INTRODUCTION

1. General information on the conversion of electrical energy:

Historically, we can locate the beginnings of electronics

modern power (semiconductor) at the end of the 1950s with
the use of the diode, then the thyristor (General Electric 1957) in the
controlled rectifiers and in choppers with extinction circuit. It
then experienced a new upswing with the emergence of components from
type 'fast switches', the first of which was the Bipolar Transistor
of Power in the 70s. Then came the Mosfet of
Power (80), the GTO (85) and the IGBT (90) which allowed to expand the
power range of available converters, this in a
volume always smaller.
The power range in question goes from a few Watts to several.
hundreds of Megawatts, which, unlike the achievements
signal processing electronics impose on our "converters"
high energy efficiency constraints (Otherwise, the cost
the energy would be considerable and the evacuation of losses
problematic).

It is a switch electronics: that is to say, a switch

perfect, it is either closed (zero resistance, zero voltage across the terminals) or
open (infinite resistance, zero current flowing through).

Over time, power electronics has become established in all

areas where losses must remain low to limit overheating

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as in computers, and where the efficiency must be high for
preserve the energy source as in systems powered by
batteries (GSM, GPS, laptops ...).

Power electronics take a prominent place in

many sectors of industrial activity namely:

electric traction
machine tools
- Robotics
spatial techniques
the navy ...

For economic reasons, energy is supplied by networks.

balanced three-phase at a frequency of 50 Hz. The user often uses
continuous energy or at different frequencies from that of the grid.

Static converters are the component devices

electronics capable of modifying the voltage and/or the frequency of
the electric wave.

We distinguish two types of voltage sources:

DC voltage sources characterized by the value U of the
tension
alternating voltage sources defined by the values of the
effective tension V and frequency f

We differentiate four types of converters:

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 -convertisseur alternatif-continu : redresseur
continuous-alternating converter: inverter
alternative converter-alternator: dimmer if the frequency remains
fix
continuous-continuous converter: chopper

2. the active components used in converters

static

Power electronics has gradually established itself as the

preferred way to master electrical energy. This situation results
continuous progress regarding both concepts and technology.
The period from the 80s to 95 was the golden age of innovations.
topological structures of static converters in order to
make the best use of the properties of a semiconductor
given.

The elementary bricks that make up a

static converters are:
the active components
- passive components: inductors, transformers, wiring,
capacitors...
the coolers
the filters

When designing a "static converter", the concerns of the

the designers are always the same:

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 choice of the structure
calculation and evacuation of losses
determination of the parasitic elements that take us away from
ideal functioning assuming various parasitic constituents
compliance with standards, EMC in particular

volume constraints
-and sometimes mechanical constraints

The elements used are static semiconductor devices.

They differ by the 'switch function' they perform.

There are 4 categories of switches:

controlled triggering and blocking (transistor, GTO, MOS)
spontaneous triggering and blocking (diode)
controlled triggering, spontaneous blocking (thyristor)
- commanded blocking, spontaneous triggering (dual thyristor)

DIODE

anode cathode

A diode is a PN junction of semiconductors, it is a

polarized switch with spontaneous control. The direction of
The connection of the diode is important for the connection of the
montage.

1.1. Static characteristic

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 I Direct current

Inverse current
You

The starting conditions are:

VAKclosure

The blocking conditions are:

iAK= 0 ; VAKopening

2. THE THYRISTOR

trigger

anode cathode

VAK

It is a controllable semiconductor at the triggering and spontaneous at

blockage.

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2.1. Static characteristic

iG

We observe 2 types of operation:

with zero gate trigger current, the thyristor remains blocked when the voltage
applied evolves between VRMand VDM

val max inv val max dir

The thyristor is triggered by avalanche and behaves like a diode.

the conductor if the direct voltage exceeds VDM(case to avoid)

at a trigger current intensity greater than IGT, the thyristor is

driver the value of the applied direct voltage.
The extinction of the thyristor is not controllable and can only occur if
the direct current is < IH(retention current).

3. THE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

It is a switch usable in high current electronics.

can block direct tensions of several hundred volts. It

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can establish, conduct, and block direct currents of several
dozens of amperes.
The most commonly used transistors are of the NPN type.

collector

base P

sender
3.1. General static characteristics:

The command is carried out by the current [Link] in the base junction-
emitter. The voltage across the considered terminals is the potential difference
vCEbetween the collector and the emitter. The controlled current is iCyou
collector.

4. THE POWER MOS TRANSISTOR

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Power MOSFETs are blocking field-effect devices.
and ignition controlled by a voltage. The two electrodes of
power, called drain and source, correspond respectively to
collector and to the emitter of a bipolar transistor. The electrode of
The command called grid or gate is electrically isolated.

D
VDS
Canal N Id

VGS S
VDS the current IDgo from the drain to the source
VGS(control voltage): * VGS= 0 ; MOS blocked
* VGS= +10 V; Saturated MOS
In reverse, the MOS is reduced to a PN junction (diode)

5. THE TRIAC

It is the equivalent of two back-to-back thyristors, with a trigger.

triggering can be done by trigger devices
positive or negative.

G
K

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Designed to operate on alternating current, it remains limited to low
powers.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF STATIC CONVERTERS

Basic Configuration

ie is
Source Receiver
and convertiss vs
of energy eur of energy

order
During operation, the static converter connects by
the branches of the systems through its switches
electric between which it ensures and controls the exchange of energy.
For proper functioning, there are 3 laws to be followed:
A voltage source (branch with a capacitor in parallel)
for example) must never be bypassed.
The circuit of a current source (branch containing a
inductance in series for example) should never be open.
You should never connect two sources of the same nature between each other.

they.

2. THE STRUCTURES

To clearly identify the fundamental structures of converters,

we will assume that the continuous quantities are constant and
The alternative magnitudes are sinusoidal.

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CHAPTER 1: ALTERNATING-CONTINUOUS CONVERTERS (THE
DIODE RECTIFIER MONTAGES
I. GENERAL PROPERTIES:

The development of power semiconductors has led to a boost

considerable in the alternative-continuous transformation.
I.1. The assemblies:
To obtain a direct voltage, we rectify using one or two
switches, a set of sinusoidal alternating voltages formed
by a balanced three-phase system.

I.1.1. Parallel leveling (P):

It is obtained when the diodes have a common electrode and when the
the secondary windings of the power transformer are in
star.
For the three-phase case:

V1 Vd

D1 Is

Network Vs
three-phase
The cathodes are at the same potential
It is easy to show that only the diode whose anode is at the highest
potential can lead.
The gaits of vSand vDare as follows:

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I.1.2. Double parallel adjustment:
The transformer secondary is star-connected and connected to two
diode groups; a common anode switch and a
common cathode switch.
For the three-phase case:

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L’existence d’un courant dans la charge exige la conduction de deux
diodes, one of each switch.
For the common cathode switch, the one with the anode is at
highest positive potential.
For the common anode switch, the one where the cathode is at
lowest negative potential.
Each diode conducts for one third of the period.

I.2. Study plan of rectifiers:

The study of rectifiers is carried out in successive steps.

Study of tensions
Study of currents
Study of voltage drops

II. PARALLEL TYPE RECTIFIERS

The general results established from the qualitative study of

Three-phase mounts do not always apply to devices.
single-phase.

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II.1. Single-phase half-wave rectification:

a. if the load is resistive:

The gaits of us(t), i(t) are as follows:

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We deduce the following characteristic values:
average value of the rectified voltage: Us0= 2*V/
maximum inverse tension: Ui0 = V* 2
average value of the intensity of the currents: I0= V* 2/ R
effective value of current intensity: Ieff= V/R 2
active power absorbed by the load: P = V2/2R
apparent power developed at the secondary: Ss= V2/R 2
secondary power factor : fpsP/S 2/2

b. if the load is inductive:

From 0 to β, v(t) = Ri + Ldi/dt = VMsin( t)

I(t) = VM/ (R2+L2 2) (sin ( t- ) + sin e(-R/Lt)) ; tg = L /R

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 Vs0= VM/2 (1-cos )
Imine= Vs0/R

II.2. Single-phase double alternation rectification: transformer at

midpoint D1

V(t) charge
vs

D2

The waveforms are as follows:

VS0 = 2VM/
II.3. System with three diodes: see above, simple parallel three-phase
VS0= 3VM√3/(2π)

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III. DOUBLE PARALLEL ADJUSTMENT
III.1. Single-phase rectification using a Graetz bridge

I
is
D1 D2
source alternative vs charge
D3 D4

The waveforms are as follows:

VS0= 2VM/

III.2. Double three-phase parallel rectification:

For the assembly, see before
The waveforms are as follows:

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VS0= 3VM/ * 3

THYRISTOR RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Thyristor rectifier circuits use the same schematics as

the diode rectifiers. One can delay the switching by acting
on the trigger. We characterize the delay by the angle % at the
natural commutation

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 CHAPTER II THE CUTTERS

I. Definition:

Choppers are direct converters of the continuous-continuous type.

Their use enables the conversion and processing of energy
electric. There are many applications for control of
DC machines and switch-mode power supplies.

II. Principle :

The principle of most choppers (inverters) is schematized on the

next figure :

A unidirectional DC voltage of average value is obtained.

variable (but of the hasher) by establishing and interrupting periodically
the power supply of the charger the source of direct voltage

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 U You charge

Chopper
An alternating voltage is obtained across the load by inverting
periodically connecting the source to the load

Ud
U charge

Inverter

III. Chopper Series (Voltage Reducer): Direct Connection:

devolter

The basic diagram of such an assembly is shown in the figure.

next:
I S ic

Lc

D Rc
E Vo

Ec

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Wave forms
In continuous conduction

Vo

t
ic

Imax

Immin
t
I

t
In discontinuous conduction

Vo

t
ic

t
I

The generator is a supposed perfect voltage E. The receiver

generally consists of an electromotive force Ec in series with a

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resistance Rc and an inductance Lc acting as a buffer between the
f.e.m E and Ec.
The load being inductive. Opening the switch S is not possible.
that if the continuity of ic is ensured, then the presence of D (freewheel)
at the terminals of the charge.

IV. Chopper booster (voltage elevating): parallel

This converter allows the reverse operation of the previous one.

(revealer) :

i L D I

S V It's
E

Vmoy = E’(1-δ) Vmoy = δ E ≤ E

Or Vmoy = E thus E=E'(1-δ) E'≥ E

For the step-up transformer, the source current is wavy; the current of the
charge is discontinuous

For the inverter, the load current is ripple; the current of the
the source is discontinuous

V V
It is E

ton t
i ton T t
21 i T
Application :
IV.1. step-down transformer/step-up transformer

D2

S1 l

E D1 S2 M

Electric traction with regenerative braking

A series chopper (devolutor) consisting of S1 and D1 (freewheel) allows

the engine's power supply from the voltage source (e.m.f Ec of the motor
< E)

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A parallel chopper (S2; D2: step-up converter) allows braking in
feeding source E (battery for example) from the engine (against
current

CHAPTER III: STANDALONE INVERTERS

Definition

These are static converters with thyristors ensuring the

continuous-alternative transformation when on the alternative side there are only
receivers. The stand-alone inverter determines its own frequency and the
waveform of the alternating voltage supplied to the receiver.

Function:

v1
V= = v2
f=0 ~
vn
Vm;f0
Applications :

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 fixed frequency inverters
Often powered by a battery of accumulators, they play
the role of security feeding
In the network
object

(1)

~
rectifier = inverter

=
~

battery
In the absence of interruption, the battery is charged by the network using
of a rectifier. When the battery voltage is good, we open (1)

variable frequency drives

Powered from the industrial network through a
rectifier assembly, they deliver the voltage of frequency and value
necessary variables to run a motor at variable speed
in alternating current.

I. Single-phase inverters:

Basic structure:

To obtain an alternating voltage from a direct voltage

with two thyristors, a midpoint is needed:

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 this midpoint can be achieved on the output side by a
midpoint transformer, we use two thyristors with a gate
median.
The midpoint can be achieved at the entrance, using a source at
At the midpoint, two thyristors are used in a half-bridge.

Inverter with median socket:

Basic diagram:

T1 B
v0
E
D1 v1
O charge
v2
T2
i
A

D2

Operation:

A t = t0, on ferme T1if the load is inductive (R, L), the current does not
can vary instantly and it is D2which leads him until he
cancels. At this moment, v2=E and v0-(2n2/n1) *E.
While D2conduit, T2cannot start because the tension is
negative at its terminals. As soon as i = 0 (at t2We can initiate T2[t1, t2] :

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 recovery phase. If we start T2as soon as the tension at her
if allowed, the command is adjacent.
If we wait a certain time after the current passes through 0, the
the order is disjoint.
Vo

t
0 t0 t1 t2 T

D1 T1 D2 T2

Half-bridge inverter:
basic diagram:

E
v T1 D1

charge

i T2 D2
E

Operation: same thing as median value ((2n2/n1)E :E)

With these two setups, we can adjust the opening cadence and
closure of the two thyristors, so the frequency. But, it is not
possible to act on the continuous-alternating transformation ratio.

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Indeed:
For the inverter with mid-range socket: v0eff(2n2/n1)E
For the half-bridge inverter: v0eff= E

With four thyristors, a bridge configuration is obtained that allows for

adjust the transformation ratio using the delayed command.
Moreover, in practice, the continuous source is unique, which leads to the
bridge inverter structure.

Single-phase bridge inverter:

principle diagram:

D1 T1 D2 T1

E Receiver i
O O’

v
D'1 T’1 D'2 T’2

Operation:

We send to the triggers of the thyristors T1and T'1signals

complementary. We send to the triggers of the thyristors T1and T'1
complementary signals shifted by an angle β% to the
previous.

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A t = t0, i=0, v=E. of t0to you1T1and T'2lead; a positive current
circulate in the charge and we have v=E.
V, i

t
0 t0 t1 t2 t3 t4

T1 T1 T’1 T’1

T'2 D2 D'1 T2 D'2

D1
D2 D’2

A t=t1, on start T’2, D2starts to drive the current i (R, L); v=0.
At any moment during this phase, we can proceed to the opening of T.1On
open T1at t=t1 +β/ω(=t2); D’1begins to drive i (phase of
recovery) v=-E. This phase ends when the current i
is canceled.
The thyristors T'1and T2can then close to lead to a
negative current with v = -E.
A t = t4we open T2; D’2starts to drive (R,L); v = 0 (phase of
freewheel.
A t = t4+β/ω, we open T’1; v = E.
We therefore have a voltage that delivers E, 0, -E.

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 CHAPTER IV: THE GRADERS

INTRODUCTION

These are static converters that allow for power adjustment.

exchanged between an alternative source and a load of the same nature.

I. TYPES OF SWITCHES:

I2
I1
V2<V1
V1
Source Receiver
of energy of energy
f2=
f1 f1

Transfer
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of energy
The switches must allow:

The current inversion

The reversal of the voltage
Hence the need for combinations of elements.

triac

The advantages of these devices over electromechanical switches

resident in the speed of closure and opening.

Triac: static characteristic:

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II. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIAC:

One can consider it as two thyristors mounted head to tail, but

with a single trigger. Its static characteristics derive from
those of the thyristor:

It can withstand high direct and reverse voltages in the open state.
It becomes conductive when a trigger current i is [Link] than zero
you and IG<0.

The opening can only be spontaneous.

II. SINGLE-PHASE GRADUATOR:

T1
I

L
T2
VS
R

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Thyristors receive delayed triggering signals from / on the
beginnings of the alternating current of the sinusoidal voltage vs.

The operation is analyzed on the curves:

Vs = V 2 sin( t)

The thyristor T1 receives a control pulse at the moment / T1 is

polarized live, then begins and:

Vs= V 2 sin( t) = vch = Rich + Ldich/dt

All calculations made,

I = V 2/Z [sin( t- ) - exp( / - t/ )*sin( - )]

With Z= (R2+(L )2) and tg = L /R

I cancel myself at the moment t= / thank you sin( - ) = exp( / - / ) * sin ( - )
Two cases may arise then:

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 1. > :

We then obtain:

< + < + .
So the thyristor T1 is blocked (with a delay) while T2 will receive
(with a delay + a control pulse. The two thyristors
are blocked between / and + )/ . The vch tension is then zero. It concerns
therefore of discontinuous conduction.

Vcheff = V 2* [( - ) / 2 - (sin2 - sin² )/4 ]

2. < :

We obtain:

+ < + <

T1 blocks after T2 has received the boot signal. If the boot signal
the command is summarized in a single pulse, T2 does not start. T1
will be re-engaged at the next positive alternation and one realizes a
rectified voltage. To produce an alternating voltage, it is necessary to
triggering thyristors with wide signals
susceptibles de provoquer l’enclenchement dès que les conditions sont
gathered. This type of operation is incorrect.

Critical case: = so = + = + :
So the correct operation corresponds to [ ; ].

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34