Quadratic Equations: Expanded Complete Notes
I. Fundamentals and Roots
A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation of degree two, which means the highest exponent of the variable x is 2.
The standard form is:
ax² + bx + c = 0
where a, b, c are constants (real numbers, unless otherwise specified), and a ≠ 0 (if a = 0, the equation becomes linear, not
quadratic).
Why is a quadratic called “quadratic”?
The word “quadratic” comes from “quadratus,” the Latin word for “square,” because the variable is squared (x²).
Roots of a Quadratic Equation:
The solutions (roots) of a quadratic equation are the values of x that satisfy the equation. Every quadratic equation has
exactly two roots, which may be real or complex, equal or distinct.
Quadratic Formula (Shridharacharya Method):
α, β = (–b ± √(b² – 4ac)) / 2a
The symbol “±” means there are two solutions: one with “+” and one with “–”.
Understanding the Discriminant:
The expression under the square root, D = b² – 4ac, is called the discriminant. It determines the nature of the roots:
If D > 0, roots are real and distinct.
If D = 0, roots are real and equal.
If D < 0, roots are complex conjugates.
II. Vieta’s Formulas
Vieta’s formulas relate the sum and product of the roots directly to the coefficients of the quadratic equation, without
needing to solve for the roots.
Sum of the roots:
α + β = –b / a
This means if you add both roots, you get the negative of the coefficient of x, divided by the coefficient of x².
Product of the roots:
α×β=c/a
Multiply both roots, and you get the constant term divided by the coefficient of x².
Difference of the roots:
|α – β| = √(b² – 4ac) / |a|
The absolute value of the difference between the roots depends on the discriminant.
Why are Vieta’s formulas useful?
They allow you to work with the roots without actually calculating them, which is especially helpful in problems
involving relationships between roots.
III. Factoring and Identities
Factoring a Quadratic:
If you know the roots α and β, you can write the quadratic as:
ax² + bx + c = a(x – α)(x – β)
This is called the “factorized form.” Always include the leading coefficient “a” when expanding or factoring.
Quadratic Identity:
An identity is an equation that is true for all values of x.
ax² + bx + c ≡ a(x – α)(x – β)
This means the two sides are always equal, no matter what x is.
Constructing a Quadratic Equation from Roots:
If you’re given the roots α and β, the equation is:
x² – (α + β)x + (αβ) = 0
If you want a quadratic expression (not an equation), include a constant multiple “k”:
f(x) = k[x² – (α + β)x + (αβ)]
Example (with step-by-step reasoning):
Given roots 3 and 4, and f(0) = –7. Find f(7).
Step 1:
Sum = 3 + 4 = 7
Product = 3 × 4 = 12
Step 2:
f(x) = k(x² – 7x + 12)
Step 3:
f(0) = –7
–7 = k × 12
k = –7 / 12
Step 4:
f(7) = (–7 / 12) × (49 – 49 + 12) = (–7 / 12) × 12 = –7
Key Point: Never forget to include the leading coefficient when constructing the expression.
IV. Higher Powers of Roots (Reduction)
When you need to find higher powers of a root (like α³, α⁴, etc.), use the original equation to “reduce” the power.
Why does this work?
Because the root α satisfies the equation ax² + bx + c = 0, so you can always replace higher powers of α using this
relationship.
Example:
Given x² – 2x + 3 = 0, root α. Find α³.
Step 1:
α² – 2α + 3 = 0
So, α² = 2α – 3
Step 2:
α³ = α × α² = α × (2α – 3) = 2α² – 3α
Step 3:
Substitute α² from Step 1:
α³ = 2(2α – 3) – 3α = 4α – 6 – 3α = α – 6
Tip: This method can be extended to any higher power by repeated substitution.
V. Symmetric Functions and Special Techniques
Symmetric Functions:
A symmetric function is an expression in α and β that remains unchanged if you swap α and β. Examples: α + β, α² + β²,
α³ + β³, etc.
Why are they important?
You can express any symmetric function in terms of the sum and product of the roots, using Vieta’s formulas.
Forceful Simplification:
If you have a complicated expression involving the roots, try to use the original equation to simplify it.
Example:
Find α⁵ + β⁵ in terms of α + β and αβ.
Step 1:
α⁵ + β⁵ = (α³ + β³)(α² + β²) – (αβ² + βα²)
Step 2:
αβ² + βα² = αβ(α + β)
Step 3:
So, α⁵ + β⁵ = (α³ + β³)(α² + β²) – αβ(α + β)
VI. Newton’s Sums
Newton’s Sums provide a way to relate the sums of powers of the roots to the coefficients of the polynomial.
For ax² + bx + c = 0, define Sₙ = αⁿ + βⁿ.
Newton’s Formula:
aSₙ + bSₙ₋₁ + cSₙ₋₂ = 0
How to use it:
Start with known values (S₀ = 2, S₁ = α + β). Use the formula recursively to find higher powers.
Example:
Given x² + 5√2x + 10 = 0, Sₙ = αⁿ + βⁿ. Find (S₂₀ + 5√2S₁₉) / (10S₁₈).
Step 1:
S₂₀ + 5√2S₁₉ + 10S₁₈ = 0
So, S₂₀ + 5√2S₁₉ = –10S₁₈
Step 2:
(S₂₀ + 5√2S₁₉) / (10S₁₈) = –1
VII. Nature and Types of Roots
The discriminant D = b² – 4ac tells you about the roots:
If D > 0: Two real and distinct roots. The parabola cuts the x-axis at two points.
If D = 0: Two real and equal roots. The parabola touches the x-axis at one point (vertex).
If D < 0: Two complex conjugate roots. The parabola does not intersect the x-axis.
Types of Roots:
Imaginary conjugate roots: D < 0, coefficients real.
Rational roots: D is a perfect square, coefficients rational.
Irrational conjugate roots: D not a perfect square, coefficients rational.
Integral roots: a = 1, coefficients integers, D is a perfect square.
Example:
If D = 16 + 4n is a perfect square,
D = 4(4 + n)
So 4 + n must be a perfect square.
VIII. Graph, Range, and Inequalities
Graph of a Quadratic:
The graph is always a parabola.
If a > 0, the parabola opens upward (U-shaped).
If a < 0, the parabola opens downward (n-shaped).
Vertex:
The vertex is the turning point:
x-coordinate: x = –b / 2a
y-coordinate: y = –D / 4a
Range:
If a > 0: Range is [–D / 4a, ∞)
If a < 0: Range is (–∞, –D / 4a]
Quadratic Inequalities:
To determine when ax² + bx + c is always positive or negative:
ax² + bx + c > 0 for all x: a > 0, D < 0
ax² + bx + c < 0 for all x: a < 0, D < 0
ax² + bx + c ≥ 0 for all x: a > 0, D ≤ 0
IX. Range of Rational Functions
Given y = (ax² + bx + c) / (dx² + ex + f):
Step 1:
Set y = (ax² + bx + c) / (dx² + ex + f)
Step 2:
Cross-multiply:
y(dx² + ex + f) = ax² + bx + c
Step 3:
Bring all terms to one side:
(ax² + bx + c) – y(dx² + ex + f) = 0
Step 4:
This is a quadratic in x. For real x, discriminant ≥ 0.
Step 5:
Solve for y using Dₓ ≥ 0.
Key Point:
Check separately for values of y that make the quadratic in x degenerate (coefficient of x² becomes zero).
X. Common Root Condition
Both Roots Common:
If two quadratics have both roots in common, the ratios of corresponding coefficients are equal:
a₁ / a₂ = b₁ / b₂ = c₁ / c₂
At Least One Common Root:
Use the determinant condition:
(A)(B) = (C)²
where
A = |a₁ b₁|
|a₂ b₂|
B = |b₁ c₁|
|b₂ c₂|
C = |a₁ c₁|
|a₂ c₂|
Why does this work?
It comes from eliminating x between the two equations and ensuring they have a common solution.
XI. Location of Roots (LoR)
Case: k lies between roots (α < k < β):
a × f(k) < 0
This means that the sign of the quadratic at k is opposite to the sign of a.
Case: Exactly one root between k₁ and k₂:
f(k₁) × f(k₂) < 0
Check if f(k₁) = 0 or f(k₂) = 0 separately.
Why is this important?
It helps in determining intervals where roots lie, which is useful in inequalities and parameter-based questions.
XII. Higher Degree Polynomials
Vieta’s for Cubic:
Sum: α + β + γ = –b / a
Sum of products (two at a time): αβ + βγ + γα = c / a
Product: αβγ = –d / a
Newton’s for Cubic:
aSₙ + bSₙ₋₁ + cSₙ₋₂ + dSₙ₋₃ = 0
Rational Root Theorem:
Possible rational roots: ±(factor of constant) / (factor of leading coefficient)
How to use:
Try possible values, substitute into the equation, and use synthetic division to reduce the degree.
XIII. Transformed and Reducible Equations
Transformation:
If new root y = f(x), express x in terms of y, substitute into original equation.
Reciprocal Equations:
For symmetric coefficients, divide by x², substitute t = x + 1/x, reduce to quadratic in t.
Infinite Repetitions:
Let x = √(5 + √(5 + ...)),
x = √(5 + x)
x² = 5 + x
x² – x – 5 = 0
General Second Degree Equation:
Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0
To find range of x or y, treat as quadratic in one variable, set discriminant ≥ 0.
Condition for Factorization:
The equation can be factored into two linear factors if:
|a h g|
|h b f| = 0
|g f c|
