . A particle performing linear S.H.M. of period 2π seconds about the mean position 0 is observed
to have a speed of b√3 m/s, when at a distance b (meter) from O. If the particle is moving away from
O at that instant, find the time required by the particle, to travel a further distance b.
ωt1=sin−1(1/2)
Data : T= 2 π sec
2 π/T *t1= π /6
V= b√3 m/s
t1=T/12
x1=bm
t1= π/6 sec
x2= 2b
Also
To find: t, = ? t2 = ?
X2=A sinωt2
t2-t1 = ?
2b=2b sinωt2
Formula: V1= ω√( A²-x1²)
ωt2=sin−1(1)
b√3= 2π/T √(A²-x1²)
2π/T *t2 = π/2
3b²=4π²/T² (A²-x1²)
t2=T/4
A²=3b²*T²/4π²*X1²
=2 π /4
A²=4b²
= π /2 sec
A=2b
t2-t1= π /2-π/6
Now,
=3 π –π/6
X1=sin ωt1
t2 – t1 = π/3 sec
b=2b sin ωt1

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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11) The period of oscillation of a body of mass m1 suspended from a light spring
is T. When a body of mass m2 is tied to the first body and the system is made to
oscillate, the period is 2T. Compare the masses m1 and m2

Data: when mass = m1 then T1=T When for 2nd condition,

mass=m1+m2 thenT2 = 2T As the spring is K= 4π² / T2 ² *(m1+m2) ………(2)
same k is constant
From eq (1)&(2)
To find : m1/m2=?
4 π²/T1²*m1 = 4π ²/T2 ² *(m1+m2)
Formula : k/m= ω²
m1/ T ²=m1+m2/4T ²
K= ω²m
4m1=m1+m2
K=4 π ² /T ² *m
3m1=m2
For 1st condition,
m1/m2=1/3
K=4 π ²/T1 ² *m1 …………(1)

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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12) The displacement of an oscillating particle is given by x = Asinωt+ Bcosωt where
a, b and ω are constants. Prove that the particle performs a linear S.H.M. with
amplitude A= √(A²+B²).

Given: x= Asinωt+ Bcosωt

Solution: x=A1sin(ωt+0)+ A2sin(ωt+π/2) ..(1)
We have
x=A1sin(ωt+ ϕ1)+ A2sin(ωt+ ϕ2)..(2)
Comparing eq (1)&(2)
A1=A , ϕ1=0, A2=B & ϕ2= π/2

The amplitude of resultant S.H.M. Is,

A= √(A1²+A2²+2A1A2cos(ϕ1-ϕ2))
A = √(A²+B²+2ABcos(0- π/2)
= √(A²+B²+2AB(0))
A = √(A²+B²).

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan

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 One mark questions –
1. Obtain dimensions of force constant k.
2. Define path length and amplitude of a particle performing linear S.H.M.
3. State the equation of displacement of a particle perfoeming linear S.H.M hence define initial phare.
4. Define epoch of S.H.M.
5. Define ideal simple pendulum.
6. Define seconds pendulum. State the formula for its length.
7. State the lacus of simple pendulum.
8. For damped harmonic oscillator, show graphically the variation of displacement against time.
9. What is the initial phase of a particle starting from extreme position?
10.Explain resonance.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

51
 Two mark questions
1. Define periodic motion. Give its two examples.
2. Define linear S.H.M. and state its defferential equation.
3. Define the differential equation of linear S.H.M.
4. Define an expression for acceleration of a particle performing linear S.H.M.
5. Derive an expression for velocity of a particle performing linear S.H.M
6. Derive an expression for displacement of a particle performing linear S.H.M.
7. Define phase and epoch of S.H.M.
8. Represent graphically variation of P.E., K.E. and total energy of a particle performing linear S.H.M. w.r.t.
displacement.
9. State any two of sample pendulum
10. Define angular S.H.M. Explain it.
11. Derice an expression for angular S.H.M.
12. Derive an expression for K.E. of a particle performing linear S.H.M.
13. Derive an expression for P.E. of a particle performing linear S.H.M.
14. Give the difference between free and forced vidrations
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur
52
Three Marks Questions
1. Show that linear S.H.M. in the progretion of E.C.M. an any diameter.
2. Discuss analytically the composition of two S.H.M’s having same period, different initial phases,
parallel to each other.
3. Show that for a small amplitude, the motion of sample pendulum is linear S.H.M.
4. Derive an expression for period of simple pendulum.
5. Represent graphically displacement, velocity and acceleration against time for a particle performing
linear.
6. Derive an expression K.E. and P.E. and T.E. of a particle performing linear S.H.M.
7. Show that the motion of a magnet vibrating in uniform magnetic field is an angular S.H.M.
8. Derive an expression for a period of a magnet vibrating an a uniform magnetic field.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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Deleted Portion Due to Covid-19 For Feb/Mar-2021
H.S.C. Exam

Sr. No.​ Page No.​ article Portion deleted for year 2020- 21

116 -117 5.7​

1. Reference circle Method

118-119​ 5.9​
2. Graphical representation of S.H.M.​

126-127​ 5.14​
3. Damped oscillations​

127.128​ 5.15​
4​ Free oscillations, forced oscillations and resonance

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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List of Teachers

 Shri, Chavan Dattkumar Jagannath

 Shri. Jadhav Dilip Tukaram

 Shri Parashar Jr. Collage of Science. Pargaon

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur

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 1

Chapter -6

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 2

 2
6.1 Introduction
• DEFINATION:
• A mechanical wave is a disturbance produced in elastic medium due to periodic vibrations of particles
of medium about their respective mean positions.

• In this process energy and momentum transferred from one position to other.
• In this chapter we will study mechanical wave, reflection and superposition of waves, formation of stationary
waves and, beats and their applications.

6.2 Progressive waves:

A wave in which disturbance produced in the

medium travels in a given direction
continuously without any damping or
obstruction from one particle to other.
e.g. sound waves, ripples, etc.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 3
 3
6.2.1 Properties of progressive waves:
1.Each particle of medium executes same type of vibration. particles vibrate about their mean position
performing simple harmonic motion
2.All vibrating particles of medium have same amplitude, period and frequency but phase changes from
particle to particle.
3.No particle remains at rest. Each particle comes to rest momentarily at extreme position.
4.The particle maximum velocity when they pass through the mean position.
5.During propagation of wave energy transferred along wave. There is no transfer of matter.
6.The wave propagates through certain velocity which depends on properties of medium
7.Transverse and longitudinal waves are progressive waves.
8.In transverse waves vibrations of particles are perpendicular to direction of propagation and in
longitudinal waves vibrations are parallel to direction of propagation.
9.Both transverse and longitudinal waves travel through solids but only longitudinal waves propagate
through fluids.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 4

The displacement at of any particle of medium at a space point x at time t is given by, 4

y(x,t) =f(x - vt)………………..(6.1)

Where,v- velocity , x- displacement
Equation (6.1) represents progressive wave.
Generally progressive wave represented by the equation
y(x,t) =A sin (kx – wt)………………..(6.2)
Wherw, A- amplitude of wave k=2π/λ is the wave number
λ- wavelength and w-angular frequency v=w/k is the speed
SI unit of k is rad/m. SI unit of λ is m. SI unit of w is rad /s.
n = 1/T is frequency of wave and its SI unit is Hz.
The equation of progressive wave travelling along negative x-direction is
y(x,t) =A sin (kx + wt)………..(6.3)

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 5

6.3 Reflection of waves: 5
When progressive wave travelling through a medium, reaches a interface of separating
media certain part of wave energy comes back in the same medium this is known as reflection of
waves.

6.3.1 i) From denser medium

When transverse wave is reflected from a rigid support, i.e., from a denser medium, a crest is
reflected as a trough and a trough is reflected as a crest.
i.Take a long light string AB. Attach one end of the string to a rigid support at B
ii.When crest moves along the string towards B, it pulls the particles of string in upward direction.
iii. when the crest reaches B at rigid support, it tries to pull the point B upwards. But being a rigid
support, B remains at rest and an equal and opposite reaction is produced on the string according to
Newton’s third law of motion.
iv.The string is pulled downwards. Thus, crest gets reflected as a trough or a trough gets reflected
as a crest.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 6

 6
ii)From rarer medium
When transverse wave is reflected from a rarer medium, a crest is reflected as a crest and a trough is reflected
as a trough.
Example 1
i. Attach the end B of string to a ring which can slide easily on a rod without friction. (Here string is a denser
medium and ring as rarer medium.)
ii. we observe that when the crest reaches the point B, it pulls the ring upwards and causes the ring to move
upward.
iii. The wave is seen to get reflected back as a crest and no phase change occur on reflection from a rarer
medium i.e. crest is reflected back as a crest.
Example 2
i.One heavy and one light string joined each other at point ‘o’.
ii. Produce a crest on a heavy string which is moving towards point ‘o’
iii. A crest travelling from heavy string gets reflected as a crest from
lighter string.
iv. When a crest travels from lighter string to heavy string crest
reflected as a trough and vice versa. Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 7
 7
6.3.2 I)Reflection of longitudinal wave:

i) From denser medium

when the longitudinal wave travels from a rarer medium to

a denser medium, a compression is reflected as a compression
and a rarefaction is reflected as a rarefaction. There is no change
of phase during this reflection

ii)From rarer medium

When longitudinal wave travels from a denser

medium to a rarer medium, a compression is reflected as a
rarefaction and rare faction is reflected as compression. Here
reversal of phase takes place, i.e., phase changes by π radians

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 8

 8
6.4 Superposition of Waves:
When two or more waves, travelling through a medium, pass through a common point, each wave produces its
own displacement at that point, independent of the presence of the other wave. The resultant displacement at that point
is equal to the vector sum of the displacements due to the individual wave at that point.
6.4.1 Superposition of two wave pulses of equal amplitude and same
phase moving towards each other:
Consider two wave pulses of equal amplitude and same phases
moving towards each other
1.Propagation after superposition are shown in Figs.
2.From fig two waves cross each other between t = 2 s and
t = 4s.
3.At t=3s the two wave pulses superpose; the resultant displacement is
equal to the sum of the displacements (full line) due to individual wave pulses
(dashed lines).
4.This is constructive interference.
5.The displacement due to wave pulses after crossing at t = 5 s and t = 6 s
are shown in Figs
6.After crossing each other, both the wave pulses continue to maintain
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 9
their individual shapes.
 9

6.4.2 Superposition of two wave pulses of equal

amplitude and opposite phase moving towards each other:
Consider two wave pulses of equal amplitude and opposite
phases moving towards each other
1.The propagation of approaching wave pulses, their
successive positions after every second, their superposition and
propagation after superposition are shown in Fig.
2.These wave pulses superimpose at t = 2 s and the
resultant displacement (full line) is zero, due to individual
displacements (dashed lines) differing in phase exactly by 180°.
3.This is destructive interference.
4. Displacement due to one wave pulse is cancelled by the
displacement due to the other wave pulse when they cross each
other
5.After crossing each other, both the wave pulses continue
and maintain their shapes.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 10

6.4.3 Amplitude of the Resultant Wave Produced due to superposition of Two Waves: 10
Consider two waves having the same frequency.
Let , A1 and A2 are amplitudes of two waves.
ϕ be the phase difference.
The displacement of each wave at x = 0 is given as
Y1= A1 sin wt. -------------------(1)
Y2= A2 sin (wt+ ϕ) -------------(2)
Y = Y1 + Y2 = A1 sin wt + A2 sin (wt+ ϕ) -----------(3)
Using principle of superposition of wave,
y = A1 sinwt + A2 sinwtcosϕ + A2 coswtsinϕ
y = A1 + A2 cosϕ sinwt + A2 sinϕcoswt
Let us substitute A cosθ = A1 + A2 cosϕ -----------------(4)
A sinθ = A2 sinϕ -----------------(5)
⸫Y = A cosθ sin wt + A sinθ cos wt = A sin (wt + θ) -----------------(6)
This is the equation of the resultant wave.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 11
 Resultant Amplitude : 11
Squaring and adding Equation (4) and (5)
𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)2 + 𝐴22 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙
𝐴2 = 𝐴12 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 + 𝐴22 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 + 𝐴22 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙
∴ 𝐴 = 𝐴12 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 + 𝐴22 --------------------(7)

Case-I Case-II
If ϕ = 0, i.e., the waves are in phase, the resultant When ϕ = π, i.e., the waves are out of phase, the
amplitude is resultant amplitude is
∴ 𝐴 = 𝐴12 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 0 + 𝐴22 = A1 + A2 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝐴12 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜋 + 𝐴22 = A1 - A2
The resultant amplitude is maximum when ϕ = 0. (∵ cos 𝜋 = −1 )
The resultant amplitude is minimum when ϕ = π.

Case : III If A1= A2 = A (say),

The intensities of the waves are proportional to the squares of their amplitudes.
∴ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝐴2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( A1 + A2 )2 ------(8)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 ϕ = π then ∴ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 Shri 𝐴2𝑚𝑖𝑛Vivekanand
∝ Swami = ( A 2 Kolhapur
1 - A2 ) -------(9)
Shikshan Sanstha, 12
 12
6.5 Stationary Waves:
We have seen the superposition of two wave pulses, having same amplitudes and
either same phase or opposite phases, and changes in the resultant amplitude.
Stationary waves is an example of superposition of waves having the same amplitude
and the same frequency travelling in opposite directions.

6.5.1 Formation of Stationary Waves:

Imagine a string stretched between two fixed points. If the string is pulled at the
middle and released, we get what is know as a stationary wave.

Antinodes- Points with maximum amplitude.

Nodes – points with minimum amplitude.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 13

6.5.2 Equation of Stationary Wave on a Stretched String: 13
Consider two simple harmonic progressive waves of equal amplitudes (a) and wavelength (λ)
propagating on a long uniform string in opposite directions (remember 2π/λ = k and 2πn = ω).
The equation of wave travelling along the x-axis in the positive direction is
2 𝜋𝑥
y1= a sin (2 πnt - ) ---------(1)
𝜆
The equation of wave travelling along the x-axis in the negative direction is
2 𝜋𝑥
y2= a sin (2 πnt + ) ----------(2)
𝜆
By the principle of superposition of waves ,
2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝜋𝑥
y = y1 + y2 = a sin (2 πnt - )+ a sin (2 πnt + )
𝜆 𝜆
2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝜋𝑥
y = a{ sin (2 πnt - )+ sin (2 πnt + )}
𝜆 𝜆
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
By using, sin C+ sin D=2 sin ( ) cos ( ),
2 2
we get
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑥
∴ y = 2 a sin (2πnt) cos( ) = 2 a cos( ) sin (2πnt) --------------(3)
𝜆 𝜆
y = A sin ωt -- --------------(4)
2𝜋𝑥
where A= 2 a cos( 𝜆
) and ω = 2πn
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 14
 Condition for node: (A = 0 ) Condition for antinode: 14

Antinodes are the points of maximum

2𝜋𝑥
2 a cos ( )=0 displacement. This is possible if the amplitude
𝜆
2𝜋𝑥 is maximum,
co s( )=0
𝜆
A = ±2a
2𝜋𝑥
2 a cos( ) = ±2a
𝜆
2𝜋𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
Or = , 2,2, ….. or, cos(
2𝜋𝑥
) = ±1
𝜆 2 𝜆
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
. 2𝜋𝑥
x= , , ……... or =0,𝜋, 2π, 3π
4 4 4 𝜆
𝜆 𝜆 3𝜆
i.e. x = (2p-1) ⸫ x =0, , λ , , ……..
4 2 2
𝜆𝑝
where p= 1,2, 3,…….. i.e. x = where p=0, 1,2,3,……..
2
𝝀
Thus, the difference between nodes is . Thus the difference between antinodes is .
𝝀
𝟐
𝟐
𝝀
Nodes and antinodes formed alternately. The distance between node and adjacent antinode is .
𝟒
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 15
 6.5.3 Properties of Stationary Waves: 15
1. Stationary waves are produced due to superposition of two identical waves (either transverse or longitudinal waves) traveling through
a medium along the same path in opposite directions.
2. If two identical transverse progressive waves superimpose or interfere, the resultant wave is a transverse stationary wave.
• When a transverse stationary wave is produced on a string, some points on the string are motionless. The points which do not
move are called nodes.
• There are some points on the string which oscillate with greatest amplitude (say A). They are called antinodes.
• Points between the nodes and antinodes vibrate with values of amplitudes between 0 and A.
3. If two identical longitudinal progressive waves superimpose or interfere, the resultant wave is a longitudinal stationary wave
• The points, at which the amplitude of the particles of the medium is minimum (zero), are called nodes.
• The points, at which the amplitude of the particles of the medium is maximum (say A), are called antinodes.
• Points between the nodes and antinodes vibrate with values of amplitudes between 0 and A
4. The distance between two consecutive nodes is λ/2 and the distance between two consecutive antinodes is λ/2
5. Nodes and antinodes are produced alternately. The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is λ/4
6. The amplitude of vibration varies periodically in space. All points vibrate with the same frequency.
7. Though all the particles (except those at the nodes) possess energy, there is no propagation of energy. The wave is localized and its
velocity is zero. Therefore, we call it a stationary wave.
8. All the particles between adjacent nodes (i.e., in one loop) vibrate in phase. There is no progressive change of phase from one particle
to another particle. All the particles in the same loop are in the same phase of oscillation, which reverses for the adjacent loop.
9.Musical instruments such as violin, tanpura, are basedVivekanand
Shri Swami on the principle of formation
Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur of stationary waves or standing waves. 16
 6.5.4 Comparison of Stationary Waves and Progressive Waves: 16

Stationary Waves Progressive Waves

1.In stationary waves, disturbance remains in the region 1. In a progressive wave, the disturbance travels form
where it is produced, velocity of the wave is zero. one region to the other with definite velocity

2.In stationary waves, amplitudes of particles are different. 2. In progressive waves, amplitudes of all particles are
same.

3. In a stationary wave, all the particles cross their mean 3.In progressive wave, this does not happen.
positions simultaneously.

4.In stationary waves particles at the position of nodes are 4. In progressive waves, all the particles are moving.
always at rest
5.In stationary waves there is no transfer of energy 5. Energy is transmitted from one region to another in
progressive waves.
6. All particles between two consecutive nodes are moving 6.In a progressive wave, phases of adjacent particles
in the same direction and are in phase while those in are different.
adjacent loops are moving in opposite directions and
differ in phase by 180° in stationary waves.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 17

 17
6.6 Free and Forced Vibrations:
Free vibration:
In free vibration, the body at first is given an initial displacement and the
force is then withdrawn. The body starts vibrating and continues the motion
on its own. No external force acts on the body further to keep it in motion.
Ex. Simple pendulum

Forced vibrations:
In forced vibrations, an external periodic force is applied on a body whose
natural period is different from the period of the force. The body is made to
vibrate with a frequency equal to that of the externally impressed force.
Ex. Driver of washing machine

If the frequencies exactly match, it is termed as resonance and

the amplitude of vibration is maximum.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 18
 6.7 Harmonics and overtones 18
When a string or an air column is set into vibrations by some means, the waves are reflected from the ends and
stationary waves can be formed and vibrate with all possible frequencies

These are called the natural frequencies of normal modes ofscillations.

The minimum of these frequencies is termed the fundamental frequency or the first harmonic
The first frequency higher than the fundamental frequency is called the first overtone, the next frequency higher is the
second overtone and so on.

The overtones are only those multiples of fundamental frequency which are actually present in a given sound.
The term 'harmonic' is used when the frequency of a particular overtone is an intergral multiple of the fundamental
frequency.
6.7.1 End correction
End correction ‘e’ is calculated by
e = 0.3 d , where d= inner diameter of tube or pipe

For a pipe closed at one end: For a pipe open at both end:
l = length of air column in the pipe L = l + 2e
L = l + e = corrected length
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 19
⸫L=l+e
6.7.2 Vibration of air column in a pipe closed at one end: 19
𝜆
Length of air column = 4
And 𝜆 =4𝐿 ⸫v=n𝜆
𝑣
⸫n = 4𝑙
𝑣
⸫n = --------------------(2)
4(𝑙+𝑒)

Fundamental frequency is also known as first harmonic.

3𝜆1
L= 4
4𝐿
⸫𝜆1 = 3
4(𝑙+𝑒)
⸫𝜆1 = 3
v = n1
n1 = 𝑣 =
3𝑣
=
3𝑣
∴ 𝑛1 = 3𝑛
4𝐿 4
𝜆1 𝑙 𝑒
+
This is the third harmonic or first overtone

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 20

 5𝜆2 20
Length of air column = 4
4𝐿
And 𝜆2 = 5
4(𝑙+𝑒)
𝜆2 = 5
∵ v = n2 𝜆2 ----------------------(5)
⸫n2 = 𝑣/𝜆2
5𝐿
⸫n2 = 4𝐿
5𝑣
⸫n2 = 4(𝑙+𝑒)

⸫n2 = 5𝑛 -----------------(6)
This is frequency of fifth harmonic. It is second overtone.

Simillarly,
⸫np = (2p + 1)------------------(7)
Thus for a pipe closed at one end , only odd harmonics are
present and even harmonics are absent.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 21

6.7.3 Vibration of air column in a pipe closed at both 21
ends: 𝜆
Length of air column = 2
And 𝜆 =2𝐿
∵v = n 𝜆
𝑣
⸫n = 2𝑙
𝑣
⸫n = 2(𝑙+2𝑒)

v = 2nL --------------------(8)
This is the frequency of the 1st harmonic
Length of air column = L = 𝜆1
⸫ 𝜆1 = 𝐿 = (l+2e)
⸫ v = n1 𝜆1
n1 = 𝑣 =
𝑣
=
𝑣

𝐿
𝜆1 𝑙 2𝑒
+

𝑛1 = 2𝑛
----------------------(9)
This is the 2nd harmonic or first overtone.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 22

 22
3𝜆2
Length of air column =
2
2𝐿
And 𝜆2 =
3
2(𝑙+2𝑒)
𝜆2 = ----------(10)
3
v = n2 𝜆2 ----------------------(11)
⸫n2 = 𝑣/𝜆2
3𝑣
⸫n2 =
2𝐿
3𝑣
⸫n2 =
2(𝑙+2𝑒)

⸫n2 = 3𝑛 -----------------(12)
This is frequency of 3rd harmonic. It is 2nd overtone.
Thus for a pipe closed at both end , all harmonic are present as overtones in the modes of vibration of air
column open at both ends.
In general, frequency ( np ) for pth overtone is ,
np = ( p+1) n ---------------(13)
where p = 0,1,2,3, ------- and n – Shri
fundamental frequency
Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 23
6.7.4 Practical determination of of end correction : 23

For a pipe open at both ends,

For a pipe closed at one end,
v = 2 n1 L1 = 2 n2 L2
v = 4 n1 L1 = 4 n2 L2
∴ n1 L1 = n2 L2
∴ n1 L1 = n2 L2
∴ n1 (𝑙1 +2𝑒) = n2 (𝑙2 + 2𝑒)
∴ n1 (𝑙1 +𝑒) = n2 (𝑙2 + 𝑒)
𝑛1 𝑙1 −𝑛2 𝑙2
∴e = --------------(1)
2(𝑛2 −𝑛1 )
𝑛1 𝑙1 −𝑛2 𝑙2
∴e = --------------(1)
2(𝑛2 −𝑛1 )
OR
𝑛2 𝑙2 −𝑛1 𝑙1
∴e= ---------------(2) OR
2(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )
𝑛2 𝑙2 −𝑛1 𝑙1
∴e= ---------------(2)
2(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 24

 24
6.7.5 Vibrations Produced in a String
Consider l – length Of string stretched between two rigid
supports,
m - linear density ( mass per unit length),
and T – tension in the string due to stretching.
• A transverse wave is produced along the string by
plucking or using vibrator like tuning fork.
• A wave is reflected with change of phase -----
radians, when it reaches to fixed ends of the string.
• Reflected wave and incident wave interferes and a
stationary wave is formed along the string.

We know the relations,

v = n ----
and v = ------
where v – velocity,
n – frequency,
and - wavelength of the transverse wave.
https://youtu.be/-gr7KmTOrx0
 25
Different modes of vibrations
In fig. ( a ),
In fig. ( a ), 1 antinode and 2
1 antinode and 2 nodes at the end with 1
In fig. ( a ), nodes at the end with 1 loop is formed along its
1 antinode and 2 nodes loop is formed along its length.
at the end with 1 loop is length. If - is wavelength and
formed along its length. If - is wavelength and l - length of the string
If - is wavelength and l - length of the string Then
l - length of the string Then 𝝀 𝒍
length of the loop = 𝟐 =
Then 𝝀 𝒍 𝟐 𝟑
length of the loop = 𝟏 = 𝟐𝒍
𝝀
length of the loop = = l
𝟐 𝟐 𝝀𝟏 =
𝝀𝟏 = 𝒍 𝟑
𝟐
𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍 Frequency of the
Frequency of the
Frequency of the vibrations is given by
vibrations is given by
vibrations is given by 𝒗 𝟏 𝑻
𝒗 𝟏 𝑻 𝒏𝟐 = =
𝒗 𝒗 𝑻
𝒏𝟏 = = 𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝒎
𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟏 𝒎
𝒏= = 𝟑 𝑻
𝝀 𝟐𝒍 𝒎 𝟏 𝑻 =
= 𝟐𝒍 𝒎
𝒍 𝒎

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 26

 6.7.6 Laws of vibrating string : 26
Laws of a Vibrating String :
The fundamental frequency of a vibrating string under tension is given as

𝟏 𝑻
𝒏=
𝟐𝒍 𝒎
From this formula, three laws of vibrating string can be given as follows:
1) Law of length: The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a string is inversely proportional to the length of the
vibrating string, if tension and mass per unit length are constant.
1
n∝ if T and m are constant.
𝑙
2) Law of tension: The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a string is directly proportional to the square root of
tension, if vibrating length and mass per unit length are constant.
n∝ 𝑇 , if l and m are constant.
3) Law of linear density: The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a string is inversely proportional to the square
root of mass per unit length (linear density), if the tension and vibrating length of the string are constant.

1
n∝ , if T and l are constant.
𝑚
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 27
 27
6.8 Sonometer :
• A sonometer consists of hollow rectangular
wooden box called sound box.
• It is used to make large mass of air vibrate so that
sound is produced by wire.
• Two bridges P and Q can be moved parallel to
length of the box.
• A metal wire is fixed at one end and other end is
passed over the pulley which runs along the
length over the bridges.
• A hanger is attached to free end of the wire.
• By changing the weights in hanger, tension in the
wire can be varied.
• Vibrating length AB can be changed by movable bridges.
• If the wire is plucked, stationary wave is produced between the bridges due to reflection of transverse
wave.
• A tuning fork is used to vibrate the wire by holding near to it.
• As the frequency of the fork and vibrations of the wire is same then standing wave is set up with large
amplitude and resonance occurs.

• A paper rider placed middle of the wire flies off the wire at the resonance.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 28

Verification of first law of a vibrating string: 28
Length of wire and its mass, the mass per unit length (m) of wire is first determined. Then the wire is stretched on the
sonometer and the hanger is suspended from its free end.
A suitable tension (T) is applied to the wire by placing slotted weights on the hanger. The length of wire (l) vibrating
with the same frequency (n1) as that of the tuning fork is determined as follows.
1.A light paper rider is placed on the wire midway between the bridges.
2.The tuning fork is set into vibrations by striking on a rubber pad.
3.The stem of tuning fork is held in contact with the sonometer box.
4.By changing distance between the bridges without disturbing paper rider, frequency of vibrations of wire is
changed.
5.When the frequency of vibrations of wire becomes exactly equal to the frequency of tuning fork, the wire
vibrates with maximum amplitude and the paper rider is thrown off.
6.In this way a set of tuning forks having different frequencies n1, n2, n3, …………are used and corresponding
vibrating lengths of wire are noted as l1, l2, l3……….by keeping the tension constant (T) .
It is observed that, n1l1= n2l2 = n3l3 =…….= constant,
for constant value of tension (T) and mass per unit length (m).
∴nl = constant
1
i.e., n ∝𝑙 , if T and m are constant.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 29
Thus, the first law of a vibrating string is verified by using a sonometer.
 29
2) Verification of second law of a vibrating string:
The vibrating length (l) of the given wire of mass per unit length (m) is kept constant for verification of second law.
By changing the tension the same length is made to vibrate in unison with different tuning forks of various
frequencies. If tensions T1, T2, T3……..correspond to frequencies n1, n2, n3,………etc.
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3
we will observe that. = = =……=constant
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3
𝑛
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇

∴ n T ∝ if l and m are constant. This is the second law of a vibrating string.

3) Verification of third law of a vibrating string:
For verification of third law of a vibrating string, two wires having different masses per unit lengths m1 and
m2(linear densities) are used.
The first wire is subjected to suitable tension and made to vibrate in unison with given tuning fork.
The vibrating length is noted as (l1). Using the same fork, the second wire is made to vibrate under the same
tension and the vibrating length (l2) is determined.
Thus the frequency of vibration of the two wires is kept same under same applied tension T. It is found that,
𝑙1 𝑚1 = 𝑙2 𝑚2 and 𝑙 𝑚 = constant
1 1
But by first law of a vibrating string, n∝ Therefore we get that, n ∝ if T and lare constant.
𝑙 𝑚

This is the third law of vibrating string.Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 30
6.9 Beats 30

When there is superposition of two sound waves, having same amplitude but slightly different frequencies
travelling in the same direction the intensity of sound varies periodically with time. This phenomenon is
known as production of beats.
6.9.1 Analytical method to determine beat
frequency: using,
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
The equations of waves are sin C+ sin D=2 sin( 2
) cos(2
)
𝑥
𝑦1 = a sin {2𝜋(𝑛1 𝑡 − )}-------------------------(1) Rearranging the above equation, we get,
𝜆1
𝑥 𝑛1 −𝑛2 𝑛1 +𝑛2
𝑦1 = a sin {2𝜋(𝑛2 𝑡 − )}--------------------------(2) y = 2a cos 2𝜋 𝑡 sin[2𝜋 𝑡
𝜆2 2 2

The listener is at x=0 substituting,

𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∴ 𝑦1 = a sin (2𝜋𝑛1 𝑡) and 𝑦1 = a sin (2𝜋𝑛2 𝑡) 2a cos 2𝜋 𝑡 =𝐴
2
Using principal of superposition of waves, 𝑛1 +𝑛2
And =𝑛
y = y1 + y2 2
We get,
∴ 𝑦 = a sin (2𝜋𝑛1 𝑡) + a sin (2𝜋𝑛2 𝑡)
Y = A sin (2𝜋𝑛𝑡) ------------------(4)
or
𝑛1 +𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2 This is the equation of progressive wave with
𝑦 = 2𝑎 sin 2𝜋 𝑡 cos 2𝜋 𝑡 Vivekanand
Shri Swami −(3) Shikshanamplitude A.
Sanstha, Kolhapur 31
2 2
 31
For maximum amplitude (waxing)
A = ±2𝑎
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∴ 2a cos 2𝜋 𝑡 = ±2𝑎 The intensity of sound will be minimum when
2 amplitude is zero (waning)
𝑛1 −𝑛2
Or cos 2𝜋 𝑡 = ±2𝑎 For minimum amplitude, A= 0
2
𝑛1 −𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
2𝜋 𝑡 = 0,2𝜋, 3𝜋, … … … cos 2𝜋 𝑡 =0
2 2
1 2 3 2𝜋
𝑛1 −𝑛2 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑡= , ,………
∴ 𝑡 = 0, , , ,…….. 2 2 2 2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∴𝑡
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜
1 3 5
𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 = 0, , , ,……..
2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
1 The time interval between two successive
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 1
minima is also
𝑛1 −𝑛2
The number of waxing heard per second is
reciprocal of period of waxing.
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠, 𝑁 = 𝑛1Shri
−Swami
𝑛2 ------
Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 32
6.9.2 Applications of beats : 32
1] The phenomenon of beats is used for matching the frequencies of different musical instruments by artists.
When beat frequency becomes equal to zero, the musical instruments are in unison with each other. i.e., their
frequencies are identical and the effect of playing such instruments gives a pleasant music.
2] The speed of an airplane can be determined by using Doppler RADAR. If either a source of sound or a listener
(or both) is moving with respect to air, the listener detects a sound whose frequency is different from the
frequency of the sound source. This is Doppler effect.
A microwave signal (pulse) of known frequency is sent towards the moving airplane. Principle of Doppler effect
giving the apparent frequency when the source and observer are in relative motion applies twice, once for the
signal sent by the microwave source and received by the airplane and second time when the signal is reflected by
the airplane and is received back at the microwave source. Phenomenon of beats, arising due to the difference in
frequencies produced by the source and received at the source after reflection from the air plane, allows us to
calculate the velocity of the air plane.
Sonar (Sound navigation and ranging) works on similar principle for determining speed of submarines using a
sound source and sensitive microphones.
3] Unknown frequency of a sound note can be determined by using the phenomenon of beats. Initially the sound
notes of known and unknown frequency are heard simultaneously. The known frequency from a source of
adjustable frequency is adjusted in such a way that the beat frequency reduces to zero. At this stage frequencies
of both the sound notes become equal. Hence unknown frequency can be determined.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 33
6.10 Characteristics of Sound: 33
1.Loudness: Loudness is the human perception to intensity of sound. When a sound is heard, say by a human, the wave
exerts pressure on the human ear. The pressure variation is related to the amplitude and hence to the intensity.
Depending on the sound produced, the variation in this pressure is from 28 Pa for the loudest tolerable sound to 2.0 ×
10-5 Pa for the feeblest sound like a whisper that can be heard by a human. Intensity is a measurable quantity while the
sensation of hearing or loudness is very subjective.
𝐼
sound is specified not by its intensity but by the sound level β (expressed in decibels (dB)), defined as𝛽 = 10log (𝐼 )
0
Where I0 is a minimum reference intensity (10-12W/m2) that a normal human ear can hear. Sound levels are then
expressed in decibel (dB). When I = I0, β = 0, thus the standard reference intensity has measure of sound level 0 dB.
1
The unit of difference in loudness is bel and 1 decibel = 10 bel
The intensity level of maximum tolerable sound for a human ear is around 120 dB.
For measuring loudness the unit phon is used. Phon is a measure of loudness. It is equal to the loudness in decibel
of any equally loud pure tone of frequency 1000Hz.
2. Pitch: It is a sensation of sound which helps the listener to distinguish between a high frequency and a low
frequency note. Pitch is the human perception to frequency- higher frequency denotes higher pitch. The pitch of a
female voice is higher than that of a male voice.
3. Quality or timbre:Quality of sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish between two sounds of
same pitch and loudness. Quality depends on number of overtones present in the sound along with a given frequency.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 34

6.11 Musical instruments:
Three main types musical instruments are (a) Stringed instruments (b) wind instruments (c) percussion instruments. 34

I)Stringed instruments: consist of stretched strings. Sound is produced by plucking of strings.

1) Plucked string type: In these instruments string is plucked by fingers, e.g., tanpura, sitar, guitar, veena, etc.
2) Bowed string type: In these instruments, a string is played by bowing, e.g., violin, sarangi.
3) Struck string type: the string is struck by a stick , e.g. santoor, piano.
II)Wind instruments: These instruments consist of air column. Sound is produced by setting vibrations of air column.
1) Freewind type: In these instruments free brass reeds are vibrated by air. The air is either blown or compressed.
e.g., mouth organ, harmonium etc.
2) Edge type: In these instruments air is blown against an edge. e.g., Flute.
3) Reedpipes: They may consists of single or double reeds and also instruments without reeds .e.g., saxophone,
clarinet (single reed), bassoon (double reed), bugle (without reed).
III) Percussion instruments: In these instruments sound is produced by setting vibrations in a stretched membrane.
e.g., tabla, drum, dhol, mridangam, sambal, daphali,etc.
They also consist of metal type of instruments which produce sound when they struck against each other or
with a beater. e.g., cymbals (i.e., jhanja), xylophone, etc.
A blow on the membrane or plate or plucking of string produces vibrations with one fundamental and many
overtones. A superposition of several natural modes of oscillations with different amplitudes and hence
intensities characterize different musical instruments. We can thus distinguish the instruments by their
sounds.
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 35
 35
PROBLEMS 1) Find the fundamental first overtone and second overtone frequencies of a pipe open at
both ends of length of 25 cm if the second of sound in air is 330 m/s.?
Ans - Given data ,
Speed of sound in air is 330m/s
V=330m/s
L=25 cm=25 x 10-2 m
𝑣
i) Fundamental frequency= 2𝑙
340
= 2×25×10−2

= 660 Hz
ii) For first overtone =2 x fundamental frequency
= 2 x 660 Hz
= 1320 Hz
iii) for second overtone = 3 x fundamental frequency
= 3 x 660 Hz
= 1980 Hz
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 36
 36

2) A sound wave in certain fluid medium is reflected at an obstacle to form an standing wave .The
distance between two successive nodes is 3.75 cm .if the velocity of sound is 1500 m/s.find the
velocity of sound is 1500 m/s. find the frequency . ?

Ans- Given data

Distance between nodes =3.75 cm
Velocity of sound = 1500 m/s
𝑛𝑣
Frequency (F) = 2𝑙

L - distance between nodes when n=1

1 × 1500 𝑚/𝑠
F= 2 ×0.0375

F = 20,000 Hz
F = 20 KHz

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 37

 37
3) A standing wave is produced in a tube 4) A violin string vibrates with fundamental
open at both ends .The fundamental frequency of 440 Hz .What are the frequencies of
ftequency is 330 Hz.what is the length of first and second overtone ?
tube ? (speed of sound =340 m/s).
Ans - fundamental frequency = 440 Hz
Ans - Given data Frequency of first overtone = 2 x fundamental
n = 300 Hz frequency
v = 340 m/s
l =? = 2 x 440 m/s
𝑣
N = 2𝑙 = 880 Hz
𝑣
l = 2𝑛 Feequency of second overtone = 3 x fundamental
340 frequency
= 2 ×300
= 0.56666666 = 3 x 440 Hz
l = 0.57 m = 1320 Hz

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 38

 38

5) A set of eight tunning fork arranged in a series of increasing order

of frequency each of fork gives 4 beats per second with the next one
and the frequency of last fork is twise that of the first and last fork .?
Ans - if n = no of tunning fork arranged in increasing order
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑛8 = 𝑛1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑥
𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 𝑛1+(𝑛−1)𝑥 𝑛8 = 𝑛1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑥
𝑛1 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑘 2 𝑁1 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑛1 + 28
𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑁8 = 2 × 𝑁1
n- no of tunning fork
2𝑁1 = 𝑁1 + 28
x- beat frequency
𝑁8 = 2 × 𝑁1
n=8
𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 2 × 𝑛1 𝑁8 = 2 × 𝑁1
We have to find 𝑛1 = ? 𝑁8 = 56 𝐻𝑧
𝑛8 = ?

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 39

 39
7) consider a two waves with wavelength 5cm and 6cm .if
6) An ultrasound signal of frequency 50 khz is sent these two waves propogates in a gas with velocity 330 m/s
vertically in to a sea water the signal get reflected calculate number of beats per second.?
from the ocan bed and return to the surface 0. 80 s Ans : given 𝜆1 = 5 𝑐𝑚 and 𝜆2 = 6 𝑐𝑚
after it was emitted the speed of sound in sea water Velocity of sound waves in a gas v = 330 m/s
is 1500 m/s . V = 330 m/s
i)Find the depth of the sea
The relation between wavelength and velocity
ii)What is the wavelength of of this signal in to
V = λf
water
F = v/λ
Ans -
i) Let the depth of sea sea is ‘d’ the total The frequency corresponding wavelength 𝜆1 is
distance travelled by the signal is 𝑉 330
𝑓1 = =
‘2d’ 𝜆1 5
2d = (1500 m/s) (0.8 sec) The frequency corresponding wavelength 𝜆2 is
2d = 1200 m
𝑉 330
[d = 600 m] 𝑓2 = = = 55 Hz
𝜆2 6
ii) we know that V = υλ
The number of beats per second is
1500
λ= 50 × 103 𝑠 −1 ‘𝑓1 -𝑓1 = 66 − 55 = 11 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
λ = 3.0 cm Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 40
 9 ) A sonometer wire is stretched by tension of 40 N . it vibrates in 40
8 )A pipe closed at one end can produce unison with a tunning fork of frequency 384 Hz . how many no of
overtones at frequency 640 Hz ,896 Hz , beats gets produced in two seconds if tension in wire is decreased by
1152 Hz. calculate the fundamental 1.24 N ?
frequency
Ans : 𝑇1 = 40 𝑁 , unison - same frequency
Ans : 𝑛𝑥 = 640 𝐻𝑧 , 𝑛𝑦 = 896 𝐻𝑧 , 𝑛𝑧 =
𝑛1 = 384 𝐻𝑧
1152 Hz
X = beat frequency ?
Formula
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 - 1.24
𝑛𝑝 = (2p + 1) n
= 40 - 1.24
𝑛𝑥 640 5
Solution : = =
𝑛𝑦 896 7 𝑇2 = 38.76 𝑁
𝑛𝑦 896 7
= = To find number of beats in two second
𝑛𝑧 1152 9

𝑛𝑥 = 5𝑛 𝑛2
=
𝑇1
𝑛1 𝑇2
640 = 5 × 𝑛 = 128 𝐻𝑧
38 .76
N = 128 Hz = 40

1.969
𝑛2 = 384 × =
2
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 41
= 12 beats
 41
10 ) The tension in paino wire is increased by 25 % .its
frequency increased by how many times its original frequency ?
Ans : 𝑛1 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 0.25 𝑇1
= 1.25 𝑇1
1
n= 𝑇1
1.25

1 𝑇
n=
2𝑙 𝑚

𝑛2 𝑇1
=
𝑛1 𝑇2

1.25 𝑇1
= 𝑇1

= 1.21
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 42
 Deleted portion due to Covid -19 for Feb.- March 2020-21 HSC 42
Exam.
6.3 Reflection of waves
6.10 Characteristics of sound
6.11 Musical instruments

Name of teachers
Ramkrishna Paramhansa
1. Mr. Sherkhane M.M.
2. Mr. Ghuge P.T. Mahavidyalaya, Osmanabad.
3. Mr. Adhate N.R.
4. Mr. Kulkarni M. R.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, Kolhapur 43